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Round Table Conferences (India)
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This article is about Anglo-Indian round table conferences. For Dutch-Indonesian round table conference, see Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference. For other uses, see Round Table (disambiguation).
The three Round Table Conferences of 1930–32 were a series of conferences organized by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted as per the recommendation of Jinnah to Viceroy Lord Irwin and Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald,[1][2] and by the report submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for swaraj, or self-rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards dominion status. However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British political parties that the Conferences would not resolve.
Contents
[hide]
1 First Round Table Conference (November 1930 – January 1931)
1.1 Participants
1.2 Proceedings
2 Second Round Table Conference (September – December 1931)
2.1 Participants
2.2 Proceedings
3 Third Round Table Conference (November – December 1932)
3.1 Participants
4 References
5 Further reading
First Round Table Conference (November 1930 – January 1931)[edit]
The Round Table Conference officially inaugurated by His Majesty George V on November 12, 1930 in Royal Gallery House of Lords at London[1] and chaired by the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald.
The three British political parties were represented by sixteen delegates. There were fifty-eight political leaders from British India and sixteen delegates from the princely states. In total 74 delegates from India attended the Conference. However, the Indian National Congress, along with Indian business leaders, kept away from the conference. Many of them were in jail for their participation in Civil Disobedience Movement.[3]
Participants[edit]
British Representatives:
Labour: Ramsay Macdonald, Lord Sankey, Wedgwood Benn, Arthur Henderson, J. H. Thomas, William Jowitt, Hastings Lees-Smith, Earl Russell
Conservative: Earl Peel, Marquess of Zetland, Samuel Hoare, Oliver Stanley
Liberal: Marquess of Reading, Marquess of Lothian, Sir Robert Hamilton, Isaac Foot
Indian States' Representatives: Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja of Bikaner, Rana of Dholpur, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja of Nawanagar, Maharaja of Patiala (Chancellor of the Chamber of Princes), Maharaja of Rewa, Chief Sahib of Sangli, Sir Prabhashankar Pattani (Bhavnagar), Manubhai Mehta (Baroda), Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed Khan (Gwalior), Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), Col. Kailas Narain Haksar (Jammu and Kashmir)
British-Indian Representatives:
Muslim League: Aga Khan III (leader of British-Indian delegation), Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Muhammad Shafi, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, A. K. Fazlul Huq, Hafiz Ghulam Hussain Hidayat Ullah, Dr. Shafa'at Ahmad Khan, Raja Sher Muhammad Khan of Domeli, A. H. Ghuznavi [4]
Hindus: B. S. Moonje, M. R. Jayakar, Diwan Bahadur Raja Narendra Nath
Liberals: J. N. Basu, Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani, V. S. Srinivasa Sastri, Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad
Justice Party: Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Bhaskarrao Vithojirao Jadhav, Sir A. P. Patro
Depressed Classes: B. R. Ambedkar, Rettamalai Srinivasan
Sikhs: Sardar Ujjal Singh, Sardar Sampuran Singh
Parsis: Phiroze Sethna, Cowasji Jehangir, Homi Mody
Indian Christians: K. T. Paul
