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Epidermis
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This article is about human skin. For the outer layer of cells in plants, see Epidermis (botany). For other uses, see Epidermis (disambiguation).
Epidermis
Histologic image of epidermis, delimited by white bar.
Histologic image detailing epidermal layers. Stratum corneum appears more compact in this image than above because of different sample preparation.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Epidermis
Code
TH H3.12.00.1.01001
TA
A16.0.00.009
TH
H3.12.00.1.01001
FMA
70596
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The epidermis is the outer (ἐπί epi in Greek meaning "over" or "upon") of the two layers that make up the skin (or cutis; Greek δέρμα derma), the inner layer being the dermis.[1] This skin layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens[2] and regulates the amount of water released from the body into the atmosphere through transepidermal water loss (TEWL).[3]
The outermost part of the epidermis is composed of stratified layers of flattened cells,[4] that overlies a basal layer (stratum basale) composed of columnar cells arranged perpendicularly.
The rows of cells develop from the stem cells in the basal layer. ENaCs are found to be expressed in all layers of the epidermis.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cellular components
1.2 Cell junctions
1.3 Layers
1.4 Cellular kinetics
1.4.1 Cell division
1.4.2 Calcium concentration
1.5 Development
2 Function
2.1 Barrier
2.1.1 Characteristics of the barrier
2.1.2 Factors that alter the barrier
2.2 Skin hydration
2.3 Skin color
3 Clinical significance
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
Structure[edit]
Cellular components[edit]
The epidermis has no blood supply and is nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air.[6] It is 95% keratinocytes[4] (proliferating basal and differentiated suprabasal) but also contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells,[1] and inflammatory cells. Rete ridges (or rete pegs) are epidermal thickenings that extend downward between dermal papillae.[7] Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule.
Cell junctions[edit]
In the epidermis, the cells are tightly interconnected to serve as a tight barrier. The junctions between the epidermal cells is adherens junction type. These junctions are formed by transmembrane proteins called cadherins. Inside the cell, the cadherins are linked to actin filaments. In immunofluorescence microscopy, the actin filament network appears as a thick border surrounding the cells.[5] Yet, as noted, the actin filaments are located inside the cell and run parallel to the cell membrane. Because of the proximity of the neighboring cells and tightness of the junctions, the actin immunofluorescence appears as a border between cells.[5]
Layers[edit]
Schematic image showing a section of epidermis with epidermal layers labeled.
The epidermis is composed of 4 or 5 layers depending on the region of skin being considered.[8] Those layers in descending order are:[2]
cornified layer (stratum corneum)
Confocal image of the stratum corneum
Composed of 10 to 30 layers of polyhedral, anucleated corneocytes (final step of keratinocyte differentiation), with the palms and soles having the most layers. Corneocytes are surrounded by a protein envelope (cornified envelope proteins), filled with water-retaining keratin proteins, attached together through corneodesmosomes and surrounded in the extracellular space by stacked layers of lipids.[9] Most of the barrier functions of the epidermis localize to this layer.[10]
clear/translucent layer (stratum lucidum, only in palms and soles)
The skin found in the palms and soles is known as "thick skin" because it has 5 epidermal layers instead of 4.
granular layer (stratum granulosum)
Confocal image of the stratum corneum
Keratinocytes lose their nuclei and their cytoplasm appears granular. Lipids, contained into those keratinocytes within lamellar bodies, are released into the extracellular space through exocytosis to form a lipid barrier. Those polar lipids are then converted into non-polar lipids and arranged parallel to the cell surface. For example glycosphingolipids become ceramides and phospholipids become free fatty acids.[9]
spinous layer (stratum spinosum)
Confocal image of the stratum spinosum already showing some clulsters of basal cells
Keratinocytes become connected through desmosomes and start produce lamellar bodies, from within the Golgi, enriched in polar lipids, glycosphingolipids, free sterols, phospholipids and catabolic enzymes.[3] Langerhans cells, immunologically active cells, are located in the middle of this layer.[9]
basal/germinal layer (stratum basale/germinativum).
Confocal image of the stratum basale already showing some papillae
Composed mainly of proliferating and non-proliferating keratinocytes, attached to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. Melanocytes are present, connected to numerous keratinocytes in this and other strata through dendrites. Merkel cells are also found in the stratum basale with large numbers in touch-sensitive sites such as the fingertips and lips. They are closely associated with cutaneous nerves and seem to be involved in light touch sensation.[9]
The Malpighian layer (stratum malpighi) is both the stratum basale and stratum spinosum.[4]
The epidermis is separated from the dermis, its underlying tissue, by a basement membrane.
