text:
End of World War II in Europe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The German Instrument of Surrender signed at Reims, 7 May 1945
hide
v
t
e
West European Campaign (1944–45)
Overlord
Dragoon
Paris
Paris to the Rhine
Channel Coast
Market Garden
Aachen
Hürtgen Forest
Scheldt
Queen
Bulge
Nordwind
Blackcock
Colmar Pocket
Reichswald
Invasion of Germany
End of World War II in Europe
The final battles of the European Theatre of World War II as well as the German surrender to the Allies took place in late April and early May 1945.
Contents
[hide]
1 Timeline of surrenders and deaths
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
4.1 Citations
4.2 Sources
5 Further reading
6 External links
Timeline of surrenders and deaths[edit]
Main article: Timeline of Axis surrenders in World War II
Allied forces begin to take large numbers of Axis prisoners: The total number of prisoners taken on the Western Front in April 1945 by the Western Allies was 1,500,000.[1] April also witnessed the capture of at least 120,000 German troops by the Western Allies in the last campaign of the war in Italy.[2] In the three to four months up to the end of April, over 800,000 German soldiers surrendered on the Eastern Front.[2] In early April, the first Allied-governed Rheinwiesenlagers were established in western Germany to hold hundreds of thousands of captured or surrendered Axis Forces personnel. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) reclassified all prisoners as Disarmed Enemy Forces, not POWs (prisoners of war). The legal fiction circumvented provisions under the Geneva Convention of 1929 on the treatment of former combatants.[3] By October, thousands had died in the camps from starvation, exposure and disease.[4]
The Dachau death train consisted of nearly forty railcars containing the bodies of between 2,000 and 3,000 prisoners who were evacuated from Buchenwald on 7 April 1945.
Liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps and refugees: Allied forces began to discover the scale of the Holocaust. The advance into Germany uncovered numerous Nazi concentration camps and forced labor facilities. Up to 60,000 prisoners were at Bergen-Belsen when it was liberated on 15 April 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division.[5] Four days later troops from the American 42nd Infantry Division found Dachau.[6] Allied troops forced the remaining SS guards to gather up the corpses and place them in mass graves.[7] Due to the prisoners' poor physical condition, thousands continued to die after liberation.[8] Captured SS guards were subsequently tried at Allied war crimes tribunals where many were sentenced to death.[9] However, up to 10,000 Nazi war criminals eventually fled Europe using ratlines such as ODESSA.[10]
German forces leave Finland: On 25 April 1945, the last German formations withdrew from Finnish Lapland into occupied Norway. On 27 April 1945, the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph was taken.[11]
Mussolini's death: On 25 April 1945, Italian partisans liberated Milan and Turin. On 27 April 1945, as Allied forces closed in on Milan, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans. It is disputed whether he was trying to flee from Italy to Switzerland (through the Splügen Pass), and was traveling with a German anti-aircraft battalion. On 28 April, Mussolini was executed in Giulino (a civil parish of Mezzegra); the other Fascists captured with him were taken to Dongo and executed there. The bodies were then taken to Milan and hung up on the Piazzale Loreto of the city. On 29 April, Rodolfo Graziani surrendered all Fascist Italian armed forces at Caserta. This included Army Group Liguria. Graziani was the Minister of Defence for Mussolini's Italian Social Republic.
The front page of The Montreal Daily Star announcing the German surrender.
Final positions of the Allied armies, May 1945
Axis-held territory at the end of the war in Europe shown in blue
Keitel signs surrender terms, 8 May 1945 in Berlin
Hitler's death: On 30 April, as the Battle of Nuremberg and the Battle of Hamburg ended with American and British occupation, in addition to the Battle of Berlin raging above him with the Soviets surrounding the city, along with his escape route cut off by the Americans, realizing that all was lost and not wishing to suffer Mussolini's fate, German dictator Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his Führerbunker along with Eva Braun, his long-term partner whom he had married less than 40 hours before their joint suicide.[12] In his will, Hitler dismissed Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, his second-in-command and Interior minister Heinrich Himmler after each of them separately tried to seize control of the crumbling Third Reich. Hitler appointed his successors as follows; Großadmiral Karl Dönitz as the new Reichspräsident ("President of Germany") and Joseph Goebbels as the new Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany). However, Goebbels committed suicide the following day, leaving Dönitz as the sole leader of Germany.
German forces in Italy surrender: On 29 April, the day before Hitler died, Oberstleutnant Schweinitz and Sturmbannführer Wenner, plenipotentiaries for Generaloberst Heinrich von Vietinghoff and SS Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff, signed a surrender document at Caserta[13] after prolonged unauthorised secret negotiations with the Western Allies, which were viewed with great suspicion by the Soviet Union as trying to reach a separate peace. In the document, the Germans agreed to a ceasefire and surrender of all the forces under the command of Vietinghoff at 2pm on 2 May. Accordingly, after some bitter wrangling between Wolff and Albert Kesselring in the early hours of 2 May, nearly 1,000,000 men in Italy and Austria surrendered unconditionally to British Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander at 2pm on 2 May.[14]
German forces in Berlin surrender: The Battle of Berlin ended on 2 May. On that date, General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling, the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, unconditionally surrendered the city to General Vasily Chuikov of the Soviet army.[15] On the same day the officers commanding the two armies of Army Group Vistula north of Berlin, (General Kurt von Tippelskirch, commander of the German 21st Army and General Hasso von Manteuffel, commander of Third Panzer Army), surrendered to the Western Allies.[16] 2 May is also believed to have been the day when Hitler's deputy Martin Bormann died, from the account of Artur Axmann who saw Bormann's corpse in Berlin near the Lehrter Bahnhof railway station after encountering a Soviet Red Army patrol.[17] Lehrter Bahnhof is close to where the remains of Bormann, confirmed as his by a DNA test in 1998,[18] were unearthed on 7 December 1972.
German forces in North West Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands surrender: On 4 May 1945, the British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery took the unconditional military surrender at Lüneburg from Generaladmiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg, and General Eberhard Kinzel, of all German forces "in Holland [sic], in northwest Germany including the Frisian Islands and Heligoland and all other islands, in Schleswig-Holstein, and in Denmark… includ[ing] all naval ships in these areas",[19][20] at the Timeloberg on Lüneburg Heath; an area between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen. The number of German land, sea and air forces involved in this surrender amounted to 1,000,000 men.[21] On 5 May, Großadmiral Dönitz ordered all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases.
At 16:00, General Johannes Blaskowitz, the German commander-in-chief in the Netherlands, surrendered to Canadian General Charles Foulkes in the Dutch town of Wageningen in the presence of Prince Bernhard (acting as commander-in-chief of the Dutch Interior Forces).[22][23]
German forces in Bavaria surrender: At 14:30 on 4 May 1945, General Hermann Foertsch surrendered all forces between the Bohemian mountains and the Upper Inn river to the American General Jacob L. Devers, commander of the American 6th Army Group.
Central Europe: On 5 May 1945, the Czech resistance started the Prague uprising. The following day, the Soviets launched the Prague Offensive. In Dresden, Gauleiter Martin Mutschmann let it be known that a large-scale German offensive on the Eastern Front was about to be launched. Within two days, Mutschmann abandoned the city, but was captured by Soviet troops while trying to escape.[24]
Hermann Göring's surrender: On 6 May, Reichsmarshall and Hitler's second-in-command, Hermann Göring, surrendered to General Carl Spaatz, who was the commander of the operational United States Air Forces in Europe, along with his wife and daughter at the Germany-Austria border. He was by this time the most powerful Nazi official still alive.
German forces in Breslau surrender: At 18:00 on 6 May, General Hermann Niehoff, the commandant of Breslau, a 'fortress' city surrounded and besieged for months, surrendered to the Soviets.[23]