Europeans: Sir Hubert Carr, Sir Oscar de Glanville (Burma), T. F. Gavin Jones, C. E. Wood (Madras)
Anglo-Indians: Henry Gidney
Women: Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, Radhabai Subbarayan
Landlords: Maharaja Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga (Bihar), Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari (United Provinces), Raja of Parlekhmundi (Orissa), Provash Chandra Mitter
Labour: N. M. Joshi, B. Shiva Rao
Universities: Syed Sultan Ahmed, Bisheshwar Dayal Seth,
Burma: U Aung Thin, Ba U, M. M. Ohn Ghine
Sindh: Shah Nawaz Bhutto, Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah
Other Provinces: Chandradhar Barua (Assam), Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum (NWFP), S. B. Tambe (Central Provinces)
Government of India: Narendra Nath Law, Bhupendra Nath Mitra, C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, M. Ramachandra Rao
Officials attending in consultative capacity: W. M. Hailey, C. A. Innes, A. C. MacWatters, H. G. Haig, L. W. Reynolds
Indian States Delegation Staff:
Hyderabad: Sir Richard Chenevix-Trench, Nawab Mahdi Yar Jung, Ahmed Hussain, Nawab Sir Amin Jung Bahadur, Sir Reginald Glancy
South Indian States: T. Raghavaiah
Baroda: V. T. Krishnamachari
Alwar: Fateh Naseeb Khan
Orissa States: K. C. Neogy
Nominated by the Chamber of Princes Special Organisation: L. F. Rushbrook Williams, Qazi Ali Haidar Abbasi, Jarmani Dass, A. B. Latthe, D. A. Surve
Secretariats: S. K. Brown, V. Dawson, K. S. Fitze, W. H. Lewis, R. J. Stopford, J. Coatman, Marmaduke Pickthall, K. M. Panikkar, N. S. Subba Rao, Geoffrey Corbett, A. Latifi, Girija Shankar Bajpai
Secretariat-General: R. H. A. Carter, Mian Abdul Aziz, W. D. Croft, G. E. J. Gent, B. G. Holdsworth, R. F. Mudie, G. S. Rajadhya
Proceedings[edit]
The conference started with 6 plenary meetings where delegates put forward their issues 9 sub committees were formed to deal with several different matters including federal structure, provincial constitution, province of Sindh and NWFP, defense services and minorities e.t.c.[4] These were followed by discussions on the reports of the sub-committees on Federal Structure, Provincial Constitution, Minorities, Burma, North West Frontier Province, Franchise, Defense services and Sindh. These were followed by 2 more plenary meetings and a final concluding session.[3] It was difficult for progress to be made in the absence of the Indian National Congress but some advances were made.
The idea of an All-India Federation was moved to the centre of discussion by Tej Bahadur Sapru.[5] All the groups attending the conference supported this concept. The princely states agreed to the proposed federation provided that their internal sovereignty was guaranteed. The Muslim League also supported the federation as it had always been opposed to a strong Centre. The British agreed that representative government should be introduced on provincial level.
Other important discussions were the responsibility of the executive to the legislature and a separate electorate for the Untouchables as demanded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Second Round Table Conference (September – December 1931)[edit]
The Congress had boycotted the first conference was requested to come to a settlement by Sapru, M. R. Jayakar and V. S. Srinivasa Sastri. A settlement between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin known as the Gandhi–Irwin Pact was reached and Gandhi was appointed as the sole representative of the Congress to the second Round Table Conference. By this time, there was a coalition Government in Britain with a Conservative majority. It was held in London in September 1931. The discussion led to the passing of the Government Of India act of 1935.