Cellular kinetics[edit]
Cell division[edit]
The stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale. Differentiating cell delaminate from the basement membrane and are displaced outwards through the epidermal layers, undergoing multiple stages of differentiation until, in the stratum corneum, losing their nucleus and fusing to squamous sheets, which are eventually shed from the surface (desquamation). Differentiated keratinocytes secrete keratin proteins which contribute to the formation of an extracellular matrix and is an integral part of the skin barrier function. In normal skin, the rate of keratinocyte production equals the rate of loss,[4] taking about two weeks for a cell to journey from the stratum basale to the top of the stratum granulosum, and an additional four weeks to cross the stratum corneum.[2] The entire epidermis is replaced by new cell growth over a period of about 48 days.[11]
Calcium concentration[edit]
Keratinocyte differentiation throughout the epidermis is in part mediated by a calcium gradient, increasing from the stratum basale until the outer stratum granulosum, where it reaches its maximum, and decreasing in the stratum corneum. Calcium concentration in the stratum corneum is very low in part because those relatively dry cells are not able to dissolve the ions. This calcium gradient parallels keratinocyte differentiation and as such is considered a key regulator in the formation of the epidermal layers.[3]
Elevation of extracellular calcium concentrations induces an increase in intracellular free calcium concentrations.[12] Part of that intracellular increase comes from calcium released from intracellular stores[13] and another part comes from transmembrane calcium influx,[14] through both calcium-sensitive chloride channels[15] and voltage-independent cation channels permeable to calcium.[16] Moreover, it has been suggested that an extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) also contributes to the rise in intracellular calcium concentration.[17]
Development[edit]
Epidermal organogenesis, the formation of the epidermis, begins in the cells covering the embryo after neurulation, the formation of the central nervous system. In most vertebrates, this original one-layered structure quickly transforms into a two-layered tissue; a temporary outer layer, the periderm, which is disposed once the inner basal layer or stratum germinativum has formed.[18]
This inner layer is a germinal epithelium that give rise to all epidermal cells. It divides to form the outer spinous layer (stratum spinosum). The cells of these two layers, together called the Malpighian layer(s) after Marcello Malpighi, divide to form the superficial granular layer (Stratum granulosum) of the epidermis.[18]
The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer (stratum corneum), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024-0.072 ounces per day.[19]
Epidermal development is a product of several growth factors, two of which are:[18]
Transforming growth factor Alpha (TGFα) is an autocrine growth factor by which basal cells stimulate their own division.
Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF or FGF7) is a paracrine growth factor produced by the underlying dermal fibroblasts in which the proliferation of basal cells is regulated.
Function[edit]
Barrier[edit]
The epidermis serves as a barrier to protect the body against microbial pathogens, oxidant stress (UV light) and chemical compounds and provides mechanical resistance. Most of that function is played by the stratum corneum.[10]
Characteristics of the barrier[edit]
Physical barrier through keratinocytes attached together via cell–cell junctions and associated to cytoskeletal proteins, which gives the epidermis its mechanical strength.[3]
Chemical barrier through the presence of highly organized lipids, acids, hydrolytic enzymes and antimicrobial peptides.[3]
Immunologically active barrier through humoral and cellular constituents of the immune system.[3]
Water content of the stratum corneum drops towards the surface, creating hostile conditions for pathogenic microorganism growth.[10]
An acidic pH (around 5.0) and low amounts of water make it hostile to many microorganic pathogens.[10]
The presence of non-pathogenic microorganism on the epidermis surface help defend against pathogenic one by limiting food availability and through chemical secretions.[10]
Factors that alter the barrier[edit]
Psychological stress, through an increase in glucocorticoids, compromises the stratum corneum and thus the barrier function.[20]
Sudden and large shifts in humidity alter stratum corneum hydration in a way that could allow entry of pathogenic microorganisms.[21]
Skin hydration[edit]
The ability of the skin to hold water is primarily due to the stratum corneum and is critical for maintaining healthy skin.[22] Lipids arranged through a gradient and in an organized manner between the cells of the stratum corneum form a barrier to transepidermal water loss.[23][24]
Skin color[edit]
The amount and distribution of melanin pigment in the epidermis is the main reason for variation in skin color in Homo sapiens. Melanin is found in the small melanosomes, particles formed in melanocytes from where they are transferred to the surrounding keratinocytes. The size, number, and arrangement of the melanosomes varies between racial groups, but while the number of melanocytes can vary between different body regions, their numbers remain the same in individual body regions in all human beings. In white and Asian skin the melanosomes are packed in "aggregates", but in black skin they are larger and distributed more evenly. The number of melanosomes in the keratinocytes increases with UV radiation exposure, while their distribution remain largely unaffected.[25]
Clinical significance[edit]
For a comprehensive list, see List of cutaneous conditions.
