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Rain shadow
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For the Australian television series, see Rain Shadow (TV series).
An example of a rain shadow.
A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area (away from the wind). The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them. Wind and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top. The air, without much moisture left, advances across the mountains creating a drier side called the "rain shadow".
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Regions of notable rain shadow
2.1 Asia
2.1.1 Middle East
2.2 South America
2.3 North America
2.4 Europe
2.5 Africa
2.6 Oceania
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Description[edit]
The condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range. As atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point (which is not the same as its constant pressure dew point commonly reported in weather forecasts). At the adiabatic dew point, moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top and windward sides of the mountain. The air descends on the leeward side, but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture. Typically, descending air also gets warmer because of adiabatic compression (see Foehn winds) down the leeward side of the mountain, which increases the amount of moisture that it can absorb and creates an arid region.[1]
Regions of notable rain shadow[edit]
The Tibetan Plateau (top), perhaps the best example of a rain shadow. Rain does not make it past the Himalayas, leading to an arid climate on the leeward side of the mountain range.
There are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in bands round the Earth's equatorial region. The zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30° N and 30° S, blowing predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, blowing predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the Roaring Forties between 30 and 50 degrees latitude.[citation needed]
Examples of notable rain shadowing include:
Asia[edit]
The Agasthiyamalai hills cut off Tirunelveli (India) from the monsoons, creating a rainshadow region
The peaks of the Caucasus Mountains to the west and Hindukush and Pamir to the east rain shadow the Karakum and Kyzyl Kum deserts east of the Caspian Sea, as well as the semi-arid Kazakh Steppe.
The Dasht-i-Lut in Iran is in the rain shadow of the Elburz and Zagros Mountains and is one of the most lifeless areas on Earth.
The Himalaya and connecting ranges also contribute to arid conditions in Central Asia including Mongolia's Gobi desert, as well as the semi-arid steppes of Mongolia and north-central to north western China.
The Ordos Desert is rain shadowed by mountain chains including the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheitenula, and the Yin Mountains, which link on to the south end of the Great Khingan Mountains.
The Thar desert is bounded and rain shadowed by the Aravalli ranges to the south-east, the Himalaya to the northeast, and the Kirthar and Sulaiman ranges to the west.
Eastern Side of Sahyadri ranges on Deccan e.g. Northern Karnataka & Solapur, Beed, Osmanabad, Vidharba Plateau and eastern side of Kerala (in Tamil Nadu) India.
The central region of Myanmar is in the rain shadow of the Arakan Mountains and is almost semi-arid with only 750 millimetres (30 in) of rain as against as much as 5.5 metres (220 in) on the Rakhine State coast.
The Tokyo, Japan plain ("Kanto plain") in the winter months experiences significantly less precipitation than the rest of the country by virtue of surrounding mountain ranges, including the "Japan Alps", blocking prevailing northwesterly winds originating in Siberia.
Middle East[edit]
The High Peaks of Mount Lebanon rain-shadow the northern parts of the Beqaa Valley and Anti-Lebanon mountains.
The Judaean Desert, the Dead Sea and the western slopes of the Moab Mountains on the opposite (Jordanian) side are rain-shadowed by the Judaean Hills.
South America[edit]
The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest non-polar desert on Earth because it is blocked from moisture on both sides (the Andes Mountains to the east block moist Amazon basin air and high pressure over the Pacific and cold ocean currents stop rain from coming in from the west).
Cuyo and Eastern Patagonia is rain shadowed from the prevailing westerly winds by the Andes range and is arid. The aridity of the lands next to eastern piedmont of the Andes decreases to the south due to a decrease in the height of the Andes with the consequence that the Patagonian Desert develop more fully at the Atlantic coast contributing to shaping the climatic pattern known as the Arid Diagonal.[2] The Argentinian wine region of Cuyo and Northern Patagonia is almost completely dependent on irrigation, using water drawn from the many rivers that drain glacial ice from the Andes.
The Guajira Peninsula in northern Colombia is in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and despite its tropical latitude is almost arid, receiving almost no rainfall for seven to eight months of the year and being incapable of cultivation without irrigation.
North America[edit]
On the largest scale, the entirety of the North American Interior Plains are shielded from the prevailing Westerlies carrying moist Pacific weather by the North American Cordillera. More pronounced effects are observed, however, in particular valley regions within the Cordillera, in the direct lee of specific mountain ranges. Most rainshadows in the western United States are due to the Sierra Nevada and Cascades.[3]
Champlain Valley in upstate New York. It is protected by the Adirondack Mountains.