Participants[edit]
[6]
British Representatives:
Labour: Ramsay Macdonald, Wedgwood Benn, Arthur Henderson, William Jowitt, Hastings Lees-Smith, F. W.hick-Lawrence, Lord Sankey, Lord Snell, J. H. Thomas
Conservative: Viscount Hailsham, Samuel Hoare, Earl Peel, Oliver Stanley, Marquess of Zetland
Scottish Unionist: Walter Elliot
Liberal: Isaac Foot, Henry Graham White, Robert Hamilton, Marquess of Lothian, Marquess of Reading,
Indian States' Representatives: Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja of Bikaner, Maharao of Kutch, Rana of Dholpur, Maharaja of Indore, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja of Kapurthala, Maharaja of Nawanagar, Maharaja of Patiala, Maharaja of Rewa, Chief Sahib of Sangli, Raja of Korea, Raja of Sarila, Sir Prabhashankar Pattani (Bhavnagar), Manubhai Mehta (Baroda), Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed Khan (Gwalior), Sir Muhammad Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), Col. K.N. Haksar (Jammu and Kashmir), T. Raghavaiah (Travancore), Liaqat Hayat Khan (Patiala)
British-Indian Representatives:
Government of India: C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, Narendra Nath Law, M. Ramachandra Rao
Indian National Congress: Mahatma Gandhi, A. Rangaswami Iyengar, Madan Mohan Malaviya
Muslims: Aga Khan III, Maulana Shaukat Ali, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, A. K. Fazlul Huq, Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Shafi, Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, Syed Ali Imam, Maulvi Muhammad Shafi Daudi, Raja Sher Muhammad Khan of Domeli, A. H. Ghuznavi, Hafiz Hidayat Hussain, Sayed Muhammad Padshah Saheb Bahadur, Dr. Shafa'at Ahmad Khan, Jamal Muhammad, khaja Mian Rowther, Nawab Sahibzada Sayed Muhammad Mehr Shah
Hindus: M. R. Jayakar, B. S. Moonje, Diwan Bahadur Raja Narendra Nath
Liberals: J. N. Basu, C. Y. Chintamani, Tej Bahadur Sapru, V. S. Srinivasa Sastri, Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad
Justice Party: Raja of Bobbili, Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Sir A. P. Patro, Bhaskarrao Vithojirao Jadhav
Depressed Classes: B. R. Ambedkar, Rettamalai Srinivasan,
Sikhs: Sardar Ujjal Singh, Sardar Sampuran Singh
Parsis: Cowasji Jehangir, Homi Mody, Phiroze Sethna
Indian Christians: Surendra Kumar Datta, A. T. Pannirselvam
Europeans: E. C. Benthall, Sir Hubert Carr, T. F. Gavin Jones, C. E. Wood (Madras)
Anglo-Indians: Henry Gidney
Women: Sarojini Naidu, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, Radhabai Subbarayan
Landlords: Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari (United Provinces), Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga (Bihar), Raja of Parlakimedi (Orissa), Sir Provash Chandra Mitter
Industry: Ghanshyam Das Birla, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas, Maneckji Dadabhoy
Labour: N. M. Joshi, B. Shiva Rao, V. V. Giri
Universities: Syed Sultan Ahmed, Bisheshwar Dayal Seth
Burma: Sir Padamji Ginwala
Sindh: Shah Nawaz Bhutto, Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah
Other Provinces: Chandradhar Barua (Assam), Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum (NWFP), S. B. Tambe (Central Provinces)
Indian States Delegation Staff: V. T. Krishnamachari (Baroda), Richard Chenevix-Trench (Hyderabad), Nawab Mahdi Yar Jung (Hyderabad), S. M. Bapna (Indore), Amar Nath Atal (Jaipur), J. W. Young (Jodhpur), Ram Chandra Kak (Jammu and Kashmir), Sahibzada Abdus Samad Khan (Rampur), K. C. Neogy (Orissa states), L. F. Rushbrook Williams, Jarmani Dass, Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari, K. M. Panikkar, N. Madhava Rao
British Delegation Staff: H. G. Haig, V. Dawson, K. S. Fitze, J. G. Laithwaite, W. H. Lewis, P. J. Patrick, J. Coatman, G. T. Garratt, R. J. Stopford
British Indian Delegation Staff: Geoffrey Corbett, A. Latifi, Girija Shankar Bajpai, Benegal Rama Rau, Syed Amjad Ali, Prince Aly Khan, A. M. Chaudhury, Mahadev Desai, Govind Malaviya, K. T. Shah, P. Sinha
Secretariat-General: R. H. A. Carter, K. Anderson, C. D. Deshmukh, J. M. Sladen, Hugh MacGregor, G. F. Steward, A. H. Joyce, Syed Amjad Ali, Ram Babu Saksena
Proceedings[edit]
The second session opened on September 7, 1931. There were three major differences between the first and second Round Table Conferences. By the second:
The Second Round Table Conference (September 7, 1931)
Congress Representation — The Gandhi-Irwin Pact opened the way for Congress participation in this conference. Mahatma Gandhi was invited from India and attended as the sole official Congress representative accompanied by Sarojini Naidu and also Madan Mohan Malaviya, Ghanshyam Das Birla, Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Mirza Ismail (Diwan of Mysore), S.K. Dutta and Sir Syed Ali Imam. Gandhi claimed that the Congress alone represented political India; that the Untouchables were Hindus and should not be treated as a “minority”; and that there should be no separate electorates or special safeguards for Muslims or other minorities. These claims were rejected by the other Indian participants. According to this pact, Gandhi was asked to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) and if he did so the prisoners of the British government would be freed except the criminal prisoners, i.e. those who had killed British officials. He returned to India, disappointed with the results and empty-handed.
