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Congress of Vienna
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For other uses, see Congress of Vienna (disambiguation).
"Vienna peace congress" redirects here. For the 2015 congress on Syria, see Vienna peace talks for Syria.
The national boundaries within Europe set by the Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna (German: Wiener Kongress) also called Vienna Congress, was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. The leaders were conservatives with little use for republicanism or revolution, both of which threatened to upset the status quo in Europe. France lost all its recent conquests while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania and 60% of the Kingdom of Saxony; Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. Russia gained parts of Poland. The new Kingdom of the Netherlands had been created just months before, and included formerly Austrian territory that in 1830 became Belgium.
Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna
The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 25 years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's dramatic return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's "final act" was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.
The Congress has often been criticized for causing the subsequent suppression of the emerging national and liberal movements,[1] and it has been seen as a reactionary movement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. However, others praise it for having created relatively long-term stability and peaceful conditions in most of Europe.[2][3]
In a technical sense, the "Congress of Vienna" was not properly a congress: it never met in plenary session, and most of the discussions occurred in informal, face-to-face sessions among the Great Powers of Austria, Britain, France, Russia, and sometimes Prussia, with limited or no participation by other delegates. On the other hand, the congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals. The Congress of Vienna settlement, despite later changes, formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
Contents
[hide]
1 Preliminaries
2 Participants
2.1 Four Great Powers and Bourbon France
2.2 Other signatories of the Treaty of Paris, 1814
2.3 Others
3 Talleyrand's role
3.1 Polish-Saxon crisis
4 Final Act
4.1 Other changes
5 Later criticism
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Primary sources
8.2 Other languages
9 External links
Preliminaries[edit]
The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814-15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades.[4] Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war".[5] The opening was scheduled for July 1814.[6]
Participants[edit]

1. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
2. Joaquim Lobo Silveira, 7th Count of Oriola
3. António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo
4. Count Carl Löwenhielm
5. Jean-Louis-Paul-François, 5th Duke of Noailles
6. Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich
7. André Dupin
8. Count Karl Robert Nesselrode
9. Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Count of Palmela
10. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
11. Emmerich Joseph, Duke of Dalberg
12. Baron Johann von Wessenberg
13. Prince Andrey Kirillovich Razumovsky
14. Charles Stewart, 1st Baron Stewart
15. Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador
16. Richard Le Poer Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty
17. Wacken (Recorder)
18. Friedrich von Gentz (Congress Secretary)
19. Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt
20. William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart
21. Prince Karl August von Hardenberg
22. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
23. Count Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg
The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.
Four Great Powers and Bourbon France[edit]
The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration:
Austria was represented by Prince Metternich, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed.
The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the Duke of Wellington, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. In the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days.
Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.[7]
Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.
France, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) for Louis XVIII of France; the king, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.[8]
Other signatories of the Treaty of Paris, 1814[edit]
These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):
Spain – Marquis Pedro Gómez de Labrador
Portugal – Plenipotentiaries: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela; António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo; Joaquim Lobo da Silveira.[9][10]
Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm
Others[edit]
Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister.[11] King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna.
The Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court,[12][13] and Baron Hans von Gagern[14]
Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role.[15]
The Papal States – Cardinal Ercole Consalvi[16]
Republic of Genoa – Marquise Agostino Pareto, Senator of the Republic
On German issues,
Bavaria – Maximilian Graf von Montgelas
Württemberg – Georg Ernst Levin von Wintzingerode (de)
Hanover, then in a personal union with the British crown – Georg Graf zu Münster. (King George III had refused to recognize the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as Elector of Hanover to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the Kingdom of Hanover.)
Mecklenburg-Schwerin – Leopold von Plessen (de)[17]
Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress.[18] In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press.[19] The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke it did not move, but danced.[20]
Talleyrand's role[edit]
Talleyrand proved an able negotiator for the defeated French.
Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it,[21] once again abandoning his allies.
The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquis of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.[22]
Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget."[23] The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.
Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain.[24] Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna."[25] Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.[26]
Polish-Saxon crisis[edit]
The most dangerous topic at the Congress was the so-called Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would become king of Poland.[27] Austria was fearful this would make Russia much too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: Admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a secret treaty on 3 January 1815, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.[22]
When the tsar heard of the secret treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland, with the tsar as king ruling it independently of Russia. Russia, however, did not receive the province of Posen (Poznań), which was given to Prussia as the Grand Duchy of Posen, nor Kraków, which became a free city. Furthermore, the tsar was unable to unite the new domain with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony-later known as the Province of Saxony, with the remainder returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.
