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Comparison of European road signs
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Example of a Swiss sign
Despite an apparent uniformity and standardisation, European traffic signs present relevant differences between countries. However most European countries refer to the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals — adopted in Europe by Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey[1] and Ukraine. The convention has not been adopted in Ireland, Moldova, Spain, and the UK.
Contents
1 Differences between European traffic signs
1.1 Graphic differences
1.2 Different typefaces in texts
1.3 Different colour codes
1.3.1 Warning signs
1.3.2 Road works/construction
1.3.3 Motorways
1.3.4 Primary roads/Expressways
1.3.5 Secondary roads
1.4 Differences in meanings
1.5 Pavement and kerb/curb markings
2 Table of traffic signs comparison
2.1 Priority
2.2 Warning
2.3 Prohibitory
2.4 End of prohibition
2.5 Mandatory
2.6 Special regulations
2.7 Indication
2.8 Border Crossings
2.9 Checkpoints
3 Notes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Differences between European traffic signs[edit]
The main differences relate to
graphic design details
local regulatory significance
the colour-coding of directional signs
local language texts (sometimes bilingual)
meaning and colour-coding of pavement and kerb/curb markings
Graphic differences[edit]
Countries in red, black, and blue use European-style triangular warning signs while countries in yellow use MUTCD-style diamond warning signs. Click for large image and detailed info key.
Warning signs in Ireland are yellow and diamond-shaped (as in the Americas, Australasia, and some east Asian countries), and thus differ from the white or yellow, red-bordered, triangular signs found in the rest of Europe.
The design of individual pictograms (tunnel, pedestrian, car, etc.), while broadly similar, often varies in detail from country to country.
Type of arrows may be different.
Fonts of written words
Different typefaces in texts[edit]
A sign with the use of Transport font in English and Icelandic .
This list is incomplete. You can help by adding missing countries or typeface.
Albania and Italy use the Alfabeto normale typeface (with the narrow variant Alfabeto stretto), a heavier version of the British Transport typeface.
Albania has recently started using Arial Narrow Bold typeface.
Austria and Slovakia use the TERN typeface. In the past, Austria used the Austria Mittelschrift and Engschrift typefaces until 2010. Slovakia used the Universal Grotesk typeface until 2014.
Belarus, Lithuania, Russia and Ukraine use typefaces based on one specified in a Soviet standard ГОСТ 10807–78. In Belarus, the according standard is СТБ 1140–99. In Ukraine, it is ДСТУ 4100–2002. In Russia, it is ГОСТ Р 52290–2004.
Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia, and Serbia use the SNV typeface. Switzerland used this typeface until 2003.
Cyprus, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Turkey, Portugal, and the United Kingdom use the Transport typeface. (Motorway typeface is used on United Kingdom motorways)
Denmark uses the Dansk Vejtavleskrift typeface. The typeface is derived from the British Transport typeface.
Estonia and Moldova use the Arial Narrow Bold in mixture with Helvetica typeface.
Finland uses a typeface developed in the 1960s by the former national board of roads and waterways.[2]
France uses the Caractères typeface.
Germany, Czech Republic and Latvia use the DIN 1451 typeface.
Greece used a modified version of the British Transport typeface and, today, uses a modified version of DIN 1451.
Hungary does not use a defined typeface as the letters are defined one-by-one in the national regulation. The typeface resembles the DIN 1451 typeface closely.[3]
Luxembourg uses Arial (Bold), Caractères Italic, DIN 1451, and the SNV typefaces, often inconsistently.
Turkey and Ukraine use the FHWA typeface.[citation needed]
Spain uses two typefaces: Autopista (derived from FHWA series E modified) for motorways and Carretera Convencional (also known as CCRIGE or Traffic Type Spain D[4]) for other situations. The typeface Carretera Convencional is derived from the British Transport typeface, and is almost identical to the Italian Alfabeto Normale.
Netherlands use typefaces derived from FHWA typeface: ANWB/RWS Cc (narrow), Dd (medium) and Ee (wide).
Norway uses the Trafikkalfabetet typeface.
Poland uses the Drogowskaz typeface.
Sweden uses the Tratex typeface.
Switzerland uses the Frutiger typeface.
In Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Monaco, Russia, San Marino, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, destinations on direction signs are written in capital letters. In Ireland, they are written in capital letters in English and in lowercase letters in Irish. In Greece and Luxembourg both capital and lowercase are used.
Different colour codes[edit]
Warning signs[edit]
In most European countries, it is indicated by a triangle with red borders and a white background.
An amber background is used in Sweden, Greece, Finland, Iceland, the Republic of Macedonia, and Poland (in some other countries it means a provisional road work sign).
Also, the yield sign/give way sign in Sweden, Finland, Iceland and Poland has a yellow background.
In Ireland, it is indicated by a yellow diamond.
In LAADIA is used s a circle
Road works/construction[edit]
Many countries normally have adopted an orange or amber background.
A yellow background is used in France, Italy, Finland, Iceland, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Romania.
Motorways[edit]
French sign showing the difference with Swiss signs, on A411 autoroute near Geneva.
White text on a blue background is used in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania (from 2020), Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
White text on a green background is used in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Italy, Lithuania (until 2020), Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Ukraine.
Primary roads/Expressways[edit]
White-on-blue (the same as motorways) is used in Belgium, Estonia, Latvia, and Netherlands.
White-on-blue is used in Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Finland, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey.
White-on-green is used in France, Hungary, Ireland, Poland, Portugal, and the United Kingdom.
Black-on-yellow is used in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Luxembourg, Norway, Serbia, and Slovenia.
Red-on-white is used in Denmark (though white-on-blue on motorway exits and all overhead gantries)
Black-on-white is used in Austria and Spain.
Secondary roads[edit]
Black-on-white is used in France, Ireland, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
In Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, and Sweden, black-on-white indicates only urban roads or urban destinations.
White-on-green is used in Austria to indicates locations like regions, city center, city districts.[5]
White-on-green is used in Spain to indicate street names, neighbourhoods, districts and other locations in a city.
Differences in meanings[edit]
Sometimes similar signs have minor differences in meanings, following the local traffic codes.[citation needed]
All European countries use the metric system (distances in kilometres or metres; speeds in kilometres per hour; heights, widths and lengths in metres; weights in tonnes) with the exception of the United Kingdom, where distances, speeds, heights and widths are still indicated in imperial measurements (miles or yards; miles per hour; feet and inches), with an optional indication in metres on some limit restriction signs. Weight limits are shown in metric tonnes with a lower case "t", although some older signs still use the imperial long ton indicated by either an upper case "T" or simply the word "ton".
Pavement and kerb/curb markings[edit]
Longitudinal lines (lanes and margins) and symbols on the carriageway are always white (but in Norway a yellow line separates two way traffic and in Ireland edge lines are yellow). Temporary markings are yellow in Germany, France, Italy and Netherlands, but red/orange in Switzerland and white in United Kingdom.
A stop line is always represented by a white thick traversal continuous line, but a give way line may be represented by a white thick dashed line as rectangles (Germany, France) or by a double dashed line (United Kingdom) or by a white line of triangles (Italy, Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland and Norway).
A disc (time-limited) parking place is identified by white lines in Germany and France and by blue lines in Netherlands and Switzerland. A chargeable parking place is identified by white lines in Germany, France, Netherlands and Switzerland and by blue lines in Italy and Spain. A disabled people parking is bordered in white in United Kingdom, Germany, Spain and Netherlands, in blue in France and in yellow in Italy and Switzerland. Other reserved parking places (bus, taxis) are yellow in United Kingdom, Italy and Switzerland but white in Germany.
No parking on a side of a road can be represented by a yellow continuous line (United Kingdom, Spain, Netherlands, Austria), by a yellow dashed line with X's (Switzerland), a white continuous line (Italy), or a dashed white line (France), or also by a yellow and black kerb/curb (Italy) or black and white kerb/curb (Netherlands). Only in UK a double yellow line means non parking at any time and a white zig-zag line no parking.
No stopping/waiting on a side of a road is represented in United Kingdom by a red continuous line (a double red lines extends the prohibition to any time) and in Switzerland by a yellow continuous line. A yellow zig-zag line near schools, police stations or hospitals in UK means no stopping.
Table of traffic signs comparison[edit]
Priority[edit]