National Government — two weeks earlier the Labour government in London had fallen. Ramsay MacDonald now headed a National Government dominated by the Conservative Party.
Financial Crisis – During the conference, Britain went off the Gold Standard further distracting the National Government.

During the Conference, Gandhi could not reach agreement with the Muslims on Muslim representation and safeguards. At the end of the conference Ramsay MacDonald undertook to produce a Communal Award for minority representation, with the provision that any free agreement between the parties could be substituted for his award[citation needed].
Gandhi took particular exception to the treatment of untouchables as a minority separate from the rest of the Hindu community. He clashed with the leader of depressed classes, Dr.B. R. Ambedkar, over this issue: the two eventually resolved the situation with the Poona Pact of 1932.
Third Round Table Conference (November – December 1932)[edit]
The third and last session assembled on November 17, 1932. Only forty-six delegates attended since most of the main political figures of India were not present. The Labour Party from Britain and the Indian National Congress refused to attend.
From September 1931 until March 1933, under the supervision of the Secretary of State for India, Sir Samuel Hoare, the proposed reforms took the form reflected in the Government of India Act 1935.

Participants[edit]
[7]
Indian States' Representatives: Akbar Hydari (Dewan of Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Dewan of Mysore), V. T. Krishnamachari (Dewan of Baroda), Wajahat Hussain (Jammu and Kashmir), Sir Sukhdeo Prasad (Udaipur, Jaipur, Jodhpur), J. A. Surve (Kolhapur), Raja Oudh Narain Bisarya (Bhopal), Manubhai Mehta (Bikaner), Nawab Liaqat Hayat Khan (Patiala), Fateh Naseeb Khan (Alwar State), L. F. Rushbrook Williams (Nawanagar), Raja of Sarila (small states)
British-Indian Representatives: Aga Khan III, B. R. Ambedkar (Depressed Classes), Ramakrishna Ranga Rao of Bobbili, Sir Hubert Carr (Europeans), Nanak Chand Pandit, A. H. Ghuznavi, Henry Gidney (Anglo-Indians), Hafiz Hidayat Hussain, Muhammad Iqbal, M. R. Jayakar, Cowasji Jehangir, N. M. Joshi (Labour), Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar, Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz (Women), A. P. Patro, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Dr. Shafa'at Ahmad Khan, Sir Shadi Lal, Tara Singh Malhotra, Sir Nripendra Nath Sircar, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas, Muhammad Zafarullah Khan
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wolpert, Stanley (2013). Jinnah of Pakistan (15 ed.). Karachi, Pakistan: University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-19-577389-7.
Jump up ^ Wolpert, Stanley (2012). Shameful Flight (1st ed.). Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-906606-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Indian Round Table Conference Proceedings. Government of India. 1931.
^ Jump up to: a b Prof M. Ikram, Rabbani. Pakistan studies (2nd ed.). Lahore, Pakistan: Caravan book house. pp. 100–101. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Menon, V.P. (1957). Transfer of Power in India. Orient Longman Limited. p. 44. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Indian Round Table Conference (Second Session) Proceedings of the Plenary Sessions (PDF). 1932.