Jodl and Keitel surrender all German armed forces unconditionally: Thirty minutes after the fall of "Festung Breslau" (Fortress Breslau), General Alfred Jodl arrived in Reims and, following Dönitz's instructions, offered to surrender all forces fighting the Western Allies. This was exactly the same negotiating position that von Friedeburg had initially made to Montgomery, and like Montgomery the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, threatened to break off all negotiations unless the Germans agreed to a complete unconditional surrender to all the Allies on all fronts.[25] Eisenhower explicitly told Jodl that he would order western lines closed to German soldiers, thus forcing them to surrender to the Soviets.[25] Jodl sent a signal to Dönitz, who was in Flensburg, informing him of Eisenhower's declaration. Shortly after midnight, Dönitz, accepting the inevitable, sent a signal to Jodl authorizing the complete and total surrender of all German forces.[23][25]
At 02:41 on the morning of 7 May, at SHAEF headquarters in Reims, France, the Chief-of-Staff of the German Armed Forces High Command, General Alfred Jodl, signed an unconditional surrender document for all German forces to the Allies, committing representatives of the German High Command to attend a definitive signing ceremony in Berlin. General Franz Böhme announced the unconditional surrender of German troops in Norway on 7 May. It included the phrase "All forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European Time on May 8, 1945."[19][26] The next day, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and other German OKW representatives travelled to Berlin, and shortly before midnight signed an amended and definitive document of unconditional surrender, explicitly surrendering to all the Allied forces in the presence of Marshal Georgi Zhukov and representatives of SHAEF.[27] The signing ceremony took place in a former German Army Engineering School in the Berlin district of Karlshorst; it now houses the German-Russian Museum Berlin-Karlshorst.
German forces on the Channel Islands surrender: At 10:00 on 8 May, the Channel Islanders were informed by the German authorities that the war was over. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made a radio broadcast at 15:00 during which he announced: "Hostilities will end officially at one minute after midnight tonight, but in the interests of saving lives the 'Cease fire' began yesterday to be sounded all along the front, and our dear Channel Islands are also to be freed today."[28][26]
VE-Day: News of the imminent surrender broke in the West on 8 May, and celebrations erupted throughout Europe and parts of the British Empire. In the US, Americans awoke to the news and declared 8 May V-E Day. As the Soviet Union was to the east of Germany it was 9 May Moscow Time when the German military surrender became effective, which is why Russia and many other European countries east of Germany commemorate Victory Day on 9 May.
German units cease fire: Although the military commanders of most German forces obeyed the order to surrender issued by the (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW)—the German Armed Forces High Command), not all commanders did so. The largest contingent were Army Group Centre under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner who had been promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Army on 30 April in Hitler's last will and testament. On 8 May, Schörner deserted his command and flew to Austria; the Soviet Army sent overwhelming force against Army Group Centre in the Prague Offensive, forcing German units in Army Group Centre to capitulate by 11 May. The other forces which did not surrender on 8 May surrendered piecemeal:
The Second Army, under the command of General von Saucken, on the Heiligenbeil and Danzig beachheads, on the Hel Peninsula in the Vistula delta surrendered on 9 May, as did the forces on the Greek islands; and the garrisons of the last Atlantic pockets in France, in Saint-Nazaire, La Rochelle (after the Allied siege), and Lorient.
Battle of Slivice, the last battle in Czechoslovakia, on 12 May
On 13 May, the Red Army halted all offensives in Europe. Isolated pockets of resistance in Czechoslovakia were mopped up by this date.
People gathered in Whitehall to hear Winston Churchill's victory speech, 8 May 1945
The garrison on Alderney, one of the Channel Islands occupied by the Germans, surrendered on 16 May, one week after the garrisons on Guernsey and Jersey had surrendered on 9 May and those on Sark on 10 May.
The Georgian Uprising of Texel (5 April – 20 May) was Europe's last battlefield in World War II. It was fought between Georgian Nazi-collaborationist army units on Texel against the German occupiers of that Dutch island.
Another military engagement took place in Yugoslavia (today's Slovenia), on 14 and 15 May, known as the Battle of Poljana.
Last battle in Europe, Battle of Odžak between Yugoslav partisans and NDH forces, concludes on 25 of May . The remaining NDH soldiers escape to the forest.
A small group of German soldiers deployed on Svalbard in Operation Haudegen to establish and man a weather station there lost radio contact in May 1945; they surrendered to some Norwegian seal hunters on 4 September, two days after the Surrender of Japan.
Dönitz government ordered dissolved by Eisenhower: Karl Dönitz continued to act as if he were the German head of state, but his Flensburg government (so-called because it was based at Flensburg in northern Germany and controlled only a small area around the town), was not recognized by the Allies. On 12 May an Allied liaison team arrived in Flensburg and took quarters aboard the passenger ship Patria. The liaison officers and the Supreme Allied Headquarters soon realized that they had no need to act through the Flensburg government and that its members should be arrested. On 23 May, acting on SHAEF's orders and with the approval of the Soviets, American Major General Rooks summoned Dönitz aboard the Patria and communicated to him that he and all the members of his Government were under arrest, and that their government was dissolved. The Allies had a problem, because they realized that although the German armed forces had surrendered unconditionally, SHAEF had failed to use the document created by the "European Advisory Commission" (EAC) and so there had been no formal surrender by the civilian German government. This was considered a very important issue, because just as the civilian, but not military, surrender in 1918 had been used by Hitler to create the "stab in the back" argument, the Allies did not want to give any future hostile German regime a legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel.
Order JCS 1067 was signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman on 10 May 1945. This was part of the post-war economic plan that advocated how the Allied occupation would include measures to prevent Germany from waging further war by eliminating its armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries required for military strength. This included the removal or destruction of all industrial plants and equipment in the Ruhr.[29] In 1947, JCS 1067 was replaced by JCS 1779 that aimed at restoring a "stable and productive Germany"; this led to the introduction of the Marshall Plan.[30]
Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany and the Assumption of Supreme Authority by Allied Powers was signed by the four Allies on 5 June. It included the following:
The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom and the Provisional Government of the French Republic, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not effect[a] the annexation of Germany.
—  US Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series, No. 1520.[32]
The Oder-Neisse Line
It is disputed whether this assumption of power constituted debellation—the end of a war caused by the complete destruction of a hostile state.[33][34][b]
The Potsdam Agreement was signed on 12 August 1945. In connection with this, the leaders of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union planned the new postwar German government, resettled war territory boundaries, de facto annexed a quarter of pre-war Germany situated east of the Oder-Neisse line, and mandated and organized the expulsion of the millions of Germans who remained in the annexed territories and elsewhere in the east. They also ordered German demilitarization, denazification, industrial disarmament and settlements of war reparations. But, as France (at American insistence) had not been invited to the Potsdam Conference, so the French representatives on the Allied Control Council subsequently refused to recognise any obligation to implement the Potsdam Agreement; with the consequence that much of the programme envisaged at Potsdam, for the establishment of a German government and state adequate for accepting a peace settlement, remained a dead letter.