The deserts of the Basin and Range Province in the United States and Mexico, which includes the dry areas east of the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and Washington and the Great Basin, which covers almost all of Nevada and parts of Utah are rain shadowed. The Cascades also cause rain shadowed Columbia Basin area of Eastern Washington and valleys in British Columbia, Canada - most notably the Thompson and Nicola Valleys which can receive less than 10 inches of rain in parts, and the Okanagan Valley (particularly the south, nearest to the US border) which receives anywhere from 12-17 inches of rain annually.[4][5]
Hawaii also has rain shadows, with some areas being desert.[6] Orographic lifting produces the world's second-highest annual precipitation record, 12.7 meters (500 inches), on the island of Kauai; the leeward side is understandably rain-shadowed.[1] The entire island of Kahoolawe lies in the rain shadow of Maui's East Maui Volcano.
The east slopes of the Coast Ranges in central and southern California also cut off the southern San Joaquin Valley from enough precipitation to ensure desert-like conditions in areas around Bakersfield.
San Jose, California and adjacent cities are usually drier than the rest of the San Francisco Bay Area because of the rain shadow cast by the highest part of the Santa Cruz Mountains.
The Dungeness Valley around Sequim, Washington lies in the rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains. The area averages 10–15 inches of rain per year, less than half of the amount received in nearby Port Angeles and approximately 10% of that which falls in Forks on the western side of the mountains. To a lesser extent, this rain shadow extends to other parts of the eastern Olympic Peninsula, Whidbey Island, and parts of the San Juan Islands and southeastern Vancouver Island around Victoria, British Columbia.
The Mojave, Black Rock, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan deserts all are in regions which are rain shadowed.
The Owens Valley in the United States, behind the Sierra Nevada range in California.
The aptly named Death Valley in the United States, behind both the Pacific Coast Ranges of California and the Sierra Nevada range, is the driest place in North America and one of the driest places on the planet. This is also due to its location well below sea level which tends to cause high pressure and dry conditions to dominate due to the greater weight of the atmosphere above.
The Colorado Front Range is limited to precipitation that crosses over the Continental Divide. While many locations west of the Divide may receive as much as 40 inches (1,000 mm) of precipitation per year, some places on the eastern side, notably the cities of Denver and Pueblo, Colorado, typically receive only about 12 to 19 inches. Thus, the Continental Divide acts as a barrier for precipitation. This effect applies only to storms traveling west-to-east. When low pressure systems skirt the Rocky Mountains and approach from the south, they can generate high precipitation on the eastern side and little or none on the western slope.
The Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, wedged between the Appalachian Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains and partially shielded from moisture from the west and southeast, is much drier than the very humid remainder of Virginia and the American Southeast.[7]
Yellowknife, the capital and most populous city in the Northwest Territories of Canada, is located in the rain shadow of the mountain ranges to the west of the city.
On the islands of Hispaniola, Cuba and Jamaica, the southwestern sides are in the rain shadow of the trade winds and can receive as little as 400 millimetres (16 in) per year as against over 2,000 millimetres (79 in) on the northeastern, windward sides and over 5,000 millimetres (200 in) over some highland areas.
Europe[edit]
The Pennines of Northern England, Welsh mountains, Lake District and Highlands of Scotland create a rain shadow that includes most of the eastern United Kingdom, due to the prevailing south-westerly winds. Manchester and Glasgow, for example, receive around double the rainfall of Sheffield and Edinburgh respectively (although there are no mountains between Edinburgh and Glasgow). The contrast is even stronger further north, where Aberdeen gets around a third of the rainfall of Fort William or Skye. The Fens of East Anglia receive similar rainfall amounts to Seville.[8]
The Cantabrian Mountains form a sharp divide between "Green Spain" to the north and the dry central plateau. The northern-facing slopes receive heavy rainfall from the Bay of Biscay, but the southern slopes are in rain shadow. The most evident effect on the Iberian Peninsula occurs in the Almería, Murcia and Alicante areas, each with an average rainfall of 300 mm, which are the driest spots in Europe (see Cabo de Gata) mostly a result of the mountain range running through their western side, which blocks the westerlies.
Some valleys in the inner Alps are also strongly rainshadowed by the high surrounding mountains: the areas of Gap and Briançon in France, the district of Zernez in Switzerland.