Jump up ^ http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1932/oct/31/round-table-conference-delegates
Further reading[edit]
Beatty, Michael J., Ralph R. Behnke, and Barbara Jane Banks. Elements of dialogic communication in Gandhi's second round table conference address(1979) : 386-398.
Menon, V. P. (1995). "Integration of the Indian States",'Orient Longman Ltd'
Essay on Indian Constitutional Round Table Conferences, London 1931–1933[dubious – discuss]
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State responsibility
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The laws of state responsibility are the principles governing when and how a state is held responsible for a breach of an international obligation. Rather than set forth any particular obligations, the rules of state responsibility determine, in general, when an obligation has been breached and the legal consequences of that violation. In this way they are "secondary" rules that address basic issues of responsibility and remedies available for breach of "primary" or substantive rules of international law, such as with respect to the use of armed force. Because of this generality, the rules can be studied independently of the primary rules of obligation. They establish (1) the conditions of actions to qualify as internationally wrongful, (2) the circumstances under which actions of officials,[1] private individuals and other entities may be attributed to the state, (3) general defences to liability and (4) the consequences of liability.
Until recently, the theory of the law of state responsibility was not well developed. The position has now changed, with the adoption of the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts ("Draft Articles") by the International Law Commission (ILC) in August 2001.[2] The Draft Articles are a combination of codification and progressive development. They have already been cited by the International Court of Justice[3] and have generally been well received.
Although the articles are general in coverage, they do not necessarily apply in all cases. Particular treaty regimes, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the European Convention on Human Rights, have established their own special rules of responsibility.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Codification
2 Draft Articles
2.1 Internationally wrongful acts
2.2 International crimes
2.3 Attribution
2.4 Defences
2.5 Consequences of breach
2.6 Reparation
3 See also
4 Notes
5 Further reading
6 External links
History[edit]
Traditionally, the term "state responsibility" referred only to state responsibility for injuries to aliens. It included not only "secondary" issues such as attribution and remedies, but also the primary rights and duties of states, for example the asserted international standard of treatment and the right of diplomatic protection. Early efforts by the League of Nations and private bodies to codify the rules of "state responsibility" reflected the traditional focus on responsibility for injuries to aliens.[4] The League's 1930 Codification Conference in The Hague was able to reach an agreement only on "secondary" issues such as imputation, not on substantive rules regarding the treatment of aliens and their property.
Attempts to codify and develop the rules of state responsibility have continued throughout the life of the United Nations. It took nearly 45 years, more than thirty reports, and extensive work by five Special Rapporteurs in order for the International Law Commission to reach agreement on the final text of the Draft Articles as a whole, with commentaries. At the same time, the customary international law of state responsibility concerning matters such as detention and physical ill-treatment of aliens and their right to a fair trial has been rendered less important than formerly by the development of international human rights law, which applies to all individuals, whether aliens or nationals. The concept of a general regime of legal responsibility, which the rules of state responsibility have taken on, is an inception of the civil law system and is largely foreign to the common law tradition.
Codification[edit]
The topic of state responsibility was one of the first 14 areas provisionally selected for the ILC's attention in 1949.[5] When the ILC listed the topic for codification in 1953, "state responsibility" was distinguished from a separate topic on the "treatment of aliens", reflecting the growing view that state responsibility encompasses the breach of an international obligation.[6]
The ILC's first special rapporteur on state responsibility, F.V. García Amador of Cuba, appointed in 1955 noted, "It would be difficult to find a topic beset with greater confusion and uncertainty."[7] García Amador attempted to return to the traditional focus on responsibility for injury to aliens but his work was essentially abandoned by the ILC when his membership ended in 1961. His successor, Roberto Ago of Italy, reconceptualised the ILC's work in terms of the distinction between primary and secondary rules, and also established the basic organisational structure of what would become the Draft Articles. By focusing on general rules, stated at a high level of abstraction, Ago created a politically safe space within which the ILC could work and largely avoid the contentious debates of the day. From 1969 until his election to the ICJ in 1980, Ago completed work on part 1 of the draft articles, addressing the origin of state responsibility. Most of the thirty-five articles adopted during his tenure are reflected in the final draft.