Austria

Germany South Africa

Belgium

Czech
Republic

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Norway

Poland

Portugal

Romania

40px
Russia
&
Belarus

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

Ukraine

United
Kingdom
Give Way/Yield
or

or
(Wales)
Stop
Priority road NOT
USED NOT
USED
End of priority road NOT
USED NOT
USED
Give way to oncoming traffic NOT
USED
Priority over oncoming vehicles NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Warning[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
Give Way/Yield ahead

or

Stop ahead

Traffic signals ahead
or
Roundabout ahead NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
Two-way traffic ahead
or

or

or
Traffic queues likely ahead NOT
USED
Level crossing without barriers ahead NOT
USED
Level crossing with barriers ahead
[nb 1] NOT
USED
or
Level crossing NOT
USED NOT
USED (no gates)
Level crossing (multiple tracks) NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Tram crossing NOT
USED NOT
USED
Crossroads with priority to the right NOT
USED [nb 2] NOT
USED
[nb 3]
Crossroads with a minor road
Junction with a minor side road NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Merging traffic NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED DISUSED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Road narrows on both sides
Road narrows on right (left)
Dangerous crosswinds
or
Low-flying aircraft
or

or

or
Steep descent

Steep ascent NOT
USED

Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Road bump ahead NOT
USED
Uneven road ahead
Curve
Double curve
Slippery road surface
Loose road surface
Soft verges or dangerous shoulder NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Children
Pedestrian crossing ahead
or
Cyclists
Falling rocks or debris NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Caution, snow or ice NOT
USED NOT
USED or

(Belarus)

[nb 4]
Caution, fog likely NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
[nb 5] NOT
USED
Opening or swing bridge NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Unprotected quayside or riverbank NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED
or
Domestic animals
Wild animals or
Tunnel ahead NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Accident area / accident ahead NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
NOT
USED
NOT
USED
(Belarus)
[nb 6] NOT
USED

Roadworks ahead
Other danger
Other danger (temporary) NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Prohibitory[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
Road closed to all vehicles in both directions
No entry for vehicular traffic (no exceptions:)

(exceptions apply:)
No motor vehicles NOT
USED
No motor vehicles except motorcycles NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
No motorcycles NOT
USED
No bicycles
No pedestrians
No buses NOT
USED NOT
USED
No heavy goods vehicles or
No tractors NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
No trailers
or

or

or

or
No horns or motor noise NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
No overtaking
or
No overtaking by heavy goods vehicles NOT
USED
Maximum speed limit
Speed limit zone
NOT
USED
or
Maximum height
Maximum width
Maximum vehicle length
or

and/or
Maximum weight
or
Maximum weight per axle NOT
USED NOT
USED
Maximum weight per tandem axle NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED [nb 7] NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
No vehicles carrying dangerous goods
or
NOT
USED (tunnel restrictions only)
No vehicles carrying dangerous water pollutants NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
No vehicles carrying explosives NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED

