text:
Long bone
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Long bone
Structure of a long bone (Femur)
Long bones in human skeleton. (shown in red)
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Os longum
TA
A02.0.00.011
FMA
7474
Anatomical terms of bone
[edit on Wikidata]
The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at each end of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage"). The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of growth hormone (GH), a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
The long bones include the femora, tibiae, and fibulae of the legs; the humeri, radii, and ulnae of the arms; metacarpals and metatarsals of the hands and feet, the phalanges of the fingers and toes, and the clavicles or collar bones. The long bones of the human leg comprise nearly half of adult height. The other primary skeletal component of height are the vertebrae and skull.
The outside of the bone consists of a layer of connective tissue called the periosteum. Additionally, the outer shell of the long bone is compact bone, then a deeper layer of cancellous bone (spongy bone) which contains in the medullary cavity the bone marrow.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Clinical significance
3 Additional images
4 References
Structure[edit]
The outer shell of the long bone is made of cortical bone also known as compact bone. This is covered by a membrane of connective tissue called the periosteum. Beneath the cortical bone layer is a layer of spongy cancellous bone. Inside this is the medullary cavity which has an inner core of bone marrow made up of yellow marrow in the adult and red marrow in the child..
Clinical significance[edit]
There are two congenital disorders of the long bones. In a disorder known as rachitis fetalis anularis the ends of the long bones (epiphyses) are enlarged.[1] Another disorder is known as rachitis fetalis micromelica in which there is a deficiency in the growth (as a shortness) of the bones.[1]
There is a surgical procedure called distraction osteogenesis which is used to lengthen long bones.
Additional images[edit]
Long bones in human skeleton. (shown in red)
Parts of a long bone (Femur)
Classification of bones by shape
Distribution of forces on a long bone (Femur)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b al.], consultants Daniel Albert ... [et (2012). Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary (32nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. p. 1570. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8.
Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary, 27th Edition[permanent dead link]
Anatomy of long bone
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Long bones.
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t
e
Bone and cartilage
Cartilage
perichondrium
fibrocartilage callus
metaphysis
Cells
chondroblast
chondrocyte
Types
hyaline
elastic
fibrous
Bone
Ossification
Primary bone
intramembranous
endochondral
Cells
osteoblast
osteoid
osteocyte
osteoclast
Types
cancellous
cortical
Regions
subchondral bone
epiphysis
epiphyseal plate/metaphysis
diaphysis
Condyle
Epicondyle
Structure
Osteon
Haversian canals
Volkmann's canals
connective tissue
endosteum
periosteum
Sharpey's fibres
enthesis
lacunae
canaliculi
trabeculae
medullary cavity
bone marrow
Shapes
long
short
flat
irregular
sesamoid

This human musculoskeletal system article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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text:
The Ranch (TV series)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Ranch
Genre
Sitcom
Created by
Don Reo
Jim Patterson
Starring
Ashton Kutcher
Danny Masterson
Debra Winger
Sam Elliott
Elisha Cuthbert
Opening theme
"Mammas Don't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys" by Lukas Nelson and Shooter Jennings[1]
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
2
No. of episodes
40 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Don Reo
Jim Patterson
Ashton Kutcher
Danny Masterson
Jane Wiseman
Blair Fetter
Andy Weil
Jerry Anglin
Producer(s)
Jamie Rhonheimer
Steve Tompkins
Camera setup
Multi-camera
Running time
28–34 minutes
Production company(s)
Ranch Hand Productions
Distributor
Netflix
Release
Original network
Netflix
Original release
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01) – present (present)
The Ranch is an American comedy web television series starring Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson, Debra Winger, Elisha Cuthbert, and Sam Elliott that debuted in 2016 on Netflix.[2] The show takes place on the fictional Iron River Ranch in the fictitious small town of Garrison, Colorado; detailing the life of the Bennetts, a dysfunctional family consisting of two brothers, their rancher father, and his divorced wife and local bar owner.[3] While the opening sequence shows scenes from Norwood and Ouray, Colorado and surrounding Ouray and San Miguel Counties, The Ranch is filmed on a sound stage in front of a live audience in Burbank, California.[4] Each season consists of 20 episodes broken up into two parts, each containing 10 episodes.