The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and US troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of pre-Nazi Weimar Germany, before the present Länder were established.
Allied Control Council created to effect the Allies assumed supreme authority over Germany, specifically to implement their assumed joint authority over Germany. On 30 August, the Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the Council's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the Commanders-in-Chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of the Council. Cessation of hostilities between the United States and Germany was proclaimed on 13 December 1946 by US President Truman.[35]
Paris Peace Conference ended on 10 February 1947 with the signing of peace treaties by the wartime Allies with the minor European Axis powers (Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland; although Italy by some was considered a major power).
The Federal Republic of Germany, that had been founded on 23 May 1949 (when its Basic Law was promulgated) had its first government formed on 20 September 1949 while the German Democratic Republic was formed on 7 October.
End of state of war with Germany was declared by many former Western Allies in 1950. In the Petersberg Agreement of 22 November 1949, it was noted that the West German government wanted an end to the state of war, but the request could not be granted. The US state of war with Germany was being maintained for legal reasons, and though it was softened somewhat it was not suspended since "the US wants to retain a legal basis for keeping a US force in Western Germany".[36] At a meeting for the Foreign Ministers of France, the UK, and the US in New York from 12 September – 19 December 1950, it was stated that among other measures to strengthen West Germany's position in the Cold War that the western allies would "end by legislation the state of war with Germany".[37] In 1951, many former Western Allies did end their state of war with Germany: Australia (9 July), Canada, Italy, New Zealand, the Netherlands (26 July), South Africa, the United Kingdom (9 July), and the United States (19 October).[38][39][40][41][42][43] The state of war between Germany and the Soviet Union was ended in early 1955.[44]
"The full authority of a sovereign state" was granted to the Federal Republic of Germany on 5 May 1955 under the terms of the Bonn–Paris conventions. The treaty ended the military occupation of West German territory, but the three occupying powers retained some special rights, e.g. vis-à-vis West Berlin.
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany: Under the terms of this peace treaty, the Four Powers renounced all rights they formerly held in Germany, including Berlin. As a result, Germany became fully sovereign on 15 March 1991. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Allies were allowed to keep troops in Berlin until the end of 1994 (articles 4 and 5). In accordance with the Treaty, occupying troops were withdrawn by that deadline.
US soldiers view the corpses of prisoners which lie strewn along the road in the newly liberated Ohrdruf concentration camp
See also[edit]
World War II portal
War portal
History portal
End of World War II in Asia
Aftermath of World War II
Allied Commissions
Council of Foreign Ministers
Effects of World War II
German Instrument of Surrender
Line of contact
Surrender of Japan
Western betrayal
German prisoners of war in northwest Europe
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Facsimile of the original text, the transcription used in the Avalon source for the paragraph is erroneous. In this case, "effect" is correct.[31] The implication is that annexation of Germany did not occur with the assumption of all the powers of the German state by the four Allied powers. However the next paragraph explicitly stated that the "[four Allied powers] will hereafter determine the boundaries of Germany or any part thereof and the status of Germany or of any area at present being part of German territory".[31]
Jump up ^ Although the Allied powers considered this a debellatio ( The human rights dimensions of population, UNHCR web site, p. 2 § 138 ) other authorities have argued that the vestiges of the German state continued to exist even though the Allied Control Council governed the territory; and that eventually a fully sovereign German government resumed over a state that never ceased to exist ( Junker, Detlef (2004), Junker, Detlef; Gassert, Philipp; Mausbach, Wilfried; et al., eds., The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945–1990: A Handbook, 2, Cambridge University Press, co-published with German Historical Institute, Washington D.C., p. 104, ISBN 0-521-79112-X .)
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ The Daily Telegraph Story of the War, (January 1st to October 7th 1945) page 153
^ Jump up to: a b the Times, 1 May 1945, page 4
Jump up ^ (Biddiscombe 1998, p. 253)
Jump up ^ Davidson, Eugene (1999). The Death and Life of Germany. University of Missouri Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0-8262-1249-2.
Jump up ^ "The 11th Armoured Division (Great Britain)", United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
Jump up ^ "Station 11: Crematorium – Dachau Concentration Camp Memorial Site". Kz-gedenkstaette-dachau.de. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Wiesel, Elie (2002). After the Darkness: Reflections on the Holocaust. New York, NY: Schocken Books. p. 41.
Jump up ^ Knoch, Habbo (2010). Bergen-Belsen: Wehrmacht POW Camp 1940–1945, Concentration Camp 1943–1945, Displaced Persons Camp 1945–1950. Catalogue of the permanent exhibition. Wallstein. p. 103. ISBN 978-3-8353-0794-0.
Jump up ^ Greene, Joshua (2003). Justice At Dachau: The Trials Of An American Prosecutor. New York: Broadway. p. 400. ISBN 0-7679-0879-1.
Jump up ^ Wiesenthal, Simon (1989). "Chapter 6: Odessa". Justice not Vengeance. George Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Jump up ^ Kulju, Mika (2017). "Chpt. 4". Käsivarren sota – lasten ristiretki 1944–1945 [The war in the Arm – children's crusade 1944–1945] (e-book) (in Finnish). Gummerus. ISBN 978-951-24-0770-5.
Jump up ^ Beevor 2002, p. 342.
Jump up ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr: United States Army in WWII, The Mediterranean - Cassino to the Alps. Page 524.
Jump up ^ Daily Telegraph Story of the War fifth volume page 153
Jump up ^ Dollinger, Hans. The Decline and the Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 67-27047. p. 239
Jump up ^ Ziemke 1969, p. 128.
Jump up ^ Beevor, Antony (2002). Berlin: The Downfall 1945. Viking-Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ Karacs, Imre (4 May 1998). "DNA test closes book on mystery of Martin Bormann". Independent. London. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b The German Surrender Documents – WWII
Jump up ^ "Monty Speech & German Surrender 1945". British Pathé. Retrieved December 2013. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Jump up ^ the Times, 5 May 1945, page 4
Jump up ^ World War II Timeline:western Europe: 1945 Archived 22 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ron Goldstein Field Marshal Keitel's surrender BBC additional comment by Peter – WW2 Site Helper
Jump up ^ [Page 228, "The Decline and Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan", Hans Dollinger (de), Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 67-27047]
^ Jump up to: a b c Ziemke 1969, p. 130.
^ Jump up to: a b During the summers of World War II, Britain was on British Double Summer Time which meant that the country was ahead of CET time by one hour. This means that the surrender time in the UK was "effective from 0001 hours on May 9".RAF Site Diary 7/8 May Archived 18 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ziemke 1990, p. 258 last paragraph.
Jump up ^ The Churchill Centre: The End of the War in Europe Archived 19 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Morgenthau, Henry (1944). "Suggested Post-Surrender Program for Germany [The original memorandum from 1944, signed by Morgenthau] (text and facsimile)". Box 31, Folder Germany: Jan.-Sept. 1944 (i297). Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum (published 27 May 2004). Archived from the original on 31 May 2013. Demilitarization of Germany: It should be the aim of the Allied Forces to accomplish the complete demilitarization of Germany in the shortest possible period of time after surrender. This means completely disarming the German Army and people (including the removal or destruction of all war material), the total destruction of the whole German armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries which are basic to military strength.
Jump up ^ Beschloss, Michael R (2003). The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945. Simon & Schuster. pp. 169–170. ISBN 0743244540.
^ Jump up to: a b Plenipotentiaries 1945, p. 1 (3 PDF).
Jump up ^ Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany Archived 18 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine., The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, Retrieved 14 September 2008