Final Act[edit]
In pink, territories left to France in 1814 but removed after the Hundred Days.
The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (a few days before the Battle of Waterloo). Its provisions included:
Russia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) and was allowed to keep Finland (which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and held until 1917).
Prussia was given three fifths of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (the Grand Duchy of Posen), Danzig, and the Rhineland/Westphalia.
A German Confederation of 39 states was created from the previous 300 of the Holy Roman Empire, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor. Only portions of the territory of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation.
The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approx. modern-day Belgium) were united in a monarchy, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange-Nassau providing the king (the Eight Articles of London).
To compensate for the Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were to form a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the German Confederation.[28]
Swedish Pomerania, given to Denmark a year earlier in return for Norway, was ceded by Denmark to Prussia. France received back Guadeloupe from Sweden in return for yearly installments to the Swedish king.
The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed.
Hanover gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to Denmark, but was enlarged by the addition of former territories of the Bishop of Münster and by the formerly Prussian East Frisia, and made a kingdom.
Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at Mainz.
Austria regained control of the Tyrol and Salzburg; of the former Illyrian Provinces; of Tarnopol district (from Russia); received Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden, and the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered.
Habsburg princes were returned to control of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena.
The Papal States were under the rule of the pope and restored to their former extent, with the exception of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, which remained part of France.
Britain was confirmed in control of the Cape Colony in Southern Africa; Tobago; Ceylon; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies and Martinique, were restored to their previous owners.
The King of Sardinia was restored in Piedmont, Nice, and Savoy, and was given control of Genoa (putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored Republic).
The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were given to Marie Louise, Napoleon's wife.
The Duchy of Lucca was created for the House of Bourbon-Parma, which would have reversionary rights to Parma after the death of Marie Louise.
The Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily was restored to control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the Neapolitan War by attacking Austria.
The slave trade was condemned.
Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably the Rhine and the Danube.
The Final Act was signed by representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain. Spain did not sign the treaty but ratified it in 1817.
Other changes[edit]
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Alexander I of Russia (1812) considered himself a guarantor of European security.
The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795–1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria and Prussia.
Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on May 17, 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma).[29]
The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to the throne.[29]
A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for a couple of hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.
During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivença to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivença decreed in Article 105 of the Final Act, which stated that the Congress "understood the occupation of Olivença to be illegal and recognized Portugal's rights". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivença and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this question remains unresolved.[30][need quotation to verify] Great Britain received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris, Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands and the Seychelles.
Later criticism[edit]
The Congress of Vienna has frequently been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent.[1] It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the liberties and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized, so that a fair balance of power, peace and stability, might be achieved.[1]
In the 20th century, however, many historians came to admire the statesmen at the Congress, whose work prevented another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914). Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, A World Restored, on it. Historian Mark Jarrett argues that the Congress of Vienna and the Congress System marked "the true beginning of our modern era". He says the Congress System was deliberate conflict management, and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution."[2] Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium.[3] The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.
Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace.[31] Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia, Modena, Naples–Sicily, Parma, Piedmont–Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers.[32] Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.
The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years.[33] Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later.
See also[edit]
Diplomatic timeline for 1815
Concert of Europe
European balance of power
Battle of Waterloo
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
Treaty of Paris (1814)
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Olson, James Stuart – Shadle, Robert (1991). Historical dictionary of European imperialism, Greenwood Press, p. 149. ISBN 0-313-26257-8
^ Jump up to: a b Mark Jarrett, The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon (2013) pp. 353, xiv, 187.
^ Jump up to: a b Paul W. Schroeder, "Did the Vienna settlement rest on a balance of power?" American Historical Review (1992) 97#3 pp 683-706. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Frederick B. Artz, Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832 (1934) p 110
Jump up ^ Article XXXII. See Harold Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna, chap. 9.
Jump up ^ King, David (2008). Vienna 1814: How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna. Crown Publishing Group. p. 334. ISBN 978-0-307-33716-0.
Jump up ^ Nicolson, Harold (1946). The Congress of Vienna; a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822. Constable & co. ltd. p. 158.