All episodes are named after American country music songs, predominantly Kenny Chesney in part one, George Strait in part two, Tim McGraw in part three, and Garth Brooks in part four:[5] the first ten episodes premiered on April 1, 2016,[6][7] the second batch of ten episodes premiered on October 7, 2016. In April 2016, Netflix renewed The Ranch for a second season of 20 episodes,[8][9] the first half of which premiered on June 16, 2017,[10] and the second half was released on December 15, 2017.[11]
On July 4, 2017, Netflix announced through its official The Ranch Twitter account that the show had been renewed for a third season of 20 episodes to air in 2018.[12] In December 2017, a week before the release of the second-half of the second season, it was announced Masterson had been written out of the show following multiple sexual assault allegations made against him, and will appear in only the first 10 episodes of the third season.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main
1.2 Recurring
1.3 Special Guests
1.4 Cameos
2 Episodes
2.1 Series overview
2.2 Season 1 (2016)
2.3 Season 2 (2017)
3 Reception
4 References
5 External links
Cast[edit]
Main[edit]
Ashton Kutcher as Colt Bennett, a former high school and college football star who returns to his hometown after a fifteen-year absence for a tryout, but ultimately helps his father and older brother on their family ranch. Colt is frequently the butt of jokes from his father and brother, particularly when it comes to his ranching skills (or lack thereof) and his disappointing pro football career. He is a heavy drinker and has a penchant for not using common sense, but he seems to have a heart of gold and tries to do right by others. Based on his various T-shirts and dialogue throughout the first season, it's implied that Colt has played for the Barcelona Dragons, San Jose SaberCats, Spokane Shock, Orlando Predators, Nebraska Danger, Iowa Barnstormers, Minnesota Axemen and Philadelphia Soul. Dialogue also states that he was a member of teams in Canada, notably the fictional Saskatoon Cold ("Like the Miami Heat... only cold") and Alaska, as well as that he was in the practice squad of the Buffalo Bills. He also states in the first episode he was the back up of the back up of the back up for Florida State and won the championship in 1999.
Danny Masterson as Jameson “Rooster” Bennett, Colt's older brother. He has lived and worked on the ranch since Colt left to follow his football career, at times showing a bitter attitude for the burden of responsibility this caused him. Despite living in Colt's shadow he is far more competent on the ranch as well as a more level headed thinker. He has however been just as irresponsible as Colt, drinking too much and sleeping around. (seasons 1 - 3)
Debra Winger as Margaret "Maggie" Bennett, owner of Maggie's, and Colt and Rooster's mother. Maggie is divorced from Beau and lives in a trailer behind the bar she owns. Much more lighthearted and caring than Beau, her company and advice is often sought out by the boys on how to deal with problems, especially those concerning their father. Maggie is something of a hippie and is an avid marijuana smoker.
Elisha Cuthbert as Abigail "Abby" Phillips, a Garrison High School history teacher and Colt's high school and current girlfriend. Abby was in a five-year relationship with Kenny and was briefly engaged to him, but ultimately she broke it off and hooked back up with Colt. (recurring, season 1; main cast, season 2 - present)
Sam Elliott as Beau Bennett, Maggie's ex-husband, and Colt and Rooster's father. A Vietnam War veteran, he has worked the ranch since returning from the war and taking it over after his father died. Beau is difficult to get along with, perpetually annoyed with everyone and everything. He detests many modern amenities and is easily angered by his sons' antics. Beau appears to be a Republican with a special affinity for Ronald Reagan but at times seems to despise all politicians regardless of affiliation.
Recurring[edit]
Barry Corbin as Dale Rivers, a hearing-impaired veterinarian and close friend of Beau's
Grady Lee Richmond as Hank, a regular Maggie's patron
Bret Harrison as Kenneth "Kenny" Ballard, a Courtyard by Marriott manager and Abby's ex-fiancé
Megyn Price as Mary Roth, a Cracker Barrel waitress and Rooster's older girlfriend
Kelli Goss as Heather Roth, Mary's younger daughter and Colt's ex-girlfriend, was pregnant with their child.