Jump up ^ United Nations War Crimes Commission (1997), Law reports of trials of war criminals: United Nations War Crimes Commission, Wm. S. Hein, p. 13, ISBN 1-57588-403-8
Jump up ^ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (PDF), II Part Two, 1993, p. 54)
Jump up ^ Werner v. United States (188 F.2d 266) Archived 14 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine., United States Court of Appeals Ninth Circuit, 4 April 1951. Website of Public.Resource.Org Archived 28 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ A Step Forward Time Magazine Monday, 28 November 1949
Jump up ^ Staff. Full text of "Britannica Book Of The Year 1951" Open-Access Text Archive. Retrieved 11 August 2008
Jump up ^ War's End Time Magazine, 16 July 1951
Jump up ^ Elihu Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood. International law reports. Volume 52, Cambridge University Press, 1979 ISBN 0-521-46397-1. p. 505
Jump up ^ James H. Marsh. World War II:Making the Peace, The Canadian Encyclopedia, Retrieved 11 August 2008
Jump up ^ 1951 in History BrainyMedia.com. Retrieved 11 August 2008
Jump up ^ H. Lauterpacht (editor), International law reports Volume 23. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-949009-37-7. p. 773
Jump up ^ US Code—Title 50 Appendix—War and National Defense Archived 6 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine., U.S. Government Printing Office Archived 29 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Spreading Hesitation Time Magazine Monday, 7 February 1955
Sources[edit]
Beevor, Antony (2002), Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking-Penguin Books, p. 342
Plenipotentiaries (5 June 1945), "Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany and the Assumption of Supreme Authority with respect to Germany by the United Kingdom, the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the provisional government of the French Republic (facsimile)", Germany No. i (1945): Unconditional Surrender of Germany Declaration and other Documents issued by the Governments of the United Kingdom, the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the Provisional Government of the French Republic (PDF), pp. 1–6 (3–7 PDF), retrieved December 2013 Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Ziemke, Earl F. (1969), Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich, London: Macdomald & Co, p. 128
Ziemke, Earl F. (1990), "Chapter XV: The Victory Sealed: Surrender at Reims", The U.S. Army in the occupation of Germany 1944–1946, Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D. C., Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-619027
Further reading[edit]
Deutsche Welle special coverage of the end of World War II—features a global perspective.
On this Day 7 May 1945: Germany signs unconditional surrender
Account of German surrender, BBC
Charles Kiley (Stars and Stripes Staff Writer).Details of the Surrender Negotiations This Is How Germany Gave Up
London '45 Victory Parade, photos and the exclusion of the Polish ally
Multimedia map of the war (1024x768 & Macromedia Flash Plugin 7.x)
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
German Instrument of Surrender, 1945
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Winston Churchill announces the Surrender of Germany
The short film A DEFEATED PEOPLE (1946) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
End of World War II in Europe is available for free download at the Internet Archive
show
v
t
e
World War II
Asia and the Pacific
China
South-East Asia
North and Central Pacific
South-West Pacific
Europe
Western
Eastern
Mediterranean and Middle East
North Africa
East Africa
Italy
West Africa
Atlantic
North America
South America
Casualties
Military engagements
Conferences
Commanders
Participants
Allies
(leaders)
Australia
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
China
Cuba
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Ethiopia
France
Free France (from June 1940)
Greece
India
Italy (from September 1943)
Luxembourg
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Philippines (Commonwealth)
Poland
South Africa
Southern Rhodesia
Soviet Union
United Kingdom
United States
Puerto Rico
Yugoslavia
Axis and
Axis-aligned
(leaders)
Albania
Bulgaria
Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China
Independent State of Croatia
Finland
Germany
Hungary
Free India
Iraq
Italy (until September 1943)
Italian Social Republic
Japan
Manchukuo
Philippines (Second Republic)
Romania
Slovakia
Thailand
Vichy France
Armed neutrality
Resistance
Albania
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech lands
Denmark
Estonia
Ethiopia
France
Germany
Greece
Hong Kong
Italy
Japan
Jewish
Korea
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malaya
Netherlands
Northeast China
Norway
Philippines
Poland
Anti-communist
Romania
Thailand
Soviet Union
Slovakia
Western Ukraine
Vietnam
Yugoslavia
Monarchists
Timeline
Prelude
Africa
Asia
Europe
1939
Poland
Phoney War
Winter War
Atlantic
Changsha
China
1940
Weserübung
Netherlands
Belgium
France
Armistice of 22 June 1940
Britain
North Africa
West Africa
British Somaliland
North China
Baltic States
Moldova
Indochina
Greece
Compass
1941
East Africa
Yugoslavia
Shanggao
Greece
Crete
Iraq
Soviet Union (Barbarossa)
Finland
Lithuania
Syria and Lebanon
Kiev
Iran
Leningrad
Gorky
Moscow
Sevastopol
Pearl Harbor
The outbreak of the Pacific War
Hong Kong
Philippines
Changsha
Malaya
Borneo (1941–42)
1942
Burma
Changsha
Java Sea
Coral Sea
Gazala
Dutch Harbor
Attu (occupation)
Kiska
Zhejiang-Jiangxi
Midway
Rzhev
Blue
Stalingrad
Singapore
Dieppe
El Alamein
Guadalcanal
Torch
1943
Tunisia
Kursk
Smolensk
Gorky
Solomon Islands
Attu
Sicily
Cottage
Lower Dnieper
Italy
Armistice of Cassibile
Gilbert and Marshall Islands
Burma
Northern Burma and Western Yunnan
Changde
1944
Monte Cassino / Shingle
Narva
Korsun–Cherkassy
Tempest
Ichi-Go
Overlord
Neptune
Normandy
Mariana and Palau
Bagration
Western Ukraine
Tannenberg Line
Warsaw
Eastern Romania
Belgrade
Paris
Dragoon
Gothic Line
Market Garden
Estonia
Crossbow
Pointblank
Lapland
Hungary
Leyte
Ardennes
Bodenplatte
Philippines (1944–1945)
Burma (1944–45)
1945–1991
Vistula–Oder
Iwo Jima
Western invasion of Germany
Okinawa
Italy (Spring 1945)
Borneo
Syrmian Front
Berlin
Czechoslovakia
Budapest
West Hunan
Guangxi
Surrender of Germany
Project Hula
Manchuria
Manila
Borneo
Taipei
Atomic bombings
Debate
Kuril Islands
Shumshu
Surrender of Japan
End of World War II in Asia
Aspects
General
Famines
Bengal famine of 1943
Chinese famine of 1942–43
Greek Famine of 1941-1944
Dutch famine of 1944–45
Vietnamese Famine of 1945
Air warfare of World War II
Blitzkrieg
Comparative military ranks
Cryptography
Diplomacy
Home front
United States
Australian
United Kingdom
Lend-Lease
Manhattan Project
Military awards
Military equipment
Military production
Nazi plunder
Opposition
Technology
Allied cooperation
Total war
Strategic bombing
Puppet states
Women
Art and World War II
Aftermath
Expulsion of Germans
Operation Paperclip
Operation Osoaviakhim
Operation Keelhaul
Occupation of Germany
Territorial changes of Germany
Soviet occupations
Romania
Poland
Hungary
Baltic States
Occupation of Japan
First Indochina War
Indonesian National Revolution
Cold War
Decolonization
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
Popular culture
War crimes
Allied war crimes
Soviet war crimes
British war crimes
United States war crimes
German (Forced labour) / Wehrmacht war crimes
Holocaust
Aftermath
Response
Prosecution
Italian war crimes
Japanese war crimes
Unit 731
Prosecution
Croatian war crimes
against the Serbs
against the Jews
Romanian war crimes
Wartime
sexual violence
German military brothels
Camp brothels
Rape during the occupation of Japan
Sook Ching
Comfort women
Rape of Nanking
Rape of Manila
Rape during the occupation of Germany
Rape during the liberation of France
Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland
Prisoners
Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
German prisoners of war in the United States
Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
Japanese prisoners of war in World War II
German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war
Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
Soviet prisoners of war in Finland
Bibliography
Category
Portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe&oldid=841817276"
Categories:
1945 in military history
1945 in Europe
European theatre of World War II
Military history of Germany during World War II
Chronology of World War II
Hidden categories:
CS1 Finnish-language sources (fi)
CS1 errors: dates
Webarchive template wayback links
Interlanguage link template link number
Use dmy dates from June 2017
Articles with Internet Archive links
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Español
فارسی
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Português
Română
Русский
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Українська
中文
9 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 18 May 2018, at 08:00.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: class style