Jump up ^ Malettke, Klaus (2009). Die Bourbonen 3. Von Ludwig XVIII. bis zu den Grafen von Paris (1814–1848) (in German). 3. Kohlhammer. p. 66. ISBN 3-17-020584-6.
Jump up ^ Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, January 22, 1815. 5 George IV. London: His Majesty's Statute and Law Printers. 1824. p. 650.
Jump up ^ Freksa, Frederick (1919). A peace congress of intrigue. trans. Harry Hansen (1919). New York: The Century Co. p. 116.
Jump up ^ Zamoyski, Adam (2007). Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-06-077518-6. : "[...] the Danish plenipotentiary Count Rosenkrantz."
Jump up ^ Couvée, D.H.; G. Pikkemaat (1963). 1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren. Alphen aan den Rijn: N. Samsom nv. pp. 123–124.
Jump up ^ "[Castlereagh, during his stay in The Hague, in January 1813] induced the Dutch to leave their interests entirely in British hands." On page 65 of Nicolson (1946).
Jump up ^ Nicolson, Harold (1946). The Congress of Vienna; a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822. Constable & co. ltd. p. 197. : "Baron von Gagern – one of the two plenipotentiaries for the Netherlands."
Jump up ^ Page 195 of Nicolson (1946).
Jump up ^ Zamoyski, Adam (2007). Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-06-077518-6. : "The Pope's envoy to Vienna, Cardinal Consalvi [...]"
Jump up ^ Fritz Apian-Bennewitz: Leopold von Plessen und die Verfassungspolitik der deutschen Kleinstaaten auf dem Wiener Kongress 1814/15. Eutin: Ivens 1933; Hochschulschrift: Rostock, Univ., Diss., 1933
Jump up ^ Page 2 of King (2008)
Jump up ^ Zamoyski, Adam (2007). Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 258, 295. ISBN 978-0-06-077518-6.
Jump up ^ According to King (2008), it was Prince de Ligne, an attendee at the conference, who wryly quipped, “the congress does not move forward, it dances.” ("Le congrès danse beaucoup, mais il ne marche pas.")
Jump up ^ William, Sir Ward Adolphus (2009). The Period of Congresses, BiblioLife, p. 13. ISBN 1-113-44924-1
^ Jump up to: a b Nicolson, Sir Harold (2001). The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812–1822 Grove Press; Rep. Ed. pp. 140–164. ISBN 0-8021-3744-X
Jump up ^ Susan Mary Alsop (1984). The Congress Dances. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. p. 120.
Jump up ^ Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia, Marqués de Villa-Urrutia, España en el Congreso de Viena según la correspondencia de D. Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marqués de Labrador. Segunda Edición Corregida y Aumentada (Madrid: Francisco Beltrán, 1928), 13.
Jump up ^ Antonio Rodríguez-Moñino (ed.), Cartas Políticas (Badajoz: Imprenta Provincial, 1959), 14 (Letter IV, 10 July 1814). Labrador's letters are full of such pungent remarks, and include his opinions on bad diplomats, the state of the postal system, the weather, and his non-existent salary and coach and accompanying livery for the Congress.
Jump up ^ Villa-Urrutia, España en el Congreso de Viena, 61–2. Joseph had left Madrid with a huge baggage train containing pieces of art, tapestries, and mirrors. The most rapacious of the French was Marshal Nicolas Soult, who left Spain with entire collections, which disappeared to unknown, separate locations around the world. According to Juan Antonio Gaya Nuño, at least "[the paintings] have come to spread the prestige of Spanish art around the whole word."
Jump up ^ W.H. Zawadzki, "Russia and the Re-Opening of the Polish Question, 1801-1814," International History Review (1985) 7#1 pp 19-44.
Jump up ^ Couvée, D.H.; G. Pikkemaat (1963). 1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren. Alphen aan den Rijn: N. Samsom nv. pp. 127–130.