Molly McCook as Darlene Roth, Mary's older daughter
Kathy Baker as Joanne, a Cracker Barrel waitress, Mary's friend, and potential new love interest for Beau
Ethan Suplee as "Beer Pong Billy" Tompkins, a police officer and high school friend of Colt and Rooster's
Aimee Teegarden as Nikki, Heather's friend and Billy's fiancée
Chasty Ballesteros as Tanya Showers, a sexy weather reporter and Kenny's current girlfriend
Laura Vallejo as Maria, a Maggie's waitress
Sharon Lawrence as Brenda Sanders, a widowed hairdresser who befriended Beau when he and Maggie separated
Maggie Lawson as Jen the engineer, who wants to build a pipeline underneath the Bennett Ranch.
Special Guests[edit]
Jon Cryer as Bill Jensen, a loan officer and former high school football referee
Wilmer Valderrama as Umberto, a former Iron River ranch hand, former employee of Neumann's Hill at the My Little Pony Ranch. He is Rooster and Colt's friend. Currently deported.
Martin Mull as Jerry, Maggie's sometimes acid-tripping attorney
John Amos as Ed Bishop, a longtime family friend of the Bennetts and a Neumann's Hill employee
Thomas F. Wilson as Coach Fitzgerald, the Garrison High School head football coach
Debra Jo Rupp as Janice Phillips, Abby's mother (Season 2)
Jim Beaver as Chuck Phillips, Abby's father, who like Janice is disdainful of Abby's relationship with Colt (Season 2)
Conchata Ferrell as Shirley (Season 2)
Lou Diamond Phillips as Clint, a traveling musician attracted to Maggie (Season 2)
Kurtwood Smith as Sam Peterson, neighbor of the Iron River Ranch (Season 2)
Cameos[edit]
Joe Firstman
Pearl Charles
Kurt Neumann
Bukka Allen
Sam Hawksley
Thomas Rhett
Episodes[edit]
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally released
1 20 10 April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
10 October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
2 20 10 June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
10 December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Season 1 (2016)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Part 1
1
1 "Back Where I Come From" David Trainer Don Reo & Jim Patterson April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
When Colt Bennett returns home from Canada to try out for a semipro Denver team, he learns that his family's ranch has fallen on hard times.
2
2 "Some People Change" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Colt runs into an ex at Maggie's bar and reminisces with Rooster over a bottle of whiskey. Getting back in Beau's good graces is a losing battle.
3
3 "The Boys of Fall" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jamie Rhonheimer April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
When his inflated ego lands him in hot water, Colt realizes he's not the big man on campus anymore. Beau's doctor makes him trade in steak for salad.
4
4 "Got a Little Crazy" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Nikki Schiefelbein April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Colt smooths things over with Abby. When Maggie drags Beau to the Marriott for a romantic evening, the guys have some fun back at the house.
5
5 "American Kids" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Rooster and Colt's long-simmering rivalry comes to a head on the first day of hunting season. But their bickering has an upside for Beau and Maggie.
6
6 "Better as a Memory" David Trainer Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Abby gets a taste of her own medicine after a hazy night of drinking. Beau warms to the idea of mending fences with Maggie.
7
7 "I Can't Go There" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Colt figures out what he wants from Heather. A sick calf gives Beau an excuse to avoid dealing with his feelings -- and creates some unexpected bonds.
8
8 "Til It's Gone" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Matt Ross April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
The ranch's dwindling finances drive a wedge between Beau and the boys, and Colt goes behind his father's back to ask Maggie for help.
9
9 "There Goes My Life" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Max Searle & Nathan Chetty April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Heather sets up Rooster with her sister, but Colt's afraid he'll ruin a good thing. Maggie and Beau air their dirty laundry at marriage counseling.
10
10 "Down the Road" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)
Colt and Rooster worry when Beau has a change of heart about the calves. But that's just the beginning of the surprises that await the Bennett clan.
Part 2
11
1 "Gone as a Girl Can Get" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
An angry Beau clears Maggie's things out of the house. Colt tries to sort out his feelings for Abby and Heather.
12
2 "Living and Living Well" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Colt struggles to keep his relationship with Abby under wraps. The boys make a big purchase and try to sell Beau on a business opportunity.
13
3 "Sittin' on the Fence" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Steve Tompkins October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Beau's depressed over Maggie, so Mary tries to fix him up with a friend. Colt wonders when Abby's going to follow through on her promise.
14
4 "Let's Fall to Pieces Together" David Trainer Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Steve Leff October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
While Rooster tries to broker peace between Beau and Maggie, Colt apologizes to Heather -- but his timing couldn't be worse.