The eastern part of the Pyrenean mountains in the south of France (Cerdagne).
The Plains of Limagne and Forez in the northern Massif Central, France, are also relatively rainshadowed (mostly the plain of Limagne, shadowed by the Chaîne des Puys (up to 2000 mm of rain a year on the summits and below 600mm at Clermont-Ferrand, which is one of the driest places in the country).
The Piedmont wine region of northern Italy is rainshadowed by the mountains that surround it on nearly every side: Asti receives only 527 mm of precipitation per year, making it one of the driest places in mainland Italy.[9]
The valley of the Vardar River and south from Skopje to Athens is in the rain shadow of the Prokletije and Pindus Mountains. On its windward side the Prokletije has the highest rainfall in Europe at around 5,000 millimetres (200 in) with small glaciers even at mean annual temperatures well above 0 °C (32 °F), but the leeward side receives as little as 400 millimetres (16 in).
The Scandinavian Mountains create a rain shadow for lowland areas east of the mountain chain and prevents the Oceanic climate from penetrating further east; thus Bergen, west of the mountains, receives 2,250 mm precipitation annually while Oslo receives only 760 mm, and Skjåk, a municipality situated in a deep valley, receives only 280 mm.
Africa[edit]
The windward side of the island of Madagascar, which sees easterly on-shore winds, is wet tropical, while the western and southern sides of the island lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands and are home to thorn forests and deserts. The same is true for the island of Réunion. On Tristan da Cunha, Sandy Point on the east coast is warmer and drier than the rainy, windswept settlement of Edinburgh in the west.
In Western Cape Province, the Breede River Valley and the Karoo lie in the rain shadow of the Cape Fold Mountains and are arid; whereas the wettest parts of the Cape Mountains can receive 1,500 millimetres (59 in), Worcester receives only around 200 millimetres (8 in) and is useful only for grazing.
The Sahara Desert is made even drier because of two strong rain shadow effects caused by some major mountains ranges (whose highest points can culminate to more than 4,000 meters high). To the northwest, the Atlas Mountains, covering the Mediterranean coast for Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia as well as to the southeast with the Ethiopian Highlands, located in Ethiopia around the Horn of Africa. On the windward side of the Atlas Mountains, the warm, moist winds blowing from the northwest off the Atlantic Ocean which contain a lot of water vapor are forced to rise, lift up and expand over the mountain range. This causes them to cool down, which causes an excess of moisture to condense into high clouds and results in heavy precipitation over the mountain range. This is known as orographic rainfall and after this process, the air is dry because it has lost most of its moisture over the Atlas Mountains. On the leeward side, the cold, dry air starts to descend and to sink and compress, making the winds warm up. This warming causes the moisture to evaporate, making clouds disappear. This prevents rainfall formation and creates desert conditions in the Sahara. The same phenomenon occurs in the Ethiopian Highlands, but this rain shadow effect is even more pronounced because this mountain range is larger, with the tropical Monsoon of South Asia coming from the Indian Ocean and from the Arabian Sea. These produce clouds and rainfall on the windward side of the mountains, but the leeward side stays rain shadowed and extremely dry. This second extreme rain shadow effect partially explains the extreme aridity of the eastern Sahara Desert, which is the driest and the sunniest place on the planet. Similar levels of aridity and dryness are only seen in the Atacama Desert, located in Chile and Peru.
Desert regions in the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti) such as the Danakil Desert are all influenced by the air heating and drying produced by rain shadow effect of the Ethiopian Highlands, too.
Oceania[edit]
New Caledonia lies astride the Tropic of Capricorn, between 19° and 23° south latitude. The climate of the islands is tropical, and rainfall is brought by trade winds from the east. The western side of the Grande Terre lies in the rain shadow of the central mountains, and rainfall averages are significantly lower.
In the South Island of New Zealand is to be found one of the most remarkable rain shadows anywhere on Earth. The Southern Alps intercept moisture coming off the Tasman Sea, precipitating about 6,300 mm (250 in) to 8,900 mm (350 in) liquid water equivalent per year and creating large glaciers. To the east of the Southern Alps, scarcely 50 km (30 mi) from the snowy peaks, yearly rainfall drops to less than 760 mm (30 in) and some areas less than 380 mm (15 in). (see Nor'west arch for more on this subject).