Minimum safe following distance between vehicles NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
No right turn NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
No left turn NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
No U-turns NOT
USED
No parking
No stopping
No parking zone

or
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
End of prohibition[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
End of overtaking prohibition
End of maximum speed limit NOT
USED
End of all restrictions NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
End of speed limit zone NOT
USED
or
Mandatory[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
Proceed straight
(no turns)
Turn right NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Turn right ahead NOT
USED
Proceed straight or turn right NOT
USED NOT
USED
Pass on this side
or

or
Pass on either side NOT
USED
Roundabout NOT
USED
Mandatory direction for vehicles carrying dangerous goods NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Minimum speed limit NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Minimum speed limit ends NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Bicycles only
Pedestrians only NOT
USED
Shared use path
Equestrian path NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED (Belarus) NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Special regulations[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
One-way street NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT USED
at entry
(repeater sign inside street:)
NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Pedestrian crossing
or

or

[nb 8] NOT
USED
Advisory speed limit NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
(temporary)
Lane ends or [nb 9]
Road bump NOT
USED
Living street NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
Pedestrian zone NOT
USED (Russia) (Belarus)
or
Bus lane
Limited-access road NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
End of limited-access road NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Motorway or
NOT
USED
End of motorway or
NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Indication[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
No through road
Hospital NOT
USED
or

[nb 10]

[nb 11]

or
First aid NOT
USED NOT
USED
Pharmacy NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Bus stop NOT
USED Front:

or

Rear:

or
[nb 12] Fare network-specific
or

or
[nb 13] Fare network-specific
and:
Escape lane NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
Tunnel NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED
Parking place
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Border Crossings[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
Schengen Area or other national Border
or

or

or
NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
National speed limits or (Flanders) (Russia) (Belarus) or
(Northern Ireland)
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Checkpoints[edit]
Austria
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
&
Belarus
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United
Kingdom
Customs
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED
or

or

or
NOT
USED
Police NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
Toll
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED
Other Control NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED NOT
USED
or
NOT
USED NOT
USED
Austria Belgium Czech
Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia
&
Belarus Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United
Kingdom
Notes[edit]
^ This sign is being phased out by 2019, and being replaced by the previous sign. "German Traffic Signs & Signals". January 28, 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-12-07. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
^ In the Netherlands, this sign means "Dangerous crossroads"
^ There is no "priority to the right" (or left) rule in the United Kingdom.
^ The main, upper sign is permanent, but the lower sign is only temporarily added during corresponding condition.
^ Annotated by words in a sign below the sign: German: Nebel, French: brouillard, Italian: nebbia
^ Police work in Switzerland is based on cantonal laws and acts. Usually producing a red warning triangle showing the word, either, German: Unfall, French: accident, or Italian: incidente.
^ Applies also to axles being apart not more than 1 metre.
^ Always produced on non-urban roads, in urban settings only, if badly visible; mandatory priority given to pedestrians – always applicable on any pedestrian crossings even without sign.
^ The white sign is used in built-up areas and the blue one outside them.
^ Indicates hospital with emergency station.
^ Means only presence of hospital, rest home, or the like. Is an educated indication to be quiet and to drive carefully.
^ The yellow sign is used for local bus traffic and the blue one for long-distance bus traffic.
^ In the Netherlands, the first one is always used because otherwise it wouldn't be an official bus stop. The bottom one is sometimes used to inform drivers a bus stop is coming up, mostly outside the built-up area.
See also[edit]
Comparison of European traffic laws
Road signs in Austria
Road signs in the Czech Republic
Road signs in Denmark
Road signs in Estonia
Road signs in Finland
Road signs in Germany
Road signs in Greece
Road signs in the Republic of Ireland
Road signs in Ireland
Road signs in Italy
Road signs in the Netherlands
Road signs in Norway
Road signs in Poland
Road signs in Sweden
Road signs in Switzerland
Road signs in Ukraine
Road signs in the United Kingdom
Traffic sign
Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals
Comparison of MUTCD-influenced traffic signs
Comparison of traffic signs in English-speaking countries
References[edit]
European Standard for Traffic Signs - EN 12899-1:2001 Fixed, Vertical Road Traffic Signs – Part 1: Fixed Signs, Requirements
^ http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12612722/index.pdf
^ Österman, Tuomas; Miettinen, Saija; Ronkainen, Kaisa (2005). "Opastusmerkkien luettavuus" (PDF). Helsinki: Tiehallinto. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ Útügyi műszaki előírás, e-ÚT 04.02.12.
^ "Traffic Type Spain D - Desktop font « MyFonts". Myfonts.com. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2012-11-09.
^ http://www.fuerboeck.at/verkehrsrecht/verkehrszeichen/hinweis/wegweiser-lokal/
External links[edit]
Travlang.com
German.about.com
v
t
e
Traffic signs
Signs
Warning sign
Regulatory sign
Prohibitory traffic sign
Mandatory sign
Special regulation sign
Stop sign
Yield sign
Crossbuck
Dead End sign
One-way traffic
Speed limit (by country)
Advisory speed limit
Information sign
Direction, position, or indication sign
Variable-message sign
Bilingual sign
Driver location signs
Logo sign
Priority to the right
By comparison
Comparison of European road signs
Comparison of MUTCD-influenced traffic signs
Comparison of traffic signs in English-speaking countries
By country
Africa
Botswana
Mauritius
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Asia
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Iran
Israel
Japan
Laos
Malaysia
Nepal
Pakistan
Singapore
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Turkey
Europe
Austria
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Czech Republic
Estonia
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Liechtenstein
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Sweden
Switzerland
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Scotland
Wales
North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
South America
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Lights
Traffic light
Traffic-light signalling and operation
Traffic light control and coordination
Typefaces
Alfabeto Normale (IT)
Austria (AT)
Caractères (FR)
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values: Zeichen 306 - Vorfahrtstraße, StVO 1970.svg