15
5 "I Know She Still Loves Me" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Jeff Lowell & Max Searle October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Beau and Maggie come to a decision about their relationship, but they don't see eye to eye on the ranch. The boys take Kenny out drinking.
16
6 "Easy Come, Easy Go" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Rooster and Colt try to prove themselves to Beau, but he doesn't have much faith in them. Colt gets jealous when he sees Abby and Kenny together.
17
7 "I've Come to Expect It from You" David Trainer Story by : Jim Patterson & Jamie Rhonheimer
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Colt plans a special date with Abby. Rooster vents his frustrations to Maggie, while Joanne gives Beau some sage advice.
18
8 "The Cowboy Rides Away" David Trainer Story by : Nikki Schiefelbein & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Steve Leff October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Beau tries to make amends with the boys, but it may be too little, too late. A job offer drives a wedge between Rooster and Colt.
19
9 "Leavin's Been Comin' (For a Long, Long Time)" David Trainer Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Steve Tompkins
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Maggie stands up for Rooster when Beau kicks him out of the house. Meanwhile, Colt is torn between his brother and his father.
20
10 "Merry Christmas (Wherever You Are)" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)
Colt realizes what he wants for his future, Beau and Maggie find some closure, and the gang celebrates Christmas at the bar.
Season 2 (2017)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Part 3
21
1 "My Next Thirty Years" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
After Heather drops a bombshell, a visit from Abby's parents is the last thing Colt needs -- and they all end up at church together on Christmas Eve.
22
2 "Things Change" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
Heather makes a decision about the pregnancy. Mary reads Rooster the riot act for keeping it a secret, and Colt struggles with how to tell Abby.
23
3 "Take Me Away from Here" David Trainer Story by : Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Max Searle & Steve Leff June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
After a heart-to-heart with Maggie, Colt steps up and supports Heather. Meanwhile, the tension between Rooster and Beau takes a toll on Maggie.
24
4 "She'll Have You Back" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Nikki Schiefelbein June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
Abby agrees to give Colt a chance, but her father isn't as forgiving. Beau and Rooster go to a cattle auction. Maggie thinks about selling the bar.
25
5 "My Best Friend" David Trainer Story by : Ashton Kutcher & Carla Filisha
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jamie Rhonheimer June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
The guys wind up in hot water after an ice fishing trip. Beau takes Brenda out to dinner, but Maggie's not far from his mind.
26
6 "Find Out Who Your Friends Are" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Max Williger June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
Emotions run high when Abby and Heather fight, leaving Colt caught in the middle. Rooster faces the consequences of blowing off work.
27
7 "One of Those Nights" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jason Zumwalt June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
During a snowstorm, Colt and Abby head out of town, Beau and Joanne get cozy at the ranch, and Maggie meets a charming stranger.
28
8 "I Didn't Ask and She Didn't Say" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Bryce VanKooten & William Vallery June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
Colt gets possessive when Heather starts dating a teacher. Abby gives Beau relationship advice. Maggie has a business proposition for Rooster.
29
9 "Last Dollar (Fly Away)" David Trainer Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
As Heather's medical bills roll in, Colt realizes how expensive it is having a baby. A surprise visitor at the bar sweeps Maggie off her feet.
30
10 "Can't Really Be Gone" David Trainer Story by : Jim Patterson & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
Colt's new responsibilities keep him away from Abby. After a memorable night, Maggie ponders what she wants for her future.
Part 4
31
1 "Learning to Live Again" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Colt wants to buy Sam Peterson's ranch -- with or without his family's blessing. Colt and Heather have a heart-to-heart about their loss.
32
2 "Wrapped Up in You" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Wondering if he's ready to marry Abby, Colt seeks romantic advice from an unlikely source: Beau. Rooster hires a flaky new waitress.
33
3 "Rodeo and Juliet" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Carla Filisha & Steve Leff December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Beau ponders a lucrative business offer. Rooster runs afoul of the liquor board. Colt tries to make peace with Abby's Dad.
34
4 "Much Too Young (To Feel this Old)" David Trainer Story by : Jim Patterson & Matt Ross
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Colt and Abby start planning their wedding, but they don't see eye to eye. Joanne confesses she still has feelings for Beau.
35
5 "More Than a Memory" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jeff Lowell December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Abby moves in with Colt and Beau when she learns she's losing her job. Rooster and Jen the engineer bond over getting dumped.