^ Jump up to: a b Stearns, Peter N. – Langer, William Leonard (2001). The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 6th ed. p. 440. ISBN 0-395-65237-5
Jump up ^ Hammond, Richard James (1966). Portugal and Africa, 1815–1910: a study in uneconomic imperialism (Study in Tropical Development), Stanford Univ Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-8047-0296-9
Jump up ^ Ragsdale, Hugh – Ponomarev, V. N. (1993). Imperial Russian foreign policy, Cambridge University Press; 1st ed. ISBN 0-521-44229-X
Jump up ^ Benedict, Bertram (2008). A History of the Great War, BiblioLife. Vol. I, p. 7, ISBN 0-554-41246-2
Jump up ^ Willner, Mark – Hero, George – Weiner, Jerry Global (2006). History Volume I: The Ancient World to the Age of Revolution, Barron's Educational Series, p. 520. ISBN 0-7641-5811-2
Further reading[edit]
Chapman, Tim. The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 (Routledge, 1998)
Dakin, Douglas. "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 and its Antecedents" in Alan Sked, ed., Europe's Balance of Power 1815–1848 (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 14–33.
Ferraro, Guglielmo. The Reconstruction of Europe; Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1941)
Gulick, E. V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813-15" in C. W. Crawley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History, vol 9, 1793-1830 (1965) pp 639–67.
Jarrett, Mark (2013). The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon. London: I. B. Tauris & Company, Ltd. ISBN 978-1780761169. online review
King, David (2008). Vienna 1814; How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna. Random House Inc. ISBN 978-0-307-33716-0.
Kissinger, Henry A. "The Congress of Vienna: A Reappraisal," World Politics (1956) 8#2 pp. 264–280 in JSTOR
Kissinger, Henry (1957). A World Restored; Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812–22. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Kraehe, Enno E. Metternich's German Policy. Vol. 2: The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1984) 443 pp
Oaks, Augustus; R. B. Mowat (1918). The Great European Treaties of the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ("Chapter II The restoration of Europe")
Nicolson, Harold (1946). The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822. Constable & co. ltd.
Spiel, Hilde (1968). The Congress of Vienna; an Eyewitness Account. Philadelphia: Chilton Book Co.
Rowell, Christopher and Wolf Burchard, 'The British Embassy at Palais Stahremberg: Furniture from the Congress of Vienna at Mount Stewart’, Furniture History LIII (2017): 191-224.
Schroeder, Paul W. "Did the Vienna settlement rest on a balance of power?" American Historical Review (1992) 97#3 pp 683–706. in JSTOR
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (1996), pp 517–82 advanced diplomatic history online
Vick, Brian. The Congress of Vienna. Power and Politics after Napoleon. Harvard University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-674-72971-1.
Webster, C.K. "The pacification of Europe" in A.W. Ward and G. P. Gooch, eds. The Cambridge history of British foreign policy, 1783-1919, (1922) Volume 1 ch IV online pp 392–521
also published as Webster, Charles. The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1919), a British perspective
Webster, C.K. The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812–1815, Britain and the Reconstruction of Europe (1931) 618pp online
Zamoyski, Adam (2007). Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-077518-6.
Primary sources[edit]
British diplomacy, 1813–1815: Select Documents Dealing with the Reconstruction of Europe (1921); 409pp
Other languages[edit]
Ghervas, Stella (2008). Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance. Paris: Honoré Champion. ISBN 978-2-7453-1669-1.
External links[edit]
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Declaration at the Congress of Vienna
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Final Act of the Congress of Vienna
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Treaty of Vienna (Seventh Coalition)
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Final Act of the Congress of Vienna
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Coordinates: 48°12′30″N 16°22′23″E / 48.20833°N 16.37306°E / 48.20833; 16.37306
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Mozart in the Jungle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Mozart in the Jungle
Genre
Comedy-drama
Based on
Mozart in the Jungle: Sex, Drugs, and Classical Music
by Blair Tindall
Developed by
Roman Coppola
Jason Schwartzman
Alex Timbers
Paul Weitz
Starring
Lola Kirke
Gael García Bernal
Saffron Burrows
Bernadette Peters
Peter Vack
Hannah Dunne
Malcolm McDowell
Theme music composer
Roger Neill
Opening theme
"Lisztomania" by Phoenix
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
4
No. of episodes
40 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Roman Coppola
Jason Schwartzman
Paul Weitz
Location(s)
New York City
Venice, Italy
Camera setup
Single camera
Running time
26–30 minutes
Production company(s)
American Zoetrope
Depth of Field
Picrow
Amazon Studios
Distributor
Amazon.com
Release
Original network
Amazon Video
Original release
February 6, 2014 (2014-02-06) – present
External links
Website
Mozart in the Jungle is a comedy-drama web television series produced by Picrow for Amazon Studios.[1] It was created by Roman Coppola, Jason Schwartzman, Alex Timbers, and directed by Paul Weitz. The show received a production order in March 2014.