Laboratory culture of keratinocytes to form a 3D structure (artificial skin) recapitulating most of the properties of the epidermis is routinely used as a tool for drug development and testing.
Additional images[edit]
Epidermis and dermis of human skin
Cross-section of all skin layers
Illustration of epidermal layers
Optical coherence tomography of fingertip
See also[edit]
Skin repair
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b James, William; Berger, Timothy; Elston, Dirk (2005) Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology (10th ed.). Saunders. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marks, James G; Miller, Jeffery (2006). Lookingbill and Marks' Principles of Dermatology (4th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 1–7. ISBN 1-4160-3185-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Proksch, E.; Brandner, J.; Jensen, J.M. (2008). "The skin: an indispensable barrier". Experimental Dermatology. 17 (12): 1063–1072. PMID 19043850. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00786.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2004). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology (7th ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6. ISBN 978-0-632-06429-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hanukoglu I, Boggula VR, Vaknine H, Sharma S, Kleyman T, Hanukoglu A (January 2017). "Expression of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and CFTR in the human epidermis and epidermal appendages". Histochemistry and Cell Biology. 147 (6): 733–748. PMID 28130590. doi:10.1007/s00418-016-1535-3.
Jump up ^ Stücker, M; Struk, A; Altmeyer, P; Herde, M; Baumgärtl, H; Lübbers, DW (2002). "The cutaneous uptake of atmospheric oxygen contributes significantly to the oxygen supply of human dermis and epidermis". The Journal of Physiology. 538 (3): 985–994. PMC 2290093  . PMID 11826181. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2001.013067.
Jump up ^ TheFreeDictionary > rete ridge Citing: The American Heritage Medical Dictionary Copyright 2007, 2004
Jump up ^ The Ageing Skin - Structure
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-14. Retrieved 2015-01-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Elias, P.M. (2007). "The skin barrier as an innate immune element". Seminars in Immunopathology. 29 (1): 3–14. PMID 17621950. doi:10.1007/s00281-007-0060-9.
Jump up ^ Iizuka, Hajime (1994). "Epidermal turnover time". Journal of Dermatological Science. 8 (3): 215–217. PMID 7865480. doi:10.1016/0923-1811(94)90057-4.
Jump up ^ Hennings, H; Kruszewski, FH; Yuspa, SH; Tucker, RW (1989). "Intracellular calcium alterations in response to increased external calcium in normal and neoplastic keratinocytes". Carcinogenesis. 10 (4): 777–80. PMID 2702726. doi:10.1093/carcin/10.4.777.
Jump up ^ Pillai, S; Bikle, DD (1991). "Role of intracellular-free calcium in the cornified envelope formation of keratinocytes: Differences in the mode of action of extracellular calcium and 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3". Journal of cellular physiology. 146 (1): 94–100. PMID 1990023. doi:10.1002/jcp.1041460113.
Jump up ^ Reiss, M; Lipsey, LR; Zhou, ZL (1991). "Extracellular calcium-dependent regulation of transmembrane calcium fluxes in murine keratinocytes". Journal of cellular physiology. 147 (2): 281–91. PMID 1645742. doi:10.1002/jcp.1041470213.
Jump up ^ Mauro, TM; Pappone, PA; Isseroff, RR (1990). "Extracellular calcium affects the membrane currents of cultured human keratinocytes". Journal of cellular physiology. 143 (1): 13–20. PMID 1690740. doi:10.1002/jcp.1041430103.
Jump up ^ Mauro, TM; Isseroff, RR; Lasarow, R; Pappone, PA (1993). "Ion channels are linked to differentiation in keratinocytes". The Journal of membrane biology. 132 (3): 201–9. PMID 7684087. doi:10.1007/BF00235738.
Jump up ^ Tu, CL; Oda, Y; Bikle, DD (1999). "Effects of a calcium receptor activator on the cellular response to calcium in human keratinocytes". The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 113 (3): 340–5. PMID 10469331. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.1999.00698.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gilbert, Scott F (2000). "The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-243-7.