36
6 "When You Come Back to Me Again" David Trainer Story by : Bryce VanKooten & William Vallery
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Back in town, Maggie frets about how Rooster's been running the bar. Abby considers a career change.
37
7 "Do What You Gotta Do" David Trainer Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
A job opportunity in Denver threatens to drive a wedge between Colt and Abby. Maggie pushes back about the pipeline.
38
8 "Big Money" David Trainer Story by : Matt Ross & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jeff Lowell & Nikki Schiefelbein December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Maggie takes a stand that lands her in hot water. Colt and Rooster come up with a plan to buy the Peterson ranch, but they need Beau's buy-in.
39
9 "Ain't Goin' Down ('Til the Sun Comes Up)" David Trainer Story by : Steve Tompkins & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Beau shrugs off the doctor's orders and resists the family's efforts to help him. Meanwhile, Colt lashes out at Maggie.
40
10 "If Tomorrow Never Comes" David Trainer Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
Beau leaves the boys hanging about the Peterson ranch. Rooster takes Jen on a date. Colt and Abby fight about their future.
Reception[edit]
The Ranch has been met with mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series an approval rating of 56% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic set-up and predictable plotting are elevated by The Ranch's surprising sensitivity and strong performances."[14] Metacritic gave the series a score of 56 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[15]
Writing for Slate in a positive review, television critic Willa Paskin wrote of the show, "The Ranch is a red-state sitcom, though it takes place in the swing state of Colorado, and is good enough to be watched by people of any political affiliation" and "The goodness sneaks up on you."[16] Los Angeles Times wrote: "[Elliott and Winger's] scenes together, as restrained as they are, are the show's most emotionally resonant. You will want to check them out."[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Netflix's 'The Ranch' offers up a country-heavy soundtrack". The Rowdy. April 9, 2016. Retrieved June 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson Team For Netflix Comedy 'The Ranch'". Variety. June 17, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ashton Kutcher & Danny Masterson To Star In Netflix Series From '2.5 Men' Duo". Deadline. June 17, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Villareal, Yvonne (1 April 2016). "Ashton Kutcher bucks conventions on his Netflix sitcom 'The Ranch' and ponders reviving 'That '70s Show'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "ASHTON KUTCHER AND DANNY MASTERSON STARRING IN NEW NETFLIX SITCOM, THE RANCH". IGN. June 17, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lisa de Moraes (January 17, 2016). "Netflix Unveils Premiere Dates For 'Orange Is The New Black,' 'The Get Down,' 'Flaked' And Others". Deadline.com.
Jump up ^ "Shows A-Z - ranch, the on netflix". The Futon Critic. April 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (April 29, 2016). "Ashton Kutcher Sitcom 'The Ranch' Renewed For Season 2 By Netflix". Deadline.com. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Stanhope, Kate (April 29, 2016). "Netflix Renews 'The Ranch' for Season 2". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, Patrick. "The Ranch season 2 release date announcement". netflixlife.com. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "'The Ranch' Part 4 Release Date Revealed". Streaming. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ Olin, Bryce (July 4, 2017). "Netflix Renews 'The Ranch' for Season 3". Netflix Life. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (December 5, 2017). "Danny Masterson Fired From Netflix's The Ranch Amid Sexual Assault Claims, Vows To Clear His Name "Once And For All"". Deadline.com. United States: Penske Media Corporation. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Ranch: Season 1". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Ranch - Season 1". Metacritic. Retrieved April 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Paskin, Willa (March 28, 2016). "Netflix's new multicamera sitcom is engineered to compete with network TV. And it's good". Slate (magazine). Retrieved April 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ "'The Ranch' is an old-fashioned sitcom, but Sam Elliott and Debra Winger make it worth watching". LA Times. Retrieved 2016-08-15.
External links[edit]
The Ranch on IMDb
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Refractory period (physiology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about refractory periods in physiology. For sexual refractory periods, see refractory period (sex).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Refractoriness is the fundamental property of any object of autowave nature (especially excitable medium) not to respond on stimuli, if the object stays in the specific refractory state. In common sense, refractory period is the characteristic recovery time, a period of time that is associated with the motion of the image point on the left branch of the isocline u ˙ = 0 {\displaystyle {\dot {u}}=0} [B: 1] (for more details, see also Reaction-diffusion and Parabolic partial differential equation).