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values: Zeichen 308 - Vorrang vor dem Gegenverkehr, StVO 1992.svg

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values: Zeichen 131 - Lichtzeichenanlage, StVO 1970.svg

values: Italian traffic signs - semaforo verticale.svg

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values: W044 Mini-Roundabout Ahead - Warning Sign Ireland.png

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values: Zeichen 125 - Gegenverkehr, StVO 1992.svg

values: W080 Two-Way Traffic - Warning Sign Ireland.png

values: W081 Two-Way Traffic Crrossing - Warning Sign Ireland.png

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values: Belgisch verkeersbord A51 met onderbord.jpg

values: Zeichen 151 - Unbeschrankter Bahnübergang, StVO 1992.svg

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values: Zeichen 150 - Bahnübergang mit Schranken oder Halbschranken, StVO 1970.svg

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values: Zeichen 201 – Andreaskreuz – Dem Schienenverkehr Vorrang gewähren! StVO 1970.svg

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values: Zeichen 102 - Kreuzung oder Einmündung mit Vorfahrt von rechts, StVO 1970.svg

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values: W130 Road Hump - Warning Sign Ireland.png

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values: W133 Uneven Road - Warning Sign Ireland.png

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values: Zeichen 103-20 - Kurve (rechts), StVO 1992.svg

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values: Zeichen 273-70 - Verbot des Unterschreitens des angegebenen Mindestabstandes, StVO 2017.svg

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values: CH-Vorschriftssignal-Abbiegen nach rechts verboten.svg

values: CH-Vorschriftssignal-Abbiegen nach links verboten.svg

values: Zeichen 272, Verbot des Wendens, StVO 1992.svg

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values: Zeichen 215 - Kreisverkehr, StVO 2000.svg

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values: Zeichen 275 - Vorgeschriebene Mindestgeschwindigkeit, StVO 1992.svg

values: Italian traffic signs - limite minimo di velocità 30.svg

values: Zeichen 279 - Ende der vorgeschriebenen Mindestgeschwindigkeit, StVO 1992.svg

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values: C 18 - Koniec najnižšej dovolenej rýchlosti.png

values: Zeichen 237 - Sonderweg Radfahrer, StVO 1992.svg

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values: Zeichen 239 - Sonderweg Fußgänger, StVO 1992.svg

values: Italian traffic signs - percorso pedonale.svg

values: Zeichen 240 - Gemeinsamer Fuß- und Radweg, StVO 1992.svg

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values: Zeichen 238 - Sonderweg Reiter, StVO 1992.svg

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values: Traffic Sign GR - KOK 2009 - P-24 (left).svg

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values: Zeichen 245 - Bussonderfahrstreifen, StVO 2013.svg

values: Italian traffic signs - corsia riservata agli autobus.svg

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values: Nederlands verkeersbord L3 2011 bushalte.svg