In Tasmania, one of the states of Australia, the central Midlands region is in a strong rain shadow and receives only about a fifth as much rainfall as the highlands to the west.
In New South Wales and Victoria (both states of Australia), the Monaro is shielded by both the Snowy Mountains to the northwest and coastal ranges to the southeast. Consequently, parts of it are as dry as the wheat-growing lands of those states.
Also in Victoria, the western side of Port Phillip Bay is in the rain shadow of the Otway Ranges. The area between Geelong and Werribee is the driest part of southern Victoria: the crest of the Otway Ranges receives 2,000 millimetres (79 in) of rain per year and has myrtle beech rainforests much further west than anywhere else, whilst the area around Little River receives as little as 425 millimetres (16.7 in) annually, which is as little as Nhill or Longreach and supports only grassland.
Western Australia's Wheatbelt and Great Southern regions are shielded by the Darling Range to the west: Mandurah, near the coast, receives about 700 millimetres (28 in) annually. Dwellingup, 40 km inland and in the heart of the ranges, receives over 1,000 millimetres (39 in) a year while Narrogin, 130 km further east, receives less than 500 millimetres (20 in) a year.
See also[edit]
Orographic precipitation
Foehn wind
Lake-effect snow
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Whiteman, C. David (2000). Mountain Meteorology: Fundamentals and Applications. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513271-8.
Jump up ^ Bruniard, Enrique D. (1982). "La diagonal árida Argentina: un límite climático real". Revista Geográfica (in Spanish): 5–20. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "How mountains influence rainfall patterns". USA Today. 2007-11-01. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Westerlies". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-04-15.
Jump up ^ Sue Ferguson (2001-09-07). "Climatology of the Interior Columbia River Basin" (PDF). Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
Jump up ^ Giambelluca, Tom; Sanderson, Marie (1993). Prevailing Trade Winds: Climate and Weather in Hawaií. University of Hawaii Press. p. 62.
Jump up ^ http://www.cocorahs.org/Media/docs/ClimateSum_VA.pdf
Jump up ^ "UK Rainfall averages".
Jump up ^ "Asti weather". weatherbase.com.
External links[edit]
USA Today on rain shadows
Weather pages on rain shadows
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rain_shadow&oldid=809975455"
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Mechanical joint
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A mechanical joint is a section of a machine which is used to connect one mechanical part to another. Mechanical joints may be temporary or permanent, most types are designed to be disassembled. Most mechanical joints are designed to allow relative movement of these mechanical parts of the machine in one degree of freedom (insert LINK), and restrict movement in one or more others. Mechanical joints are much cheaper and are usually bought ready assembled.[1] (please add other joints like: U-joint, ball joint, prismatic joint)
Contents
[hide]
1 Knuckle joint
1.1 Design of knuckle joint
2 Turnbuckle
2.1 Design of turnbuckle
3 Pin joint
4 Cotter joint
5 Bolted joint
6 Screw joint
7 References
Knuckle joint[edit]
Main article: Knuckle joint (mechanical)
A knuckle joint is used to connect the two rods which are under the tensile load, when there is requirement of small amount of flexibility or angular moment is necessary. There is always axial or linear line of action of load.
The knuckle joint assembly consist of following major components:
1.Single eye.
2.Double eye or fork
3.Knuckle pin.
At one end of the rod the single eye is formed and double eye is formed at the other end of the rod.Both, single and double eye are connected by a pin inserted through eye.The pin has a head at one end and at other end there is a taper pin or split pin. For gripping purpose the ends of the rod are of octagonal forms.Now, when the two eyes are pulled apart, the pin holds them together .The solid rod portion of the joint in this case is much stronger than the portion through which the pin passes.[2]

The modes of failure are:
1.Shear failure of pin (single shear).
2.Crushing of pin against rod.
3.Tensile failure of flat end bar.
Application:
1.Tie rod joint of roof truss.
2.Tension link in bridge structure.
3.Link of roller chain.
4.Tie rod joint of jib crane.
5.The knuckle joint is also used in tractor.[3]
Design of knuckle joint[edit]
[2]
The assembly diagram of knuckle joint is as shown in fig.
The dimension of knuckle joints are
Diameter of rod = d
Diameter of knuckle pin = dp
Outside diameter of single eye = doe
Outside diameter of double eye = dod
Thickness of single eye = t
Thickness of fork = t1
Axial tensile force on rod = P
(1) Diameter of rod
Consider the rod is subjected to a direct tensile stress
ς = P /πd2
From above equation, diameter of rod 'd' is obtained.