Schematic of an electrophysiological recording of an action potential showing the various phases that occur as the wave passes a point on a cell membrane.
In physiology,[B: 2] a refractory period is a period of time during which an organ or cell is incapable of repeating a particular action, or (more precisely) the amount of time it takes for an excitable membrane to be ready for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state following an excitation. It most commonly refers to electrically excitable muscle cells or neurons. Absolute refractory period corresponds to depolarization and repolarization, whereas relative refractory period corresponds to hyperpolarization.
Contents
[hide]
1 Electrochemical usage
2 Cardiac refractory period
3 Neuronal refractory period
4 See also
5 References
Electrochemical usage[edit]
See also: Action potential
After initiation of an action potential, the refractory period is defined two ways: The absolute refractory period coincides with nearly the entire duration of the action potential. In neurons, it is caused by the inactivation of the Na+ channels that originally opened to depolarize the membrane. These channels remain inactivated until the membrane hyperpolarizes. The channels then close, de-inactivate, and regain their ability to open in response to stimulus.
The relative refractory period immediately follows the absolute. As voltage-gated potassium channels open to terminate the action potential by repolarizing the membrane, the potassium conductance of the membrane increases dramatically. K+ ions moving out of the cell bring the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for potassium. This causes brief hyperpolarization of the membrane, that is, the membrane potential becomes transiently more negative than the normal resting potential. Until the potassium conductance returns to the resting value, a greater stimulus will be required to reach the initiation threshold for a second depolarization. The return to the equilibrium resting potential marks the end of the relative refractory period.
Cardiac refractory period[edit]
Effective Refractory Period
The refractory period in cardiac physiology is related to the ion currents that, in cardiac cells as in nerve cells, flow into and out of the cell freely. The flow of ions translates into a change in the voltage of the inside of the cell relative to the extracellular space. As in nerve cells, this characteristic change in voltage is referred to as an action potential. Unlike that in nerve cells, the cardiac action potential duration is closer to 100 ms (with variations depending on cell type, autonomic tone, etc.). After an action potential initiates, the cardiac cell is unable to initiate another action potential for some duration of time (which is slightly shorter than the "true" action potential duration). This period of time is referred to as the refractory period, which is 250ms in duration and helps to protect the heart.
In the classical sense, the cardiac refractory period is separated into an absolute refractory period and a relative refractory period. During the absolute refractory period, a new action potential cannot be elicited. During the relative refractory period, a new action potential can be elicited under the correct circumstances.
The cardiac refractory period can result in different forms of re-entry, which are a cause of tachycardia.[A: 1][B: 3] Vortices of excitation in the myocardium (autowave vortices) are a form of re-entry. Such vortices can be a mechanism of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. In particular, the autowave reverberator, more commonly referred to as spiral waves or rotors, can be found within the atria and may be a cause of atrial fibrillation.
Neuronal refractory period[edit]
The refractory period in a neuron occurs after an action potential and generally lasts one millisecond. An action potential consists of three phases.
Phase one is depolarization. During depolarization, voltage-gated sodium ion channels open, increasing the neuron's membrane conductance for sodium ions and depolarizing the cell's membrane potential (from typically -70 mV toward a positive potential). In other words, the membrane is made less negative. After the potential reaches the activation threshold (-55 mV), the depolarization is actively driven by the neuron and overshoots the equilibrium potential of an activated membrane (+30 mV).
Phase two is repolarization. During repolarization, voltage-gated sodium ion channels inactivate (different from the closed state) due to the now-depolarized membrane, and voltage-gated potassium channels activate (open). Both the inactivation of the sodium ion channels and the opening of the potassium ion channels act to repolarize the cell's membrane potential back to its resting membrane potential.
When the cell's membrane voltage overshoots its resting membrane potential (near -60mV), the cell enters a phase of hyperpolarization. This is due to a larger-than-resting potassium conductance across the cell membrane. This potassium conductance eventually drops and the cell returns to its resting membrane potential.