values:
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text:
Light-dependent reactions
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Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane
In photosynthesis, the light-dependent reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes. The inside of the thylakoid membrane is called the lumen, and outside the thylakoid membrane is the stroma, where the light-independent reactions take place. The thylakoid membrane contains some integral membrane protein complexes that catalyze the light reactions. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane: Photosystem II (PSII), Cytochrome b6f complex, Photosystem I (PSI), and ATP synthase. These four complexes work together to ultimately create the products ATP and NADPH.
The four photosystems absorb light energy through pigments—primarily the chlorophylls, which are responsible for the green color of leaves. The light-dependent reactions begin in photosystem II. When a chlorophyll a molecule within the reaction center of PSII absorbs a photon, an electron in this molecule attains a higher energy level. Because this state of an electron is very unstable, the electron is transferred from one to another molecule creating a chain of redox reactions, called an electron transport chain (ETC). The electron flow goes from PSII to cytochrome b6f to PSI. In PSI, the electron gets the energy from another photon. The final electron acceptor is NADP. In oxygenic photosynthesis, the first electron donor is water, creating oxygen as a waste product. In anoxygenic photosynthesis various electron donors are used.
Cytochrome b6f and ATP synthase work together to create ATP. This process is called photophosphorylation, which occurs in two different ways. In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from PSII to pump protons from the stroma to the lumen. The proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane creates a proton-motive force, used by ATP synthase to form ATP. In cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from not only PSII but also PSI to create more ATP and to stop the production of NADPH. Cyclic phosphorylation is important to create ATP and maintain NADPH in the right proportion for the light-independent reactions.
The net-reaction of all light-dependent reactions in oxygenic photosynthesis is:
2H
2O + 2NADP+
+ 3ADP + 3Pi → O
2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP
The two photosystems are protein complexes that absorb photons and are able to use this energy to create an electron transport chain. Photosystem I and II are very similar in structure and function. They use special proteins, called light-harvesting complexes, to absorb the photons with very high effectiveness. If a special pigment molecule in a photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron in this pigment attains the excited state and then is transferred to another molecule in the reaction center. This reaction, called photoinduced charge separation, is the start of the electron flow and is unique because it transforms light energy into chemical forms.
Contents
1 The reaction center
2 Photosynthetic electron transport chains in chloroplasts
2.1 Photosystem II
2.1.1 The water-splitting complex
2.1.2 The reaction center
2.1.3 Link of water-splitting complex and chlorophyll excitation
2.1.4 Summary
2.2 Cytochrome b6
2.3 Photosystem I
3 Photosynthetic electron transport chains in bacteria
3.1 Cyanobacteria
3.2 Purple bacteria
3.3 Green sulfur bacteria
4 History
5 See also
6 References
The reaction center[edit]
Main article: Photosynthetic reaction center
The reaction center is in the thylakoid membrane. It transfers light energy to a dimer of chlorophyll pigment molecules near the periplasmic (or thylakoid lumen) side of the membrane. This dimer is called a special pair because of its fundamental role in photosynthesis. This special pair is slightly different in PSI and PSII reaction center. In PSII, it absorbs photons with a wavelength of 680 nm, and it is therefore called P680. In PSI, it absorbs photons at 700 nm, and it is called P700. In bacteria, the special pair is called P760, P840, P870, or P960. Where "P" means pigment, and the number following it is the wavelength of light absorbed.
If an electron of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it cannot transfer this energy to another pigment using resonance energy transfer. In normal circumstances, the electron should return to the ground state, but, because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron can move from the initial molecule to the acceptor. This process results in the formation of a positive charge on the special pair (due to the loss of an electron) and a negative charge on the acceptor and is, hence, referred to as photoinduced charge separation. In other words, electrons in pigment molecules can exist at specific energy levels. Under normal circumstances, they exist at the lowest possible energy level they can. However, if there is enough energy to move them into the next energy level, they can absorb that energy and occupy that higher energy level. The light they absorb contains the necessary amount of energy needed to push them into the next level. Any light that does not have enough or has too much energy cannot be absorbed and is reflected. The electron in the higher energy level, however, does not want to be there; the electron is unstable and must return to its normal lower energy level. To do this, it must release the energy that has put it into the higher energy state to begin with. This can happen various ways. The extra energy can be converted into molecular motion and lost as heat. Some of the extra energy can be lost as heat energy, while the rest is lost as light. (This re-emission of light energy is called fluorescence.) The energy, but not the e- itself, can be passed onto another molecule. (This is called resonance.) The energy and the e- can be transferred to another molecule. Plant pigments usually utilize the last two of these reactions to convert the sun's energy into their own.
This initial charge separation occurs in less than 10 picoseconds (10−11 seconds). In their high-energy states, the special pigment and the acceptor could undergo charge recombination; that is, the electron on the acceptor could move back to neutralize the positive charge on the special pair. Its return to the special pair would waste a valuable high-energy electron and simply convert the absorbed light energy into heat. In the case of PSII, this backflow of electrons can produce reactive oxygen species leading to photoinhibition.[1][2] Three factors in the structure of the reaction center work together to suppress charge recombination nearly completely.
Another electron acceptor is less than 10 Å away from the first acceptor, and so the electron is rapidly transferred farther away from the special pair.
An electron donor is less than 10 Å away from the special pair, and so the positive charge is neutralized by the transfer of another electron
The electron transfer back from the electron acceptor to the positively charged special pair is especially slow. The rate of an electron transfer reaction increases with its thermodynamic favorability up to a point and then decreases. The back transfer is so favourable that it takes place in the inverted region where electron-transfer rates become slower.[1]
Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends if it has reached NADPH.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains in chloroplasts[edit]
The photosynthesis process in chloroplasts begins when an electron of P680 of PSII attains a higher-energy level. This energy is used to reduce a chain of electron acceptors that have subsequently lowered redox-potentials. This chain of electron acceptors is known as an electron transport chain. When this chain reaches PS I, an electron is again excited, creating a high redox-potential. The electron transport chain of photosynthesis is often put in a diagram called the z-scheme, because the redox diagram from P680 to P700 resembles the letter z.[3]
The final product of PSII is plastoquinol, a mobile electron carrier in the membrane. Plastoquinol transfers the electron from PSII to the proton pump, cytochrome b6f. The ultimate electron donor of PSII is water. Cytochrome b6f proceeds the electron chain to PSI through plastocyanin molecules. PSI is able to continue the electron transfer in two different ways. It can transfer the electrons either to plastoquinol again, creating a cyclic electron flow, or to an enzyme called FNR (Ferredoxin—NADP(+) reductase), creating a non-cyclic electron flow. PSI releases FNR into the stroma, where it reduces NADP+
to NADPH.
Activities of the electron transport chain, especially from cytochrome b6f, lead to pumping of protons from the stroma to the lumen. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The overall process of the photosynthetic electron transport chain in chloroplasts is:
H
2O → PS II → plastoquinone → cytb
6 → plastocyanin → PS I → NADPH
Photosystem II[edit]
Main article: Photosystem II
PS II is extremely complex, a highly organized transmembrane structure that contains a water-splitting complex, chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, a reaction center (P680), pheophytin (a pigment similar to chlorophyll), and two quinones. It uses the energy of sunlight to transfer electrons from water to a mobile electron carrier in the membrane called plastoquinone:
H
2O → P680 → P680* → plastoquinone
Plastoquinone, in turn, transfers electrons to cytb
6, which feeds them into PS I.
The water-splitting complex[edit]
The step H
2O → P680 is performed by a poorly understood structure embedded within PS II called the water-splitting complex or the oxygen-evolving complex. It catalyzes a reaction that splits water into electrons, protons and oxygen:
2H
2O → 4H+ + 4e− + O
2
The actual steps of the above reaction are running in the following way (Dolai's diagram of S-states): (I) 2H2O(monoxide) (II) OH. H2O (hydroxide) (III) H2O2(peroxide) (IV)HO2(super oxide)(V) O2(di-oxygen).[4]
The electrons are transferred to special chlorophyll molecules (embedded in PS II) that are promoted to a higher-energy state by the energy of photons.
The reaction center[edit]
The excitation P680 → P680*of the reaction center pigment P680 occurs here. These special chlorophyll molecules embedded in PS II absorb the energy of photons, with maximal absorption at 680 nm. Electrons within these molecules are promoted to a higher-energy state. This is one of two core processes in photosynthesis, and it occurs with astonishing efficiency (greater than 90%) because, in addition to direct excitation by light at 680 nm, the energy of light first harvested by antenna proteins at other wavelengths in the light-harvesting system is also transferred to these special chlorophyll molecules.
This is followed by the step P680*→ pheophytin, and then on to plastoquinone, which occurs within the reaction center of PS II. High-energy electrons are transferred to plastoquinone before it subsequently picks up two protons to become plastoquinol. Plastoquinol is then released into the membrane as a mobile electron carrier.
This is the second core process in photosynthesis. The initial stages occur within picoseconds, with an efficiency of 100%. The seemingly impossible efficiency is due to the precise positioning of molecules within the reaction center. This is a solid-state process, not a chemical reaction. It occurs within an essentially crystalline environment created by the macromolecular structure of PS II. The usual rules of chemistry (which involve random collisions and random energy distributions) do not apply in solid-state environments.
Link of water-splitting complex and chlorophyll excitation[edit]
When the chlorophyll passes the electron to pheophytin, it obtains an electron from P680*. In turn, P680* can oxidize the Z (or YZ) molecule. Once oxidized, the Z molecule can derive electrons from the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC).[5] Dolai's S-state diagrams show the reactions of water splitting in the oxygen-evolving complex.
Summary[edit]
PS II is a transmembrane structure found in all chloroplasts. It splits water into electrons, protons and molecular oxygen. The electrons are transferred to plastoquinone, which carries them to a proton pump. Molecular oxygen is released into the atmosphere.
The emergence of such an incredibly complex structure, a macromolecule that converts the energy of sunlight into potentially useful work with efficiencies that are impossible in ordinary experience, seems almost magical at first glance. Thus, it is of considerable interest that, in essence, the same structure is found in purple bacteria.
Cytochrome b
6[edit]
PS II and PS I are connected by a transmembrane proton pump, cytochrome b
6 complex (plastoquinol—plastocyanin reductase; EC 1.10.99.1). Electrons from PS II are carried by plastoquinol to cytb
6, where they are removed in a stepwise fashion (reforming plastoquinone) and transferred to a water-soluble electron carrier called plastocyanin. This redox process is coupled to the pumping of four protons across the membrane. The resulting proton gradient (together with the proton gradient produced by the water-splitting complex in PS II) is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The similarity in structure and function between cytochrome b
6 (in chloroplasts) and cytochrome bc
1 (Complex III in mitochondria) is striking. Both are transmembrane structures that remove electrons from a mobile, lipid-soluble electron carrier (plastoquinone in chloroplasts; ubiquinone in mitochondria) and transfer them to a mobile, water-soluble electron carrier (plastocyanin in chloroplasts; cytochrome c in mitochondria). Both are proton pumps that produce a transmembrane proton gradient.
Photosystem I[edit]
The cyclic light-dependent reactions occur only when the sole photosystem being used is photosystem I. Photosystem I excites electrons which then cycle from the transport protein, ferredoxin (Fd), to the cytochrome complex, b6f, to another transport protein, plastocyanin (Pc), and back to photosystem I. A proton gradient is created across the thylakoid membrane (6) as protons (3) are transported from the chloroplast stroma (4) to the thylakoid lumen (5). Through chemiosmosis, ATP (9) is produced where ATP synthase (1) binds an inorganic phosphate group (8) to an ADP molecule (7).
Main article: Photosystem I
PS I accepts electrons from plastocyanin and transfers them either to NADPH (noncyclic electron transport) or back to cytochrome b
6 (cyclic electron transport):
                        plastocyanin → P700 → P700* → FNR → NADPH ↑ ↓ b
6 ← plastoquinone