attrs: class role tabindex

value: abbr

attrs: title style

values: Template:Campaignbox Western Europe 1944–1945

value: li

values: Template talk:Campaignbox Western Europe 1944–1945

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: Edit section: Timeline of surrenders and deaths

values: Timeline of Axis surrenders in World War II

values:
/wiki/Axis_Forces
mw-redirect
Axis Forces

values: Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force

values:
/wiki/11th_Armoured_Division
mw-redirect
11th Armoured Division

values: Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn

values:
/wiki/Italian_partisans
mw-redirect
Italian partisans

values:
/wiki/The_Montreal_Daily_Star
mw-redirect
The Montreal Daily Star

values:
/wiki/Interior_minister
mw-redirect
Interior minister

values:
/wiki/Third_Reich
mw-redirect
Third Reich

values:
/wiki/Palace_of_Caserta
mw-redirect
Palace of Caserta

values:
/wiki/Harold_Alexander
mw-redirect
Harold Alexander

values:
/wiki/Lehrter_Bahnhof
mw-redirect
Lehrter Bahnhof

values:
/wiki/Field_Marshal
mw-redirect
Field Marshal

values: Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein

values:
/wiki/Bremen_(city)
mw-redirect
Bremen (city)

values:
/wiki/Charles_Foulkes_(Canadian)
mw-redirect
Charles Foulkes (Canadian)

values:
/wiki/Prince_Bernhard
mw-redirect
Prince Bernhard

values:
/wiki/American_6th_Army_Group
mw-redirect
American 6th Army Group

values:
/wiki/Carl_Spaatz
mw-redirect
Carl Spaatz

values:
/wiki/Festung_Breslau
mw-redirect
Festung Breslau

values:
/wiki/Georgi_Zhukov
mw-redirect
Georgi Zhukov

values: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands

values:
/wiki/Channel_Island
mw-redirect
Channel Island

values:
/wiki/Victory_Day_(Eastern_Europe)
mw-redirect
Victory Day (Eastern Europe)

values: German occupation of the Channel Islands

values:
/wiki/Georgian_Uprising_of_Texel
mw-redirect
Georgian Uprising of Texel

values:
/wiki/Georgian_Legion_(1941%E2%80%9345)
mw-redirect
Georgian Legion (1941–45)

values:
/wiki/Flensburg_government
mw-redirect
Flensburg government

values:
/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line
mw-redirect
Oder-Neisse line

values:
/wiki/Industrial_plans_for_Germany
mw-redirect
Industrial plans for Germany

values: Map showing the Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany

values:
/wiki/Weimar_Germany
mw-redirect
Weimar Germany

values:
/wiki/Harry_S.Truman
mw-redirect
Harry S.Truman

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Effects_of_World_War_II
mw-redirect
Effects of World War II

values: German prisoners of war in northwest Europe

values:
/wiki/German_Historical_Institute
mw-redirect
German Historical Institute