The refractory periods are due to the inactivation property of voltage-gated sodium channels and the lag of potassium channels in closing. Voltage-gated sodium channels have two gating mechanisms, the activation mechanism that opens the channel with depolarization and the inactivation mechanism that closes the channel with repolarization. While the channel is in the inactive state, it will not open in response to depolarization. The period when the majority of sodium channels remain in the inactive state is the absolute refractory period. After this period, there are enough voltage-activated sodium channels in the closed (active) state to respond to depolarization. However, voltage-gated potassium channels that opened in response to repolarization do not close as quickly as voltage-gated sodium channels; to return to the active closed state. During this time, the extra potassium conductance means that the membrane is at a higher threshold and will require a greater stimulus to cause action potentials to fire. This period is the relative refractory period.
See also[edit]
Autowave
Excitable medium
Parabolic partial differential equation
Reaction-diffusion
References[edit]
Books
Jump up ^ Грехова, М. Т., ed. (1981). Автоволновые процессы в системах с диффузией [Autowave processes in systems with diffusion] (in Russian). Горький: Институт прикладной математики АН СССР. p. 287.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, Robert F.; Thews, Gerhard (1983). Human physiology. Springer-Verlag. p. 725. ISBN 978-3540116691.
Jump up ^ Елькин, Ю.Е.; Москаленко, А.В. (2009). "Базовые механизмы аритмий сердца" [Basic mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias]. In Ardashev, prof. A.V. Клиническая аритмология [Clinical arrhythmology] (in Russian). Moscow: MedPraktika. p. 1220. ISBN 978-5-98803-198-7.
Papers
Jump up ^ Wiener, N.; Rosenblueth, A. (1946). "The mathematical formulation of the problem of conduction of impulses in a network of connected exitable elements, specifically in cardiac muscle". Arch. Inst. Cardiologia de Mexico (journal). 16 (3—4): 205–265.
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Hypothesis
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For the hypotheses of a theorem, see Theorem. For other uses, see Hypothesis (disambiguation).
"Hypothetical" redirects here. For the 2001 progressive metal album, see Hypothetical (album).
The hypothesis of Andreas Cellarius, showing the planetary motions in eccentric and epicyclical orbits.
Part of a series on
Certainty
Approximation
Belief
Certainty
Doubt
Determinism
Fallibilism
Fatalism
Hypothesis
Justification
Nihilism
Proof
Scientific theory
Skepticism
Solipsism
Theory
Truth
Uncertainty
Related concepts and fundamentals:
Agnosticism
Epistemology
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A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further research.[1]
A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denote the antecedent of a proposition; thus in the proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If question.
The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or "being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".
Contents
[hide]
1 Uses
2 Scientific hypothesis
3 Working hypothesis
4 Hypotheses, concepts and measurement
4.1 Statistical hypothesis testing
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Uses[edit]
Remember, the way that you prove an implication is by assuming the hypothesis. --Philip Wadler[2]
In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of the plot of a classical drama. The English word hypothesis comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόθεσις word hupothesis, meaning "to put under" or "to suppose".[1]
In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates dissects virtue with a method used by mathematicians,[3] that of "investigating from a hypothesis."[4] In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplifies cumbersome calculations.[5] Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of this usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.[6]
In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.[7] Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
In entrepreneurial science, a hypothesis is used to formulate provisional ideas within a business setting. The formulated hypothesis is then evaluated where either the hypothesis is proven to be "true" or "false" through a verifiability- or falsifiability-oriented experiment.[8][9][10]
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypothesis. A thought experiment might also be used to test the hypothesis as well.
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis.[11]:pp17,49–50 If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.
Scientific hypothesis[edit]
People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis, often called an "educated guess"[12][13] because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as incorrect. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.
According to Schick and Vaughn,[14] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:
Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
Parsimony (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities)
Scope – the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
Conservatism – the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems.
Working hypothesis[edit]
Main article: Working hypothesis
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research[15] in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails.[16] Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to the exploratory research purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research.[17][18]
The provisional nature of working hypotheses make them useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems that are still in a formative phase.[19]
In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, Karl Popper's colleague and student, respectively, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis.
Hypotheses, concepts and measurement[edit]
Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual framework. When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel "An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived."[20]
Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between a conceptual framework and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (interpreted framework). "The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific theory."[21] Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are ready to be tested. In "actual scientific practice the process of framing a theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the theoretician."[22] It is, however, "possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually."[22]
Statistical hypothesis testing[edit]
Main article: Statistical hypothesis testing
When a possible correlation or similar relation between phenomena is investigated, such as whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a disease, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such an investigation, if the tested remedy shows no effect in a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify the hypothesis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if the hypothesized relation does not exist. If that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may be due to pure chance.