PS I, like PS II, is a complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains antenna chlorophylls, a reaction center (P700), phylloquinine, and a number of iron-sulfur proteins that serve as intermediate redox carriers.
The light-harvesting system of PS I uses multiple copies of the same transmembrane proteins used by PS II. The energy of absorbed light (in the form of delocalized, high-energy electrons) is funneled into the reaction center, where it excites special chlorophyll molecules (P700, maximum light absorption at 700 nm) to a higher energy level. The process occurs with astonishingly high efficiency.
Electrons are removed from excited chlorophyll molecules and transferred through a series of intermediate carriers to ferredoxin, a water-soluble electron carrier. As in PS II, this is a solid-state process that operates with 100% efficiency.
There are two different pathways of electron transport in PS I. In noncyclic electron transport, ferredoxin carries the electron to the enzyme ferredoxin NADP+
reductase (FNR) that reduces NADP+
to NADPH. In cyclic electron transport, electrons from ferredoxin are transferred (via plastoquinone) to a proton pump, cytochrome b
6. They are then returned (via plastocyanin) to P700.
NADPH and ATP are used to synthesize organic molecules from CO
2. The ratio of NADPH to ATP production can be adjusted by adjusting the balance between cyclic and noncyclic electron transport.
It is noteworthy that PS I closely resembles photosynthetic structures found in green sulfur bacteria, just as PS II resembles structures found in purple bacteria.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains in bacteria[edit]
PS II, PS I, and cytochromeb
6 are found in chloroplasts. All plants and all photosynthetic algae contain chloroplasts, which produce NADPH and ATP by the mechanisms described above. In essence, the same transmembrane structures are also found in cyanobacteria.
Unlike plants and algae, cyanobacteria are prokaryotes. They do not contain chloroplasts. Rather, they bear a striking resemblance to chloroplasts themselves. This suggests that organisms resembling cyanobacteria were the evolutionary precursors of chloroplasts. One imagines primitive eukaryotic cells taking up cyanobacteria as intracellular symbionts in a process known as endosymbiosis.
Cyanobacteria[edit]
Cyanobacteria contain structures similar to PS II and PS I in chloroplasts. Their light-harvesting system is different from that found in plants (they use phycobilins, rather than chlorophylls, as antenna pigments), but their electron transport chain
         H
2O → PS II → plastoquinone → b
6 → cytochrome c
6 → PS I → ferredoxin → NADPH ↑ ↓ b
6 ← plastoquinone