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values:
nofollow
http://www.justiceatdachau.com/
external text

values:
noprint
font-size:85%; font-style: normal;

values:
/wiki/British_Double_Summer_Time
mw-redirect
British Double Summer Time

values:
/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau,_Jr.
mw-redirect
Henry Morgenthau, Jr.

values:
/wiki/The_Avalon_Project
mw-redirect
The Avalon Project

values:
nofollow
http://bulk.resource.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/Time_Magazine
mw-redirect
Time Magazine

values:
nofollow
external text
https://archive.org/details/texts

values:
nofollow
http://www.brainyhistory.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.gpo.gov/factsheet/index.html

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Center of Military History, United States Army

values:
nofollow
http://web.empacc.net/~booklink/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://english.pobediteli.ru/
external text

values: wikisource:German Instrument of Surrender, 1945

values: wikisource:Winston Churchill announces the Surrender of Germany

values: South-East Asian theatre of World War II

values: South West Pacific theatre of World War II

values: Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II

values: List of military engagements of World War II

values:
*_Asia_and_the_Pacific
**China
**South-East_Asia
**North_and_Central_Pacific
**South-West_Pacific
*_Europe
**Western
**Eastern
*_Mediterranean_and_Middle_East
**_North_Africa
**_East_Africa
**_Italy
*_West_Africa
*_Atlantic
*_North_America
*_South_America

*_Casualties
*_Military_engagements
*_Conferences
*_Commanders

values: Military history of Australia during World War II

values: Military history of Canada during World War II

values: Military history of Greece during World War II

values: Military history of the Netherlands during World War II

values: Military history of New Zealand during World War II

values: Military history of the Philippines during World War II

values: Military history of South Africa during World War II

values: Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II

values: Military history of the United States during World War II

values: Military history of Bulgaria during World War II

values: Military history of Finland during World War II

values: Military history of Italy during World War II

values:
/wiki/Armed_neutrality
mw-redirect
Armed neutrality

values: Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II

values: Resistance in German-occupied Czechoslovakia

values: Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–44

values: Japanese dissidence during the early Shōwa period

values: Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe

values: Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–45

values: Resistance in Lithuania during World War II

values: Polish resistance movement in World War II

values: Romanian anti-communist resistance movement

values: Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

values: Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan

values:
/wiki/Raid_on_Taihoku
mw-redirect
Raid on Taihoku

values: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

values: Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

values: Famines row navbox-group width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;

values: Comparative officer ranks of World War II

values: United States home front during World War II

values: Australian home front during World War II

values: Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II

values: Lists of World War II military equipment

values: Allied technological cooperation during World War II

values: Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)

values: Military occupations by the Soviet Union

values: Forced labour under German rule during World War II

values: International Military Tribunal for the Far East

values: The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia

values: German military brothels in World War II

values:
/wiki/Rape_of_Manila
mw-redirect
Rape of Manila

values: Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland

values: Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

values: German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

values: German prisoners of war in the United States

values: Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

values: Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

values: Japanese prisoners of war in World War II

values: German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war

values: Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939

values: Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:European theatre of World War II

values: Category:Military history of Germany during World War II

values: Category:CS1 Finnish-language sources (fi)

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Interlanguage link template link number

values: Category:Articles with Internet Archive links

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: نهاية الحرب العالمية الثانية في أوروبا – Arabic

values: Край на Втората световна война в Европа – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values: Fin de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Europa – Spanish

values: پایان جنگ جهانی دوم در اروپا – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale en Europe – French

values: 유럽의 제2차 세계 대전 종전 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Akhir Perang Dunia II di Eropa – Indonesian

values: Fine della seconda guerra mondiale in Europa – Italian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: Einde van de Tweede Wereldoorlog in Europa – Dutch

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: 欧州戦線における終戦 (第二次世界大戦) – Japanese

values: Fim da Segunda Guerra Mundial na Europa – Portuguese

values: Sfârșitul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial în Europa – Romanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Завершение Второй мировой войны в Европе – Russian

values: ஐரோப்பாவில் இரண்டாம் உலகப் போரின் முடிவு – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Avrupa'da II. Dünya Savaşı'nın Sonu – Turkish

values: Завершення Другої світової війни у Європі – Ukrainian

values: 第二次世界大戰歐洲戰場的結束 – Chinese

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe rootpage-End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe skin-vector action-view