Jump up ^ Weschler, Charles J. (April 8, 2011). "Squalene and Cholesterol in Dust from Danish Homes and Daycare Centers". Environ. Sci. Technol. 45: 3872–3879. PMID 21476540. doi:10.1021/es103894r. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Denda, M.; Tsuchiya, T.; Elias, P.M.; Feingold, K.R. (2000). "Stress alters cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis". Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 278 (2): R367–372. PMID 10666137.
Jump up ^ "Metabolic Approaches To Enhance Transdermal Drug Delivery. 1. Effect of Lipid Synthesis Inhibitors". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 85: 643–648. doi:10.1021/js950219p.
Jump up ^ Blank, IH (1952). "Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum". The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 18 (6): 433–40. PMID 14938659. doi:10.1038/jid.1952.52.
Jump up ^ Downing, DT; Stewart, ME; Wertz, PW; Colton, SW; Abraham, W; Strauss, JS (1987). "Skin lipids: An update". The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 88 (3 Suppl): 2s–6s. PMID 2950180. doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12468850.
Jump up ^ Bonté, F; Saunois, A; Pinguet, P; Meybeck, A (1997). "Existence of a lipid gradient in the upper stratum corneum and its possible biological significance". Archives of dermatological research. 289 (2): 78–82. PMID 9049040. doi:10.1007/s004030050158.
Jump up ^ Montagna, William; Prota, Giuseppe; Kenney, John A. (1993). Black skin: structure and function. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 0-12-505260-X.
[hide]
v
t
e
Skin and related structures
Skin
Epidermis
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale
Basement membrane
Basal keratinocyte
Lamina lucida
Lamina densa
Dermis
Papillary
Dermal papillae
Reticular
Subcutaneous tissue
Panniculus/Pannus (Panniculus adiposus
Panniculus carnosus)
Membranous layer
Loose connective tissue
Superficial fascia
Adnexa
Skin glands
Sweat glands: Apocrine sweat gland
Eccrine sweat gland
Sebaceous
Hair
Root sheath
Outer root sheath
Inner root sheath
Henle's layer
Huxley's layer
Hair shaft
Cuticle
Cortex
Medulla
Bulb with matrix cells
Hair follicle
Muscle
Arrector pili muscle
Pilosebaceous unit
Hair sebaceous gland
Nail
Nail matrix
Nail plate
Lunula
Eponychium
Paronychium
Hyponychium
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Continental shelf
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Marine habitats
Anatomy of a continental shelf of the south eastern coast of the United States
Littoral zone
Intertidal zone
Estuaries
Kelp forests
Coral reefs
Ocean banks
Continental shelf
Neritic zone
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The continental shelf is an underwater landmass which extends from a continent, resulting in an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea. Much of the shelves were exposed during glacial periods and interglacial periods.
The shelf surrounding an island is known as an insular shelf.
The continental margin, between the continental shelf and the abyssal plain, comprises a steep continental slope followed by the flatter continental rise. Sediment from the continent above cascades down the slope and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the slope, called the continental rise. Extending as far as 500 km (310 mi) from the slope, it consists of thick sediments deposited by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope.[1] The continental rise's gradient is intermediate between the slope and the shelf, on the order of 0.5–1°.[2]
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the name continental shelf was given a legal definition as the stretch of the seabed adjacent to the shores of a particular country to which it belongs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographical distribution
2 Topography
3 Sediments
4 Biota
5 Economic significance
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Geographical distribution[edit]
The global continental shelf, highlighted in cyan
The width of the continental shelf varies considerably – it is not uncommon for an area to have virtually no shelf at all, particularly where the forward edge of an advancing oceanic plate dives beneath continental crust in an offshore subduction zone such as off the coast of Chile or the west coast of Sumatra. The largest shelf – the Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean – stretches to 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) in width. The South China Sea lies over another extensive area of continental shelf, the Sunda Shelf, which joins Borneo, Sumatra, and Java to the Asian mainland. Other familiar bodies of water that overlie continental shelves are the North Sea and the Persian Gulf. The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km (50 mi). The depth of the shelf also varies, but is generally limited to water shallower than 150 m (490 ft).[3] The slope of the shelf is usually quite low, on the order of 0.5°; vertical relief is also minimal, at less than 20 m (66 ft).[4]
Though the continental shelf is treated as a physiographic province of the ocean, it is not part of the deep ocean basin proper, but the flooded margins of the continent.[5] Passive continental margins such as most of the Atlantic coasts have wide and shallow shelves, made of thick sedimentary wedges derived from long erosion of a neighboring continent. Active continental margins have narrow, relatively steep shelves, due to frequent earthquakes that move sediment to the deep sea.[6]
Topography[edit]
The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope[7] (called the shelf break). The sea floor below the break is the continental slope. Below the slope is the continental rise, which finally merges into the deep ocean floor, the abyssal plain. The continental shelf and the slope are part of the continental margin.