The story was inspired by Mozart in the Jungle: Sex, Drugs, and Classical Music, oboist Blair Tindall's 2005 memoir of her professional career in New York, playing various high-profile gigs with ensembles including the New York Philharmonic and the orchestras of numerous Broadway shows.[2] The series stars Gael García Bernal as Rodrigo, a character based on conductor Gustavo Dudamel,[3] alongside Lola Kirke, Malcolm McDowell, Saffron Burrows, Hannah Dunne, Peter Vack, and Bernadette Peters.
The first season premiered in full on December 23, 2014.[4] The show's renewal for a second season was announced by Amazon on February 18, 2015.[5] All episodes of the second season were made available online on December 30, 2015. On February 9, 2016 a third season was announced.[6] All episodes of the third season were made available online on December 9, 2016.[7] On January 30, 2017, Amazon announced that the series had been renewed for a fourth season,[8] which was released on February 16, 2018.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast and characters
1.1 Main cast
1.2 Recurring cast
2 Episodes
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Accolades
5 References
6 External links
Cast and characters[edit]
Main cast[edit]
Lola Kirke as Hailey Rutledge, an oboist with a yearning ambition to play with the New York Symphony. She develops a strong bond with Rodrigo as the series progresses.
Gael García Bernal as Rodrigo De Souza, the new conductor of the New York Symphony
Bernadette Peters as Gloria Windsor, the president of the New York Symphony (recurring, season 1; season 2–present)
Malcolm McDowell as Thomas Pembridge, the conductor emeritus of the New York Symphony
Saffron Burrows as Cynthia Taylor, a philandering cellist with the New York Symphony
Hannah Dunne as Elizabeth "Lizzie" Campbell, Hailey's roommate and best friend
Peter Vack as Alex Merriweather, Hailey's dancer boyfriend (seasons 1 & 2)
Recurring cast[edit]
Debra Monk as Betty Cragdale, the long-time oboist for the New York Symphony who instantly despises Hailey
Mark Blum as Union Bob, a piccolo player for the symphony and known for bringing up the union rules
Jennifer Kim as Sharon, Rodrigo's assistant
Joel Bernstein as Warren Boyd, the concertmaster for the symphony
Nora Arnezeder as Ana Maria, Rodrigo's estranged violinist wife
John Miller as Dee Dee, the drug-dealing percussionist of the New York Symphony
Rubio Qian as Triangle Tanya, the triangle player of the New York Symphony.
Brennan Brown as Edward Biben, an orchestra board member
Gretchen Mol as Nina, the New York Symphony's lawyer who falls for Cynthia
Makenzie Leigh as Addison, Alex's dancing partner and roommate
Margaret Ladd as Claire, Thomas' ex-wife who dies after hearing his completed symphony.
Jason Schwartzman as Bradford Sharpe, a classical music enthusiast and host of his own podcast, "B-Sharpe"
John Hodgman as Marlin Guggenheim, a purported billionaire infatuated with Hailey
Wallace Shawn as Winslow Eliot, a neurotic concert pianist.
Tenoch Huerta Mejía as Manuel, Rodrigo's childhood friend
Dermot Mulroney as Andrew Walsh, a cello soloist who fraternizes with Hailey.
Monica Bellucci as Alessandra, a reclusive Italian soprano living in Venice, Italy, also known as "La fiamma".
Ana María Martínez provides Alessandra's singing voice.