In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are compared. These are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that states that there is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance).[23]
Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses (acceptable probabilities of wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. Whether the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, must be determined in advance, before the observations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested are already known, the test is invalid.[24]
The above procedure is actually dependent on the number of the participants (units or sample size) that is included in the study. For instance, the sample size may be too small to reject a null hypothesis and, therefore, it is recommended to specify the sample size from the beginning. It is advisable to define a small, medium and large effect size for each of a number of important statistical tests which are used to test the hypotheses.[25]
See also[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Hypothesis.
Axiom
Case study
Conjecture
Explanandum
Hypothesis theory – a research area in cognitive psychology
Logical positivism
Operationalization
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica – for Newton's position on hypotheses
Reductionism
Research design
Sociology of scientific knowledge
Theorem
Thesis statement
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc (1997). The ecological detective: confronting models with data. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-691-03497-3. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Philip Wadler, 2 November 2015 Keynote: Propositions as Types. Minute 14:36 /55:28 of Code Mesh video clip
Jump up ^ Wilbur R. Knorr, "Construction as existence proof in ancient geometry", p. 125, as selected by Jean Christianidis (ed.), Classics in the history of Greek mathematics, Kluwer.
Jump up ^ Gregory Vlastos, Myles Burnyeat (1994) Socratic studies, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-44735-6, p. 1
Jump up ^ "Neutral hypotheses, those of which the subject matter can never be directly proved or disproved, are very numerous in all sciences." — Morris Cohen and Ernest Nagel (1934) An introduction to logic and scientific method p. 375. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
Jump up ^ "Bellarmine (Ital. Bellarmino), Roberto Francesco Romolo", Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ... all he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis until it should receive scientific demonstration.' This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hypothesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 208.
Jump up ^ Crease, Robert P. (2008) The Great Equations ISBN 978-0-393-06204-5, p.112 lists the conservation of energy as an example of accounting a constant of motion. Hypothesized by Sadi Carnot, truth demonstrated by James Prescott Joule, proven by Emmy Noether.
Jump up ^ Harvard Business Review (2013) "Why Lean Startup Changes Everything"
Jump up ^ Tristan Kromer 2014 "Success Metric vs. Fail Condition"
Jump up ^ Lean Startup Circle "What is Lean Startup?"
Jump up ^ Popper 1959
Jump up ^ "When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses.", Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) "First Introduction to General Physics" ¶18. Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN 0-691-04334-5 p.297
Jump up ^ "In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it. ...", —Richard Feynman (1965) The Character of Physical Law p.156
Jump up ^ Schick, Theodore; Vaughn, Lewis (2002). How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-7674-2048-9.
Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Eprint via Answers.com.
Jump up ^ See in "hypothesis", Century Dictionary Supplement, v. 1, 1909, New York: The Century Company. Reprinted, v. 11, p. 616 (via Internet Archive) of the Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, 1911.
hypothesis [...]—Working hypothesis, a hypothesis suggested or supported in some measure by features of observed facts, from which consequences may be deduced which can be tested by experiment and special observations, and which it is proposed to subject to an extended course of such investigation, with the hope that, even should the hypothesis thus be overthrown, such research may lead to a tenable theory.
Jump up ^ Patricia M. Shields, Hassan Tajalli (2006). "Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholarship". Journal of Public Affairs Education. 12 (3): 313–334.
Jump up ^ Patricia M. Shields (1998). "Pragmatism As a Philosophy of Science: A Tool For Public Administration". In Jay D. White. Research in Public Administration. 4. pp. 195–225 [211]. ISBN 1-55938-888-9.
Jump up ^ Patricia M. Shields and Nandhini Rangarajan. 2013. A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management]. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. pp. 109-157
Jump up ^ Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 36
Jump up ^ Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research, CRC Press, 1990, Section 8.5,
Jump up ^ Mellenbergh, G.J.(2008). Chapter 8: Research designs: Testing of research hypotheses. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mellenbergh (Eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 183-209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing
Jump up ^ Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research, CRC Press, 1990, Section 15.3,
Bibliography[edit]
Popper, Karl R. (1959), The Logic of Scientific Discovery 1934, 1959.
External links[edit]
Look up hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Hypothesis
"How science works", Understanding Science by the University of California Museum of Paleontology.
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