(2) Design of pin (dp)
(a) Consider the failure of pin under double shear due to tensile force.
Therefore, direct shear stress induced in knuckle pin is given by Equation
ς= P/ 2A = (P/2) / (π/4)dp2 = 2P/ πdp2
(b) Failure of knuckle pin in bending
Assume there is no clearance or slack but in actual, knuckle pin is loose in forks to permit angular moment of one with respect to other, so it is subjected to bending moment in addition to shear, consider uniformly distributed load along the portion of pin.
Taking moment about axis XX
M = [(-P/2) × (t/4)] + { (P/2) × [ (t/2)+(t1/3) ] }
= P/2 [(t1/3)+(t/2)-(t/4) ]
=P/2 [ (t1/3)+(t/4) ]
Section modulus,
Z=(π/ 32)dp3
Maximum bending stress, σb
σb= M/Z = { P/2 [(t1/3)+(t/4)] } / {(π/ 32)dp3}
Here,we check the pin in bending and find the value of dp
(3) Design of single eye :
(a) To find the outside diameter of single eye (doe) The single eye is subjected to a direct tensile stress, due to this single eye under tear.
σt = P/A = P/ (doe-dp)× t
(b) Due to direct tensile strength, the single eye is subjected to double shear.
Resisting shearing area = 2(doe-dp)×(t/2)
The direct shear stress induced is
ς=P/(doe-dp)×t
From this equation the outside diameter of single eye doe is obtained.
(C) Failure of single eye or pin due to tensile load in crushing
Resisting crushing area = dp × t
σc = P/(dp×t)
Form this equation crushing stress checked if fail, increase the thickness of eye (t).
(4) Design of fork (double eye):
(a) The tearing of the double eye at weakest section due to tension
Area resisting tear = (dof – dp) × 2 t1
σt = p/ [(dof – dp) × 2 t1]
From this equation, find the outside diameter of fork (dof).
(b) Failure of double eye (fork) in double shear due to tensile load.
Area resisting shear = 4 × [(dof – dp) ]/2 × t1
= 2 × (dof – dp) t1
The shear stress is given by,
ς = p/[(dof – dp) × 2 t1]
From this equation, check shear stress if less than design, increase thickness of fork t1.
(c) Failure double eye in crushing (thickness of fork)
Double eye may fail in crushing due to tensile load
The crushing stress is given by,
σc = P/( 2×dp ×t1)
Check crushing stress or find t1
Turnbuckle[edit]
Main article: Turnbuckle
The buckle or a coupler is a mechanical joint used to connect two members which are subjected to tensile loading which require slight adjustment of length or tension under loaded conditions. It consist of central hexagonal nut called coupler and tie rod having right hand and left hand threads. A coupler of hexagonal shape is to facilitate the turning of it with a spanner or sometime a hole is provide in the nut so that tommy bar can be inserted for rotating it. As coupler rotate, the tie rod are either pulled together or pushed apart depending upon the direction of the rotation coupler normally the tie rods are made of steel, while coupler is made of steel or C.I.
Application :
1. To tighten the members of the roof truss.
2. Used to connect link in a mechanism to transfer motion
3. Used between the two railway wagon or bogies.
4. To tighten the cable or stay ropes of electric distribution poles.
Design of turnbuckle[edit]
[4]
Consider a turnbuckle, subjected to an axial tensile force P. The various dimensions of the turnbuckle are calculated as follows:
(1) Diameter of tie rod ‘dc2 :
Due to axial tensile load p, the rod is subjected to tensile stress. Also due to twisting moment in the tie rod.
The tie rod is design for direct tensile load of Pd=1.25P
The tensile stress induced in tie rod is given by
σt = 4Pd/ (π×dc×dc)
From above equation the core diameter of the tie rod is obtained. The nominal diameter can be selected from I.S.O metric screw threads table or it can be found by,
do = dc/ 0.84
(2) Length of couple nut (ln) :
Consider the direct shearing of the thread at the root of the coupler nut and the screw.