text:
Endocrine system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Endocrine system
Main glands of the endocrine system. Note that the thymus is no longer considered part of the endocrine system, as it does not produce hormones.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Systema endocrinum
MeSH
D004703
FMA
9668
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that carry those hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.[1]
Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.[1]
The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively short distance.
The word endocrine derives via New Latin from the Greek words ἔνδον, endon, "inside, within," and "exocrine" from the κρίνω, krīnō, "to separate, distinguish".
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Major endocrine systems
1.2 Glands
1.3 Cells
2 Development
3 Function
3.1 Hormones
3.2 Cell signalling
3.2.1 Autocrine
3.2.2 Paracrine
3.2.3 Juxtacrine
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Disease
5 Other animals
6 Additional images
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Structure[edit]
Major endocrine systems[edit]
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.[2]
TRH – TSH – T3/T4
GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones
CRH – ACTH – cortisol
Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone
leptin vs. insulin
Glands[edit]
Main article: Endocrine gland
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into insterstitial spaces and then absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.
Cells[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Development[edit]
Main article: Development of the endocrine system
Function[edit]
See also: List of human endocrine organs and actions
Hormones[edit]
Main article: Hormone
A hormone is a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.[3][4]
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic[disambiguation needed] responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
Cell signalling[edit]
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
Autocrine[edit]
Main article: Autocrine signalling
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
Paracrine[edit]
Main article: Paracrine signaling
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.[1]
Juxtacrine[edit]
Main article: Juxtacrine signalling
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.[5]
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.[6]
Clinical significance[edit]
Disease[edit]
Disability-adjusted life year for endocrine disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.[7]
no data
less than 80
80–160
160–240
240–320
320–400
400–480
480–560
560–640
640–720
720–800
800–1000
more than 1000
Main article: Endocrine diseases
Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[8] including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.[citation needed]
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.[9]
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison's disease, Cushing's disease and Graves's disease. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism . Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands.[10] Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism.[11] Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.[12]
Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.[11] Graves' disease effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.[6]
Other animals[edit]
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have an hypothalamus-pituitary axis.[13] All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form.[14][15] All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers.[16] All vertebrates have some form of renin–angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as primary mineralocorticoid.[17][18]
Additional images[edit]
Female endocrine system.
Male endocrine system
See also[edit]
Endocrine disease
Endocrinology
List of human endocrine organs and actions
Neuroendocrinology
Nervous system
Paracrine signalling
Releasing hormones
Tropic hormone
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Marieb, Elaine (2014). Anatomy & physiology. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN 978-0321861580.
Jump up ^ Sherwood, L. (1997). "Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems". Wadsworth Pub Co. ISBN 0495391840.
Jump up ^ Neave N (2008). Hormones and behaviour: a psychological approach. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0521692014. Lay summary – Project Muse.
Jump up ^ "Hormones". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F. (2000-01-01). "Juxtacrine Signaling".
^ Jump up to: a b Vander, Arthur (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 332–333. ISBN 007304962X.
Jump up ^ "Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002" (xls). World Health Organization. 2002.
Jump up ^ Kasper (2005). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. p. 2074. ISBN 0-07-139140-1.
Jump up ^ Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, Gorska AE, Dumont N, Shappell S, Washington MK, Neilson EG, Moses HL (2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia". Science. 303 (5659): 848–51. Bibcode:2004Sci...303..848B. doi:10.1126/science.1090922. PMID 14764882.
Jump up ^ Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Paun DL, Mirica A, Dumitrache C (2016). "Cushing's disease: a multidisciplinary overview of the clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment". Journal of Medicine & Life. 9 (1): 12–18. PMC 5152600  . PMID 27974908.
^ Jump up to: a b Vander, Arthur (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 345–347. ISBN 007304962X.
Jump up ^ Inder, Warrick J.; Meyer, Caroline; Hunt, Penny J. (2015-06-01). "Management of hypertension and heart failure in patients with Addison's disease". Clinical Endocrinology. 82 (6): 789–792. doi:10.1111/cen.12592.
Jump up ^ Hartenstein V (September 2006). "The neuroendocrine system of invertebrates: a developmental and evolutionary perspective". The Journal of Endocrinology. 190 (3): 555–70. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06964. PMID 17003257.
Jump up ^ Dickhoff, Walton W.; Darling, Douglas S. (1983). "Evolution of Thyroid Function and Its Control in Lower Vertebrates". American Zoologist. 23 (3): 697–707. doi:10.1093/icb/23.3.697. JSTOR 3882951.
Jump up ^ Galton, Valerie Anne (1 January 1988). "The Role of Thyroid Hormone in Amphibian Development". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 28 (2): 309–18. doi:10.1093/icb/28.2.309. JSTOR 3883279.
Jump up ^ Pohorecky LA, Wurtman RJ (March 1971). "Adrenocortical control of epinephrine synthesis". Pharmacological Reviews. 23 (1): 1–35. PMID 4941407.
Jump up ^ Wilson JX (1984). "The renin–angiotensin system in nonmammalian vertebrates". Endocrine Reviews. 5 (1): 45–61. doi:10.1210/edrv-5-1-45. PMID 6368215.
Jump up ^ Colombo L, Dalla Valle L, Fiore C, Armanini D, Belvedere P (April 2006). "Aldosterone and the conquest of land". Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 29 (4): 373–9. doi:10.1007/bf03344112. PMID 16699307.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Human Physiology has a page on the topic of: The endocrine system
The Wikibook Anatomy and Physiology of Animals has a page on the topic of: Endocrine System
Library resources about
Endocrine system
Resources in your library
[show]
v
t
e
Human systems and organs
Musculoskeletal
Skeletal system
Bone
Carpus
Collar bone (clavicle)
Thigh bone (femur)
Fibula
Humerus
Mandible
Metacarpus
Metatarsus
Ossicles
Patella
Phalanges
Radius
Skull
Tarsus
Tibia
Ulna
Rib
Vertebra
Pelvis
Sternum
Cartilage
Joints
Fibrous joint
Cartilaginous joint
Synovial joint
Muscular system
Muscle
Tendon
Diaphragm
Circulatory system
Cardiovascular system
peripheral
Artery
Vein
Lymphatic vessel
Heart
Lymphatic system
primary
Bone marrow
Thymus
secondary
Spleen
Lymph node
CNS equivalent
Glymphatic system
Nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerve
Sensory system
Ear
Eye
Integumentary system
Skin
Subcutaneous tissue
Breast
Mammary gland
Immune system
Myeloid
Myeloid immune system
Lymphoid
Lymphoid immune system
Respiratory system
Upper
Nose
Nasopharynx
Larynx
Lower
Trachea
Bronchus
Lung
Digestive system
Mouth
Salivary gland
Tongue
upper GI
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
lower GI
Small intestine
Appendix
Colon
Rectum
Anus
accessory
Liver
Biliary tract
Pancreas
Urinary system
Genitourinary system
Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Reproductive system
Female
Uterus
Vagina
Vulva
Ovary
Placenta
Male
Scrotum
Penis
Prostate
Testicle
Seminal vesicle
Endocrine system
Pituitary
Pineal
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenal
Islets of Langerhans
[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the endocrine system
Pituitary gland
Anterior
Pars intermedia
Pars tuberalis
Pars distalis
Acidophil cell
Somatotropic cell
Prolactin cell
Somatomammotrophic cell
Basophil cell
Corticotropic cell
Gonadotropic cell
Thyrotropic cell
Chromophobe cell
Posterior
Pars nervosa
Median eminence
Stalk
Pituicyte
Herring bodies
Thyroid
Follicular cell
Parafollicular cell
Parathyroid gland
Chief cell
Oxyphil cell
Adrenal gland
Cortex
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
Medulla
Chromaffin cell
Gonads
Testicle
Leydig cell
Sertoli cell
Ovary
Theca interna
Granulosa cell
Corpus luteum
Islets of pancreas
Alpha cell
Beta cell
PP cell
Delta cell
Epsilon cell
Pineal gland
Pinealocyte
Corpora arenacea
Other
Enteroendocrine cell
Paraganglia
Organ of Zuckerkandl
Placenta
Development
List of human endocrine organs and actions
[show]
v
t
e
Hormones
Endocrine
glands
Hypothalamic-
pituitary
Hypothalamus
GnRH
TRH
Dopamine
CRH
GHRH
Somatostatin (GHIH)
MCH
Posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Anterior pituitary
FSH
LH
TSH
Prolactin
POMC
CLIP
ACTH
MSH
Endorphins
Lipotropin
GH
Adrenal axis
Adrenal cortex
aldosterone
cortisol
cortisone
DHEA
DHEA-S
androstenedione
Adrenal medulla
epinephrine
norepinephrine
Thyroid
Thyroid hormones
T3
T4
Calcitonin
Thyroid axis
Parathyroid
PTH
Gonadal axis
Testis
testosterone
AMH
inhibin
Ovary
estradiol
progesterone
activin and inhibin
relaxin
Placenta
hCG
HPL
estrogen
progesterone
Pancreas
glucagon
insulin
amylin
somatostatin
pancreatic polypeptide
Pineal gland
melatonin
N,N-dimethyltryptamine
5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
Other
Thymus
Thymosins
Thymosin α1
Beta thymosins
Thymopoietin
Thymulin
Digestive system
Stomach
gastrin
ghrelin
Duodenum
CCK
Incretins
GIP
GLP-1
secretin
motilin
VIP
Ileum
enteroglucagon
peptide YY
Liver/other
Insulin-like growth factor
IGF-1
IGF-2
Adipose tissue
leptin
adiponectin
resistin
Skeleton
Osteocalcin
Kidney
renin
EPO
calcitriol
prostaglandin
Heart
Natriuretic peptide
ANP
BNP
Authority control
GND: 4113434-5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endocrine_system&oldid=843530546"
Categories:
Endocrine system
Human female endocrine system
Hidden categories:
Pages with unresolved properties
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Articles to be expanded from November 2017
All articles to be expanded
Articles using small message boxes
All articles with links needing disambiguation
Articles with links needing disambiguation from March 2017
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Français
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
Kapampangan
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русиньскый
Русский
Саха тыла
संस्कृतम्
Scots
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
88 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 29 May 2018, at 19:00.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: i