Work on the remainder of the articles proceeded slowly throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Willem Riphagen of the Netherlands, who served as special rapporteur to 1986, stressed that particular primary rules may specify the consequences of their breach - an idea conveyed by the articles through the recognition of lex specialis. Gaetano Arangio-Ruiz, special rapporteur from 1988, helped clarify the consequences of breaches of international obligations. Over the next eight years, the ILC completed its first reading of parts 2 and 3.
In 1995, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution in effect pressing the Commission to make progress on the state responsibility articles and other long-pending projects.[8] James Crawford of Australia, appointed as special rapporteur in 1996, approached the task pragmatically. The ILC moved rapidly through a second reading of the draft articles, adopting what it could agree on and jettisoning the rest, most notable of which was Article 19 on state crimes and the section on dispute settlement.
Draft Articles[edit]
The final text of the Draft Articles was adopted by the ILC in August 2001, bringing to completion one of the Commission's longest running and most controversial studies. On 12 December 2001, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 56/83, which "commended [the articles] to the attention of Governments without prejudice to the question of their future adoption or other appropriate action."[9]
Crawford notes that the rules are "rigorously general in character,"[10] encompassing all types of international obligations.
Internationally wrongful acts[edit]
According to the Draft Articles, an internationally wrongful act must:
be attributable to the state under international law; and
constitute a breach of an international obligation of the state.[11]
International crimes[edit]
Earlier drafts of the Articles on State Responsibility contained Article 19, which provided for "state crimes".[12] Article 19 included the following provisions:
2. An internationally wrongful act which results from the breach by a State of an international obligation so essential for the protection of fundamental interests of the international community that its breach is recognized as a crime by that community as a whole constitutes an international crime.
3. Subject to Paragraph 2, and on the basis of the rules of international law in force, an international crime may result, inter alia, from:
(a) a serious breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the maintenance of international peace and security, such as that prohibiting aggression;
(b) a serious breach of an international obligation of essential importance for safeguarding the right of self-determination of peoples, such as that prohibiting the establishment or maintenance by force of colonial domination;
(c) a serious breach on a widespread scale of an international obligation of essential importance for safeguarding the human being, such as those prohibiting slavery, genocide and apartheid;
(d) a serious breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere or of the seas.
4. Any internationally wrongful act which is not an international crime in accordance with paragraph 2 constitutes an international delict.[12]
Article 19 was deleted from the final Draft Articles.[13]
Attribution[edit]
Before a state can be held responsible for any action, it is necessary to prove a causal connection between the injury and an official act or omission attributable to the state alleged to be in breach of its obligations. This has become an increasingly significant contemporary issue, as non-state actors such as Al Qaeda, multinational corporations, and non-governmental organisations play greater international roles, and as governments privatise some traditional functions.
The state is responsible for all actions of its officials and organs, even if the organ or official is formally independent[14] and even if the organ or official is acting ultra vires.[15] Persons or entities not classified as organs of the State may still be imputable, when they are otherwise empowered to exercise elements of governmental authority, and act in that capacity in the particular instance. Persons or entities not performing public functions may equally be imputable, if they in fact acted under the direction or control of the State.[16] Where there is a breakdown of normal governmental authority and control, such as in so-called "failed states", the actions of those acting as the "government" in a de facto sense will be acts of the state.[17] The acts of an "insurrectional or other movement that becomes the new government of an existing state or succeeds in establishing a new state" can also be attributed to the state.[18] This is also the case where a state acknowledges and adopts the conduct of private persons as its own.[19]
Despite their apparent concreteness, the standards stated in some rules involve important ambiguities, and their application will often require significant fact-finding and judgment. Most rules state responsibility involving private acts already arise under primary rules. For example, environmental and human rights agreements require states to prevent abuses by private parties.