(a) The direct shear stress induced in screw thread is
ςs = P/(π×dc×ln)
(b) The direct shear stress induced in nut
ςn = P/ (π×do×ln)
Where,
ςs and ςn = shear stress in screw and nut respectively in N/mm2
do = Nominal diameter of the screw
dc = Core diameter of the screw
ln = Length of the coupler nut
(c) Check of crushing of the thread
crushing resistance of the thread = (π/4) × [do2- dc2] ×n×ln× σc
Where,
n = number of threads per length = ln/p
σc = crushing stress induced in the coupler
p = pitch of the thread in mm
Equating the design load with crushing resistance
pd = (π/4) × [do2- dc2] ×n×ln× σc
(3) Outside diameter of the coupler nut (D) :
The coupler nut is subjected to a direct tensile load P and a torque T.
Consider tearing of the coupler nut due to tensile stress induced in it. In order to account for the torque, the tensile load is taken as Pd.
The tensile stress induced in coupler nut is given by
σt = 4P/(π×(D2- do2))
By empirical relation, the outside diameter of the coupler nut D is taken as
D = 1.25 do or 1.5 do
(4) Outside diameter of coupler (D2):
Let,D1= Inside diameter of the coupler
D2 = Outside diameter of the coupler
Consider a coupler is subjected to direct tensile load P and a torque T.So for design the coupler outside diameter, the design load is consider.
By empirical relation,
The outside diameter of the coupler D2 is taken as,
D2 = 1.5do or 1.75 do
(5) Length of the coupler nut (Ln)
Ln = 6 do
(6) Thickness of the coupler = t = 0.75 do
(7)Thickness of the coupler nut = t1 = 0.5 do
Pin joint[edit]
Main article: Revolute joint
Cotter joint[edit]
Main article: Cotter (pin)
This is used to connect rigidly two rods which transmit motion in the axial direction, without rotation. These joints may be subjected to tensile or compressive forces along the axes of the rods.
Bolted joint[edit]
Main article: Bolted joint
Screw joint[edit]
Main article: Screw joint
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Blake, Alexander (1985). Design of mechanical joints. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-7351-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Gupta, R.S. Khurmi, J.K. (2008). A textbook of machine design (S.I. units) : [a textbook for the students of B.E. / B.Tech., U.P.S.C. (Engg. Services); Section 'B' of A.M.I.E. (1)] (14th ed.). Ram Nagar, New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House. ISBN 81-219-2537-1.
Jump up ^ Bhandari, V.B. (2001). Introduction to machine design. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-043449-3.
Jump up ^ https://www.scribd.com/doc/27822626/Design-of-Turnbuckle. "Design-of-Turnbuckle". Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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Viraj
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This article is about a Sanskrit word. For the legendary realm in Slavonic mythology, see Vyraj.
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Viraj, this word in Sanskrit language, indicates sovereignty, excellence or splendour. Viraj is the mythical primeval being associated with creation who is often personified as the secondary creator.[1]
Viraj is born from Purusha and Purusha in turn is born from Viraj. In the Atharvaveda, Viraj is a cow or with Prana, the life-breath. In the Mahabharata Viraj is the name of the primeval being, Purusha, identified with Vishnu and Shiva. Manu Smriti 1.32 states that Brahma divided his body into two, one male and the other female, from the female was born Viraj who produced Svayambhuva Manu who created the ten Prajapatis. According to the Bhavishya Purana – the male was Manu and the female was Shatarupa, creation commenced with the union of Viraj and Shatrupa. In the Vedanta, Viraj is identified with supreme intellect. Viraj is also the name of a metre.[2]
Viraj is identified by Atharvaveda – 4.11.7 with Indra, Agni, Prajapati and Parameshtin (A.V.iv.11.7); with Devata, Vishnu, Savitr, Rudra, Brahmachari, Water and the world (A.V.viii.5.10), with controlling Indra (A.V.xi.5.16), with the immortal wide spreading ruling power (A.V.vii.84.1), with first and creative principle (A.V.viii.9.7), with the universe (A.V.viii.10.11), as father of Brahman (A.V.viii.9.7), with speech, the earth, the atmosphere, death (A.V.ix.10.24), with the udder of the frame of creation, Brahman being its mouth (A.V.x.7.19) and with Dhruva, the point of the heavens directly under the feet (A.V.xii.3.11).[3]
The following four verses of Taittiriyopanishad-bhasyavartikam methodically describe Viraj:
Verse 158 – God, cause of the regions of the universe etc., whose body consists of five elements, kindled by delusion “I am (this) All” thus has become Viraj.