Sandro Isaack as Pavel, the orchestra's stagehand who becomes friendly with Gloria
Philip Jackson Smith as Mike, a friend of Hailey's whom she recruits to work for the orchestra
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Mozart in the Jungle episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 10 February 6, 2014 (2014-02-06) December 23, 2014 (2014-12-23)
2 10 December 30, 2015 (2015-12-30) December 30, 2015 (2015-12-30)
3 10 December 9, 2016 (2016-12-09) December 9, 2016 (2016-12-09)
4 10 February 16, 2018 (2018-02-16) February 16, 2018 (2018-02-16)
Production[edit]
The many oboe solos played by the protagonist and other characters throughout the series are performed by Lelie Resnick, principal oboist of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, while the character of Rodrigo is loosely based on Gustavo Dudamel, the Venezuelan music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic.[10] Dudamel coached García Bernal before the latter conducted, in the character of Rodrigo, for a real performance of the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, scenes of which were used for the second season opener.[11] Dudamel has a cameo in that episode, acting as a stagehand trying to convince Rodrigo to move to Los Angeles. Other musicians that have cameos in the series are violinist Joshua Bell, pianists Emanuel Ax and Lang Lang, composers Anton Coppola and Nico Muhly, Broadway star Brian d'Arcy James and conductors Alan Gilbert and Bernard Uzan. Blair Tindall, oboist and writer of the book on which the series is based, also appears in a cameo.[12] Interior shots of the home concert hall were filmed at the Performing Arts Center at SUNY Purchase.[13]
Reception[edit]
The first season of the series received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the series a 'fresh' 95% rating based on 20 critic reviews, with the critical consensus "Though confined to the isolated world of classical music, Mozart in the Jungle's Gael Garcia Bernal makes this charming little show sing."[14] Metacritic gave the series a 73 out of 100, indicating 'generally favorable reviews.'[15] Cory Barker, writing for TV.com, praised the series. "What works so well is that Mozart isn't afraid to throw you into a world you're likely unfamiliar with, but it doesn't swim so far into the deep end that you immediately drown in jargon and distanced dramatic stakes."[16] Robert Lloyd, writing for The Los Angeles Times, also lauded the first season. He stated that "Characters who were mouthpieces for attitudes start to seem like people, more complicated than a thumbnail description can accommodate. You grow interested in what will become of them without expecting or rooting for any particular outcome."[17] Kory Grow of Rolling Stone also praised the series, writing that "[t]hanks to quirky scripts and a smart ensemble cast... it comes off whimsical without ringing off-pitch."[18]
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter also gave the first season a positive review. "Bernal is both likable and magnetic, and makes the eclectic maestro surge on the screen. He alone is worth streaming the series, but, thankfully, there's a lot more going on here."[19] Brian Lowry, writing for Variety, also lauded the series. "While Mozart is surely a niche confection, the show generally shines by proving long on charm even when it's short on laughs."[20] In a more mixed review, Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the series a "B-".
Accolades[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Recipients
Result
Ref.
2015 Imagen Foundation Awards Best Actor - Television Gael Garcia Bernal Won [21]
2016 Golden Globe Awards Best Television Series – Comedy Mozart in the Jungle Won [22]
Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy Gael Garcia Bernal Won
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (Half-Hour) and Animation Thomas Varga, Andy D'Addario, Bill Higley, Chris Navarro (for "Nothing Resonates Like Rhinoceros Foreskin") Won [23]
Imagen Foundation Awards Best Actor - Television Gael García Bernal Won [24]
2017 Golden Globe Awards Best Television Series – Comedy Mozart in the Jungle Nominated [25]
Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy Gael Garcia Bernal Nominated
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series (Half-Hour) Tobias Datum (for "Now I Will Sing") Nominated [26]
Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Program (Half-Hour or Less) Tommaso Ortino, Susanna Codognato, Letizia Santucci (for "Now I Will Sing") Nominated
Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (Half-Hour) and Animation Andy D'Addario, Gary Gegan, Marco Fiumara (for "Now I Will Sing") Won
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew (2014-03-12). "Amazon Studios Picks Up "Mozart in the Jungle" Pilot Starring Bernadette Peters". Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Burton, Louise (2013-12-11). "Amazon's TV Pilot 'Mozart in the Jungle,' with Joshua Bell and Malcolm McDowell, Is a Tale of Sex, Drugs and…Classical Music?". Classicalite. Archived from the original on 2014-01-21. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Ramey, Corinne (2013-12-06). "Amazon Studios' 'Mozart in the Jungle' Offers New View of Music World". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Vlessing, Etan (2014-11-20). "Amazon Announces Premiere Date for 'Mozart in the Jungle' Comedy-Drama". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Tartaglione, Nancy (2015-02-18). "Amazon Tunes Up Second Season Order For 'Mozart In The Jungle'". deadline.com. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew. " 'Mozart in the Jungle,' Starring Bernadette Peters, Renewed for Third Season" playbill.com, February 9, 2016
Jump up ^ Mozart in the Jungle [@MITJAmazon] (7 August 2016). "A whole new tune. December 9" (Tweet) – via Twitter. https://twitter.com/MITJAmazon/status/762329084693188608
Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt (January 30, 2017). "'Mozart in the Jungle' Renewed for Season 4, 'Red Oaks' Gets Final Season". TV Line. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Graham, Will. "It'll be early 2018". Twitter. Twitter. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Ng, David (2014-02-10). "'Mozart in the Jungle': Is 'Rodrigo' a parody of Gustavo Dudamel?". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2016-01-26.