Defences[edit]
If the general elements to establish state responsibility are established, the question arises as to whether any defences may be available to the respondent state.
These include force majeure (Article 23), distress (Article 24), state of necessity (Article 25) and counter measures (Articles 49-52), self-defence (article 21) and consent (article 20).
Consequences of breach[edit]
The breach of an international obligation entails two types of legal consequences. Firstly, it creates new obligations for the breaching state, principally, duties of cessation and non-repetition (Article 30), and a duty to make full reparation (Article 31). Article 33(1) characterises these secondary obligations as being owed to other states or to the international community as a whole. Articles indirectly acknowledges in a savings clause also that states may owe secondary obligations to non-state actors such as individuals or international organisations.
Second, the articles create new rights for injured states, principally, the right to invoke responsibility (Articles 42 and 48) and a limited right to take countermeasures (Articles 49-53). These rights, however, are heavily state-centred and do not deal with how state responsibility is to be implemented if the holder of the right is an individual or an organisation. The principal element of progressive development in this area is Article 48, which provides that certain violations of international obligations can affect the international community as a whole such that state responsibility can be invoked by states on behalf of the larger community. This provision picks up on the ICJ's celebrated suggestion in Barcelona Traction that some obligations are owed erga omnes, toward the international community as a whole.[20]
Reparation[edit]
If illegal actions are continuing, the state has a duty to cease.[21] The state also has duties to make reparation, which could involve restitution, compensation, or satisfaction. Remedies will be dependent on the particular forum, such as the United Nations, International Court of Justice, World Trade Organisation, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, International Criminal Court, and on the purpose of reparation.[22]
See also[edit]
Nuremberg Principles
Rule according to higher law
Sovereign state
Collective responsibility
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ It can safely be ruled out that the military can be summoned for the execution of an order issued from his state in violation of a rule of international law: Buonomo, Giampiero (2002). "L'impossibilità (giuridica) degli accordi bilaterali per sottrarsi alla giurisdizione". Diritto&Giustizia edizione online. – via Questia (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Report of the ILC on the Work of its Fifty-third Session, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, Supp No 10, p 43, UN Doc A/56/10 (2001).
Jump up ^ The ICJ cited an earlier draft text of the Articles in Gabčíkovo-Nagyamaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), ICJ Reports 1997, at 7.
Jump up ^ See Y. Matsui, "The Transformation of the Law of State Responsibility" (1993) 20 Thesaurus Acroasium 1.
Jump up ^ Report to the General Assembly, 1949 Yearbook of the International Law Commission 277, at 281.
Jump up ^ 1949 Year Book of the International Law Commission 46, 49-50, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/1949.
Jump up ^ F. V. García Amador, First Report on International Responsibility 1956 2 Yearbook of the International Law Commission 173 at 175, para. 6, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/1956/Add.1.
Jump up ^ GA Res. 50/45, para. 3 (Dec. 11, 1995).
Jump up ^ GA Res. 56/83, para. 3 (Dec. 12, 2001).
Jump up ^ James Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries (Cambridge University Press, 2002) at 12.
Jump up ^ Note 1, Article 2.
^ Jump up to: a b [1], International Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility, 1991
Jump up ^ [2], International Law Commission's Articles on Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, as adopted 2001
Jump up ^ Note 1, Art 5.
Jump up ^ Note 1, Art 7.
Jump up ^ Note 1, Art 8.
Jump up ^ Note 1, Art 9.
Jump up ^ Note 1, Art 10. See further Liesbeth Zegveld, The Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2002).
Jump up ^ Note 1, Article 11.
Jump up ^ Barcelona Traction, Light & Power Co. (Belgium v. Spain), New Application, 1970 ICJ Reports 4, 32.