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: href title

attrs: scope style

values:
/wiki/Thyroid_gland
mw-redirect
Thyroid gland

values:
/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract
mw-redirect
Human gastrointestinal tract

values:
/wiki/Exocrine_system
mw-redirect
Exocrine system

values:
/wiki/Feedback_loop
mw-redirect
Feedback loop

values: plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content

values: List of human endocrine organs and actions

values:
/wiki/Autocrine_signaling
mw-redirect
Autocrine signaling

values:
/wiki/Sensory_perception
mw-redirect
Sensory perception

values:
/wiki/Stress_(physiology)
mw-redirect
Stress (physiology)

values:
/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)
mw-redirect
Transcription (genetics)

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_membrane
mw-redirect
Nuclear membrane

values:
/wiki/Paracrine_signaling
mw-redirect
Paracrine signaling

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #b3b3b3; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffff65; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #fff200; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffdc00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffc600; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffb000; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff9a00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff8400; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff6e00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff5800; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff4200; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff2c00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #cb0000; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values:
/wiki/Endocrine_diseases
mw-redirect
Endocrine diseases

values:
/wiki/Chronic_renal_failure
mw-redirect
Chronic renal failure

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2009)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Graves%27s_disease
mw-redirect
Graves's disease

values:
/wiki/Releasing_hormone
mw-redirect
Releasing hormone

values: -moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em;

values:
/wiki/McGraw_Hill
mw-redirect
McGraw Hill

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1090922

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14764882

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27974908

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1111%2Fcen.12592

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.1.06964

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17003257

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F23.3.697

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3882951

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F28.2.309

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3883279

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4941407

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fedrv-5-1-45

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6368215

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf03344112

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16699307

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: wikibooks:Human Physiology/The endocrine system

values: wikibooks:Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

values: wikibooks:Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Endocrine System

values:
plainlist
padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Sensory_system
mw-redirect
Sensory system

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Prolactin_cell
mw-redirect
Prolactin cell

values:
/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans
mw-redirect
Islets of Langerhans

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary_hormone
mw-redirect
Hypothalamic-pituitary hormone

values:
/wiki/Growth_hormone_releasing_hormone
mw-redirect
Growth hormone releasing hormone

values:
/wiki/Melanin_concentrating_hormone
mw-redirect
Melanin concentrating hormone

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4113434-5

values: Category:Pages with unresolved properties

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from November 2017

values: Category:Articles using small message boxes

values: Category:All articles with links needing disambiguation

values: Category:Articles with links needing disambiguation from March 2017

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Endocrine_system
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: جهاز الغدد الصماء – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values: অন্তঃস্ৰাৱী তন্ত্ৰ – Assamese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-as
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: অন্তঃক্ষরা তন্ত্র – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Эндокрин система – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Эндакрынная сістэма – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Эндакрынная сыстэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values: Ендокринна система – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: އެންޑަކްރިން ނިޒާމް – Divehi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Ενδοκρινικό σύστημα – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: دستگاه درون‌ریز – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 내분비계통 – Korean

values: Ներզատական համակարգ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: अंतःस्रावी तंत्र – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values: המערכת האנדוקרינית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pam
display: none;

values: Эндокриндік жүйе – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Эндокрин системасы – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Ендокрин систем – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: അന്തഃസ്രാവീ വ്യൂഹം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: အတွင်းထုတ် ဂလင်းအဖွဲ့ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values: इन्दोक्राइन सिस्तम – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Det endokrine systemet – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: ਐਂਡੋਕਰਾਈਨ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values: اینڈوکرائن پربندھ – Western Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Ендокрінна сістема – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Эндокринная система – Russian

values: Эндокрин система – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: मेदोजीरकग्रन्थिः – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endokrin
Endokrin – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values: අන්තරාසර්ග පද්ධතිය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: کۆئەندامی کوێرەڕژێنە – Central Kurdish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Ендокрини систем – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: அகச்சுரப்பித் தொகுதி – Tamil

values: Эндокрин система – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: వినాళ గ్రంధులు – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: ระบบต่อมไร้ท่อ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Ендокринна система – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: افرازی نظام – Urdu

values: ئىچكى ئاجراتما سىستېمىسى – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values: ענדאקרינאלע סיסטעם – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Endocrine_system rootpage-Endocrine_system skin-vector action-view