Jump up ^ Swed, Mark (2015-07-31). "L.A. Phil, Dudamel dive into the 'Mozart in the Jungle' act at the Bowl". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2016-01-26.
Jump up ^ Midgette, Anne (2015-12-30). "'Mozart in the Jungle' finds its feet". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Amazon's 'Mozart In The Jungle' Films At SUNY Purchase". Harrison Daily Voice. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mozart in the Jungle: Season 1". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ "Mozart in the Jungle - Season 1". Metacritic. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Barker, Cory (2015-01-06). "4 Reasons Why You Should Binge-Watch Amazon's Mozart in the Jungle This Week". TV.com. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Lloyd, Robert (2014-12-23). "Review 'Mozart in the Jungle' on Amazon gets good after woeful pilot". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Grow, Kory (2014-12-22). "Bittersweet Symphony: Inside the Sex and Drugs of 'Mozart in the Jungle'". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Goodman, Tim (2014-12-23). "'Mozart In the Jungle': TV Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ Lowry, Brian (2014-12-17). "TV Review: Amazon's 'Mozart in the Jungle'". Variety. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
Jump up ^ "2015 Imagen Awards Winners, Honorees & Nominees". The Imagen Foundation. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
Jump up ^ "Winners & Nominees 2016". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
Jump up ^ "68th Emmy Awards Nominees and Winners". Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
Jump up ^ "Winners of 31st Annual Imagen Awards Announced". The Imagen Foundation. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
Jump up ^ "Winners & Nominees 2017". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
Jump up ^ "69th Emmy Awards Nominees and Winners". Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 2017-07-22.
External links[edit]
Mozart in the Jungle on IMDb
Mozart in the Jungle at TV Guide
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National Pan-Hellenic Council
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with National Panhellenic Conference.
National Pan-Hellenic Council
Data
Established 1930
Members 9
Continent North America
Country United States
Headquarters Decatur, Georgia
Organization type Coalition of members
The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) is a collaborative organization of nine historically African American, international Greek lettered fraternities and sororities. The nine NPHC organizations are sometimes collectively referred to as the "Divine Nine". The member/partner organizations have not formally adopted nor recommended the use of this term to describe their collaborative grouping. The NPHC was formed as a permanent organization on May 10, 1930 on the campus of Howard University, in Washington, D.C. with Matthew W. Bullock as the active Chairman and B. Beatrix Scott as Vice-Chairman. NPHC was incorporated under the laws of the State of Illinois in 1937.
The council promotes interaction through forums, meetings and other mediums for the exchange of information and engages in cooperative programming and initiatives through various activities and functions.
Each constituent member organization determines its own strategic direction and program agenda. Today, the primary purpose and focus of member organizations remains camaraderie and academic excellence for its members and service to the communities they serve. Each promotes community awareness and action through educational, economic, and cultural service activities.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Members
3 See also
4 Citations
5 Further reading
History[edit]
The National Pan-Hellenic Council was established in an age when racial segregation and disenfranchisement plagued African Americans, the rise of each of the black fraternities and sororities that make up the NPHC bore witness to the fact that despite hardships African Americans refused to accede to a status of inferiority.[1]
The organization's stated purpose and mission in 1930:
Unanimity of thought and action as far as possible in the conduct of Greek letter collegiate fraternities and sororities, and to consider problems of mutual interest to its member organizations.[2]
The founding members of the NPHC were Kappa Alpha Psi, Omega Psi Phi, Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, and Zeta Phi Beta. The council's membership expanded as Alpha Phi Alpha (1931), Phi Beta Sigma (1931), Sigma Gamma Rho (1937), and Iota Phi Theta (1997) joined this coalition of Black Greek letter organizations (BGLOs). In his book on BGLOs, Lawrence Ross coined the phrase "The Divine Nine" when referring to the coalition.[3]
As required by various campus recognition policies, neither the NPHC, nor its member national or chapter organizations discriminate on the basis of race or religion.