Jump up ^ Note 1, Art 30.
Jump up ^ Hardman Reis, T., Compensation for Environmental Damages under International Law, Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 2011, ISBN 978-90-411-3437-0
Further reading[edit]
Harriet Moynihan, "Aiding and Assisting: Challenges in Armed Conflict and Counterterrorism" (2016).
Helmut Philipp Aust, "Complicity and the Law of State Responsibility" (2011), ISBN 9781107010727
Daniel Bodansky and John R. Crook, "Symposium: The ILC's State Responsibility Articles" (2002)
James Crawford, "The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility. Introduction, Text and Commentaries" (2002), ISBN 0-521-81353-0
96 American Journal of International Law 773.[3]
The ILC's Draft Articles on State Responsibility [4]
Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts [5]
External links[edit]
Procedural history note and audiovisual material on the Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Lecture by James Crawford entitled The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility: Past and Future in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Lecture by Giorgio Gaja entitled The Impact of Security Council Resolutions on State Responsibility in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Lecture by Vera Gowlland-Debbas entitled The Relationship between Collective Security and State Responsibility in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Lecture by Kenneth Keith entitled The Rainbow Warrior Case in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Lecture by Alain Pellet entitled Responsibility in International Law - An Introduction (also available in French) in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=State_responsibility&oldid=842815449"
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Carrier wave
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The frequency spectrum of a typical radio signal from an AM or FM radio transmitter. It consists of a strong signal (C) at the carrier wave frequency fC, with the modulation contained in narrow frequency bands called sidebands (SB) just above and below the carrier.
In telecommunications, a carrier wave, carrier signal, or just carrier, is a waveform (usually sinusoidal) that is modulated (modified) with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information.[1] This carrier wave usually has a much higher frequency than the input signal does. The purpose of the carrier is usually either to transmit the information through space as an electromagnetic wave (as in radio communication), or to allow several carriers at different frequencies to share a common physical transmission medium by frequency division multiplexing (as, for example, a cable television system). The term is also used for an unmodulated emission in the absence of any modulating signal.[2]
Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude modulation (AM) to make the carrier carry information. The frequency of a radio or television station is actually the carrier wave's frequency. However, because the information transmitted by a radio signal is not at the carrier frequency itself but contained in sidebands on either side of the carrier, the energy of the carrier component is not useful in transmitting the information. Therefore, in many modern modulation methods the carrier is not transmitted. For example, in single-sideband modulation (SSB), the carrier is suppressed (and in some forms of SSB, eliminated). The carrier must be reintroduced at the receiver by a beat frequency oscillator (BFO).
Contents
[hide]
1 Carrierless modulation systems
2 Carrier leakage
3 See also
4 References
Carrierless modulation systems[edit]
Newer forms of radio communication (such as spread spectrum and ultra-wideband) do not use a conventional sinusoidal carrier wave, nor does OFDM (which is used in DSL and in the European standard for HDTV).
OFDM may be thought of as an array of symmetrical carrier waves. The rules governing carrier-wave propagation affect OFDM differently from 8VSB.
Some forms of spread spectrum transmission (and most forms of ultra-wideband) are mathematically defined as being devoid of carrier waves. Transmitter implementations typically produce residual carriers which may (or may not) be detectable or transmitted.
Carrier leakage[edit]
Carrier leakage is interference caused by cross-talk or a DC offset. It is present as an unmodulated sine wave within the signal's bandwidth, whose amplitude is independent of the signal's amplitude. See frequency mixers, to read further about carrier leakage or local oscillator feedthrough.
See also[edit]
Carrier recovery
Carrier system
Carrier tone
Frequency-division multiplexing
Sideband
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Carrier wave with no modulation transports no information". University Of Texas. Archived from the original on 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2008-05-30.
Jump up ^ Federal Standard 1037C and MIL-STD-188
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