is, in essence, the same as the electron transport chain in chloroplasts. The mobile water-soluble electron carrier is cytochrome c
6 in cyanobacteria, plastocyanin in plants.
Cyanobacteria can also synthesize ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, in the manner of other bacteria. The electron transport chain is
           NADH dehydrogenase → plastoquinone → b
6 → cytochrome c
6 → cytochrome aa
3 → O
2

where the mobile electron carriers are plastoquinone and cytochrome c
6, while the proton pumps are NADH dehydrogenase, b
6 and cytochrome aa
3.
Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Earth's primordial atmosphere was anoxic. Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present-day oxygen-containing atmosphere.
The other two major groups of photosynthetic bacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, contain only a single photosystem and do not produce oxygen.
Purple bacteria[edit]
Purple bacteria contain a single photosystem that is structurally related to PS II in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts:
P870 → P870* → ubiquinone → bc
1 → cytochrome c
2 → P870
This is a cyclic process in which electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule (bacteriochlorophyll; P870), passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump (cytochrome bc
1 complex, similar but not identical to cytochrome bc
1 in chloroplasts), and then returned to the chlorophyll molecule. The result is a proton gradient, which is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. As in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts, this is a solid-state process that depends on the precise orientation of various functional groups within a complex transmembrane macromolecular structure.
To make NADPH, purple bacteria use an external electron donor (hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, sulfite, or organic molecules such as succinate and lactate) to feed electrons into a reverse electron transport chain.
Green sulfur bacteria[edit]
Green sulfur bacteria contain a photosystem that is analogous to PS I in chloroplasts:
                           P840 → P840* → ferredoxin → NADH ↑ ↓ cyt c553 ← bc
1 ← menaquinone