In 1992, the first permanent national office for NPHC was established in Bloomington, Indiana on the campus of Indiana University through the joint cooperation of Indiana University and the National Board of Directors of NPHC.[2]
Members[edit]
The members of the National Pan-Hellenic Council are shown below in order of founding:[2]
Member
Founded
Headquarters
Chapters
Members
NPHC
M/F
Alpha Phi Alpha (1906-12-04) December 4, 1906 (age 110)
Cornell University Baltimore, Maryland 706[4] 70,000[4] 1931 M
Alpha Kappa Alpha (1908-01-15) January 15, 1908 (age 109)
Howard University Chicago, Illinois 1,005[5] 290,000[5] 1930 F
Kappa Alpha Psi (1911-01-05) January 5, 1911 (age 106)
Indiana University
as Kappa Alpha Nu Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 720 1930 M
Omega Psi Phi (1911-11-17) November 17, 1911 (age 105)
Howard University Decatur, Georgia 750 1930 M
Delta Sigma Theta (1913-01-13) January 13, 1913 (age 104)
Howard University Washington, D.C. over 940[6]
(including alumnae chapters) 1930 F
Phi Beta Sigma (1914-01-09) January 9, 1914 (age 103)
Howard University Washington, D.C. 740 1931 M
Zeta Phi Beta (1920-01-16) January 16, 1920 (age 97)
Howard University Washington, D.C. 800 1930 F
Sigma Gamma Rho (1922-11-12) November 12, 1922 (age 95)
Butler University Cary, North Carolina 700 1937 F
Iota Phi Theta (1963-09-19) September 19, 1963 (age 54)
Morgan State University Baltimore, Maryland 300 30,000[7] 1997 M
See also[edit]
African American portal
Concilio Interfraternitario Puertorriqueño de la Florida
Fraternity and Sorority Political Action Committee
National APIA Panhellenic Association
National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations
National Multicultural Greek Council
National Panhellenic Conference
North-American Interfraternity Conference
United Council of Christian Fraternities and Sororities
List of hazing deaths
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "Celebrating Community: A Tribute to Black Fraternal, Social and Civic Institutions". Houston Public Library. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c "About the National Pan-Hellenic Council". nphchq.org. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ * Ross, Jr, Lawrence (2001). The Divine Nine: The History of African-American Fraternities and Sororities in America. New York: Kensington. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0-7582-0325-X.
^ Jump up to: a b "Home". Alpha Phi Alpha. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Inc". aka1908.com. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
Jump up ^ Delta Sigma Theta website. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Iota Phi Theta® Fraternity Inc. | Founded 1963 - Chapter Locator". www.iotaphitheta.org. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
Further reading[edit]
Brown, Tamara L., Gregory S. Parks, and Clarenda M. Phillips. (2005). African American Fraternities and Sororities: The Legacy and the Vision. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2344-8.
Parks, Gregory Scott. (2008). Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the 21st Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2491-9.
Skocpol, Theda, Ariane Liazos, and Marshall Ganz. (2006). What a Mighty Power We Can Be: African American Fraternal Groups and the Struggle for Racial Equality . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12299-1.
[show]
v
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National Pan-Hellenic Council (in order by founding date)
Alpha Phi Alpha 1906
Alpha Kappa Alpha 1908
Kappa Alpha Psi 1911
Omega Psi Phi 1911
Delta Sigma Theta 1913
Phi Beta Sigma 1914
Zeta Phi Beta 1920
Sigma Gamma Rho 1922
Iota Phi Theta 1963
[show]
v
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Greek umbrella organizations
Association of College Honor Societies
Concilio Interfraternitario Puertorriqueño de la Florida
National American Greek Council
National APIA Panhellenic Association
National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations
National Interfraternity Music Council
National Multicultural Greek Council
National Panhellenic Conference
National Pan-Hellenic Council
North-American Interfraternity Conference
Professional Fraternity Association
United Council of Christian Fraternities & Sororities
Defunct Greek Umbrella Organizations
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