Verse 159 – Earlier than this (Viraj) is Sutram, for, if this one exists, (then also) Viraj (exists). (This is so) on account of another sruti and according to the indirect evidence (of the sruti-quotation, which reads:) "Understanding".
Verse 160 – Setting aside (the words) "consisting of food", etc., Sutram is meant here on account of the expression: food, life (etc.,) and by virtue of reference to meditation.
Verse 161 – Sutram preceded the origin of the product because it does not differ from being (sat) no more than clay. When it has produced the product, the cause becomes the product as it were.
Viraj, as Deva, as the first-born Fire, the first embodied being (Shiva Purana V.i.8.22), is reminiscence of the Purusha (Rig Veda X.90), in elder Upanishads this name appears thrice – once in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad passage IV.ii.3 as "the human form that is in the left eye", and twice in the Chandogya Upanishad in passages I.xiii.2 as the stobha called Vak (Vairaj Sama) and IV.iii.8 as the food and as the eater of food, Viraj is food - virad annam bhogyatvad eva (BUBh 4.2.3). Viraj is originated from Sutram (159,BUBhV p. 431,st18/9) also called Sutratman in Vedantasara, basically of feminine gender, its masculine gender is also found in Brahma Purana I.53, its coming forth is due to delusion. Viraj is said to be food, the essence of food, identical to the pinda, food and the eater of food, to be the eldest of beings as food, to pervade all products as their material cause, to be Prajapati. Viraj is said to be released by virtue of her own nature, originated from Brahman from Viraj, Purusa or Manu. In Vedantasara it is Vaisvanara and is said to be Caitanyam (intelligence) identified by Sthulasariram, Annamayakosha and Jagrad on one hand and on the other it is Hiranyagarbha or Prana, the intelligence conditioned by Suksamasariram consisting of Vijnanamayakosha, Manomayakosha and Pranomayakosha, or Svapna; it is explained this way to systematize these notions. Sutram is the three sheaths viz., breath, manas and understanding; food is its sheath and bliss is the sheath of cause which is an adjunct of Hiranyagarbha, the highest cosmic soul, and the origin of Viraj.[4]
The gods obtained virajam (brilliance) from Agni by means of consecration, Viraj is the year consisting of twelve months, the fire to be piled is the year, the bricks that are piled are the days and the nights, and Viraj consists of six seasons, and has thirty syllables(Yajur Veda v.6.7).[5] In the brahmanas, Sri and Viraj, are identified with food (S.B.11.4.3.18), in the Atharva Veda it is extolled as the first and creative principle (A.V.8.9-10), and with Prana (A.V.xi.4.12) and it is identified with earth (S.B.12.6.1.40) (MBh.12.262.41)[6] In the Aitareya Upanishad Viraj is the intermediary between the Atman and the world, the creation of the world by the primeval Atman was through the intermediary Viraj. It is the waking state of the Cosmic Self; the Cosmic Self as it passes through its four states Vaisvanara, Taijasa, Prajya and Atman, comes to be called the Viraj, Hiranyagarbha, Isa and Brahman respectively.[7]
Viraj or Virat of the Bhagavad Gita is the Cosmic Body within which body is concentrated the entire creation consisting of both animate and inanimate beings, and whatever else one desires to see, and which Arjuna beheld with all its manifold divisions.[8] Adi Shankara in his Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad I.ii.3 explains that Viraj who was born, himself differentiated or divided himself, his body and organs, in three ways...So this Prana (Viraj), although the self, as it were, of all beings, is specially divided by himself as Death in three ways as fire, air and the sun, without, however, destroying his own form of Viraj.[9]
See also[edit]
Vyraj
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rig Veda X.90.5
Jump up ^ Rashan Dalal (2010). Hinduism:An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. p. 457. ISBN 9780143414216.
Jump up ^ J.Gonda (1966). ancient Indian kingship from the religious point of view. Brill Archive. pp. 115–119.
Jump up ^ Taittiriyopanishad-bhasyavartikam. Brill Archive. 1971. p. 81.
Jump up ^ The Yajur Veda Taittiriya Sanhita. Kessinger Publishing. 2004-06. p. 405. ISBN 9781419188961. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Jan Gonda (1969). Aspects of Early Vishnuism. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 187. ISBN 9788120810877.
Jump up ^ Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade (1926). The constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 18,101.
Jump up ^ Bhagavad Gita XI.7 and XI.13
Jump up ^ The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Commentary by Sankaracarya). Advaita Ashrama. p. 20.
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