There are two pathways of electron transfer. In cyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule, passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump, and then returned to the chlorophyll. The mobile electron carriers are, as usual, a lipid-soluble quinone and a water-soluble cytochrome. The resulting proton gradient is used to make ATP.
In noncyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule and used to reduce NAD+ to NADH. The electrons removed from P840 must be replaced. This is accomplished by removing electrons from H
2S, which is oxidized to sulfur (hence the name "green sulfur bacteria").
Purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria occupy relatively minor ecological niches in the present day biosphere. They are of interest because of their importance in precambrian ecologies, and because their methods of photosynthesis were the likely evolutionary precursors of those in modern plants.
History[edit]
The first ideas about light being used in photosynthesis were proposed by Colin Flannery in 1779[6] who recognized it was sunlight falling on plants that was required, although Joseph Priestley had noted the production of oxygen without the association with light in 1772.[7] Cornelis Van Niel proposed in 1931 that photosynthesis is a case of general mechanism where a photon of light is used to photo decompose a hydrogen donor and the hydrogen being used to reduce CO
2.[8] Then in 1939, Robin Hill showed that isolated chloroplasts would make oxygen, but not fix CO
2 showing the light and dark reactions occurred in different places. Although they are referred to as light and dark reactions, both of them take place only in the presence of light.[9] This led later to the discovery of photosystems I and II.
See also[edit]
Light-independent reaction
Photosynthetic reaction centre
Photosystem II
Compensation point
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Vass, Imre; Cser, Krisztian (April 2009). "Janus-faced charge recombinations in photosystem II photoinhibition". Trends in Plant Science. 14 (4): 200–205. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2009.01.009. ISSN 1360-1385. PMID 19303349. Retrieved 2012-10-30.
Jump up ^ Keren, Nir; Berg, Alexander; van Kan, Paul J. M.; Levanon, Haim; Ohad, Itzhak (1997-02-18). "Mechanism of photosystem II photoinactivation and D1 protein degradation at low light: The role of back electron flow". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 94 (4): 1579–1584. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.4.1579. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 19834  . PMID 11038602. Retrieved 2012-10-30.
Jump up ^ Rajni Govindjee. "The Z-Scheme Diagram of Photosynthesis". Retrieved March 2, 2006.
Jump up ^ Dolai, U. (2017). "Chemical Scheme of Water -Splitting Process during Photosynthesis by the way of Experimental Analysis ". IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 12(6):65-67. doi: 10.9790/3008-1206026567. ISSN 2319-7676.
Jump up ^ "Photosynthesis". McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 2007. p. 472.
Jump up ^ Ingenhousz, J (1779). Experiments Upon Vegetables. London: Elmsly and Payne.
Jump up ^ Priestley, J (1772). "Observations on Different Kinds of Air". 62. London: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.: 147–264. doi:10.1098/rstl.1772.0021.
Jump up ^ van Niel, C. B. (1931). "On the morphology and physiology of the purple and green sulfur bacteria". Arch. Microbiol. 3: 1–114. doi:10.1007/BF00454965.
Jump up ^ Hill, R. (May 1939). "Oxygen Produced by Isolated Chloroplasts". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 127 (847): 192–210. doi:10.1098/rspb.1939.0017.
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Ten-digit dialing
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In the United States and Canada, ten-digit dialing is the practice of including the area code of a telephone number when dialing to initiate a telephone call. When necessary, a ten-digit number may be prefixed with the trunk code 1, which is often referred to as 11-digit dialing or national format.
Contents
[hide]
1 Traditional dialing procedures
2 Overlay plans
3 See also
4 References
Traditional dialing procedures[edit]
After the implementation of the North American Numbering Plan, placing a local call within the caller's area code involved only seven-digit dialing. Callers dialed only the central office code (three digits) and the four-digit station number of the telephone subscriber to reach. For example, a person at a station with the telephone number 212-555-7890 called the number 212-555-3456 by dialing 555-3456.
In seven-digit dialing the area code is only dialed when the area code of the called number is different than that of the calling number. Some communities on an area code boundary, such as Ottawa-Hull (613/819), Kansas City MO/KS (816/913) or Washington, D.C. (202) implemented central office code protection to ensure the same seven-digit local number was not assigned in two different area codes in the same city to retain seven-digit dialing in the entire community. Code protection is not possible for calls across area code boundaries within split plan cities where area codes have been added due to a shortage of available local numbers; these local calls became ten digits when the code was split.[citation needed]
The phone system often requires the caller to dial 1 first as a trunk prefix before the area code and number, to indicate to the phone system that the call requires a connection to another area. "1" is also the country code for the North American Numbering Plan, and therefore must likewise be dialed before the area code for international calls made to NANP countries.
It used to be that a call to a different area code was a long-distance call, with rare exceptions where a city falls on an area code boundary, but the significant growth in the number of area codes, and the shrinking of the numbering plan areas since that time have invalidated this assumption.[citation needed]
In Canada and some regions of the United States, placing a landline call with "1" before an area code where the outgoing call is in the same service area results in an automated recording indicating that the call being made is local. The toll prefix is not necessary, even if the area codes are different. This is common in areas where overlays are being used. Landline providers have warned that dialing "1" when it is unnecessary could result in long distance charges being made even when they otherwise would not have been charged.
Cellular telephones have always accepted ten-digit dialing, even where a call is seven-digit local.[citation needed]
Overlay plans[edit]
The introduction of overlay plans as a means to reduce the need for phone numbers to change as a result of adding new area codes meant that one geographic area could be associated with more than one area code. This is disadvantageous to new service providers as existing providers can issue numbers in the familiar area code.
In response to pressure from carriers, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) have imposed 10-digit dialling for all local calls (even within the same area code) in the overlaid areas. The requirement has no technical basis, but carriers expected it would reduce objections from new subscribers assigned the less-desirable overlay code by inconveniencing everyone equally. Consumer groups and state regulators (the Illinois Commerce Commission and Citizens Utility Board for northwest Chicago, the NYS Public Service Commission in NYC) pushed back against the requirement with attempts at litigation, to no avail.[1][2][3] The requirement is unenforceable against PBX vendors and voice over IP operators as the dial plan is controlled by subscriber-owned equipment, which can be configured to send seven-digit calls to the original area code. It has also failed to stop a pattern of some subscribers paying third-party resellers an artificially-high price for a number in a desirable original area code like Manhattan's 212[4][5] or Toronto's 416.[6][7] A business which advertises a main number in a random overlay which did not exist at the turn of the millennium marks itself as a newcomer, or even as someone doing business from a mobile telephone, placing it at a disadvantage against long-established local competitors who first opened their doors in an era when there was just one telephone company and one area code.
The "1" before the area code is most often required only for actual long distance calls. Some phone systems in early overlay plan areas still do not accept a "1" before the area code for non-long-distance calls; all Canadian landlines follow this pattern. However, in the three largest US markets (New York City, Los Angeles and Chicago), the initial "1" is required even for local calls. All cellphones in North America ignore this and only require the user to dial 10 digits.[8]
The added dialing requirement, coupled with the need to remember which of the area's coincident area codes applied to a seven-digit local number, damaged the popularity of overlay plans, which themselves were introduced as a means to reduce the inconveniences associated with the traditional split plans.
As overlay plans have spread to more areas, 10-digit dialing in the U.S. and Canada is becoming increasingly common. However, most areas not within an overlay plan can still use 7-digit dialing for local calls, although long distance calls within the area code may have required ten or eleven digits. Eleven digits for toll calls became standard in all of North America by the end of 1994 to allow introduction of "interchangeable NPA codes" – area codes that did not have a 0 or 1 as the middle digit and could therefore be confused with the central office code – after January 1, 1995.
A few areas that are not within an overlay plan nonetheless require 10-digit dialing if part of the local calling area is served by an overlay plan. One example of such an area is the Fort Knox Army base in Kentucky. The base itself is served by area code 502, which is not yet subject to an overlay plan, but its local calling area includes cities that are now served by the 270/364 overlay complex. As a result, Fort Knox imposed 10-digit dialing for all off-base numbers when the 270/364 overlay was established in 2014.[9]
See also[edit]
List of country calling codes
Telephone numbering plan
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 10- or 11-Digit Local Call Fosters Anxiety and Shrugs". NY Times. 23 January 2003.
Jump up ^ "Days are numbered for 7-digit dialing". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ "11-digit dialing due for everyone". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ Span, Paula (1999-07-06). "Six-What? New Area Code Lacks the Status of 212". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-27.
Jump up ^ Kugel, Seth (2005-03-20). "The 212 Cachet: Now Available on Cellphones". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-27.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Laura (23 July 2014). "Toronto's 416 area codes selling for hundreds, even thousands". Toronto Star. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Carey Marsden (24 July 2014). "416: People spending a lot of money to get original Toronto area code". CIII-TV ("Global News"). Retrieved 24 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dialing Instructions". Verizon.
Jump up ^ "Ten-digit dialing takes effect Feb. 1 for all local callers" (Press release). Brandenburg Telephone. January 9, 2014. Retrieved May 22, 2015.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ten-digit_dialing&oldid=810763024"
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