The shelf area is commonly subdivided into the inner continental shelf, mid continental shelf, and outer continental shelf, each with their specific geomorphology and marine biology.
The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly 140 m (460 ft); this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.[8]
The continental slope is much steeper than the shelf; the average angle is 3°, but it can be as low as 1° or as high as 10°.[9] The slope is often cut with submarine canyons. The physical mechanisms involved in forming these canyons were not well understood until the 1960s.[10]
Sediments[edit]
The continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments; that is, those derived from erosion of the continents. However, little of the sediment is from current rivers; some 60–70% of the sediment on the world's shelves is relict sediment, deposited during the last ice age, when sea level was 100–120 m lower than it is now.[11]
Sediments usually become increasingly fine with distance from the coast; sand is limited to shallow, wave-agitated waters, while silt and clays are deposited in quieter, deep water far offshore.[12] These accumulate 15–40 cm every millennium, much faster than deep-sea pelagic sediments.[13]
Biota[edit]
Continental shelves teem with life, because of the sunlight available in shallow waters, in contrast to the biotic desert of the oceans' abyssal plain. The pelagic (water column) environment of the continental shelf constitutes the neritic zone, and the benthic (sea floor) province of the shelf is the sublittoral zone.[14]
Though the shelves are usually fertile, if anoxic conditions prevail during sedimentation, the deposits may over geologic time become sources for fossil fuels.
Economic significance[edit]
The relatively accessible continental shelf is the best understood part of the ocean floor. Most commercial exploitation from the sea, such as metallic-ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbon extraction, takes place on the continental shelf. Sovereign rights over their continental shelves up to a depth of 200 metres or to a distance where the depth of waters admitted of resource exploitation were claimed by the marine nations that signed the Convention on the Continental Shelf drawn up by the UN's International Law Commission in 1958. This was partly superseded by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.[15] which created the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone and extended continental shelf rights for states with physical continental shelves that extend beyond that distance.
The legal definition of a continental shelf differs significantly from the geological definition. UNCLOS states that the shelf extends to the limit of the continental margin, but no less than 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Thus inhabited volcanic islands such as the Canaries, which have no actual continental shelf, nonetheless have a legal continental shelf, whereas uninhabitable islands have no shelf.
See also[edit]
Environment portal
Ecology portal
Geography portal
Weather portal
Baseline
Continental Island
Continental shelf pump
Continental shelf of Russia
Exclusive economic zone
International waters
Land bridge
Outer Continental Shelf
Region of Freshwater Influence
Territorial waters
Passive margin
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Pinet 39, Gross 45.
Jump up ^ Pinet 37.
Jump up ^ Pinet, 37.
Jump up ^ Pinet 36–37.
Jump up ^ Pinet 35–36.
Jump up ^ Pinet 90–93.
Jump up ^ "shelf break – geology". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Gross 43.
Jump up ^ Pinet 36, Gross 43.
Jump up ^ Pinet 98, Gross 44.
Jump up ^ Pinet 84–86, Gross 43.
Jump up ^ Gross 121-22.
Jump up ^ Gross 127.
Jump up ^ Pinet 316-17, 418–19.
Jump up ^ "Treaty Series – Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958" (PDF). United Nations. 1958-04-29. Retrieved 2016-01-13. vol. 499, p. 311.
References[edit]
Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
External links[edit]
Office of Naval Research: Ocean Regions: Continental Margin & Rise
UNEP Shelf Programme
Anna Cavnar, Accountability and the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf: Deciding Who Owns the Ocean Floor
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"House Manager" redirects here. For theater operations, see House management.
The impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton in 1999, Chief Justice William Rehnquist presiding. The House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right, much in the fashion of President Andrew Johnson's trial.
Impeachment in the United States is an enumerated power of the legislature that allows formal charges to be brought against a civil officer of government for crimes alleged to have been committed. Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there have been a few cases in which Congress has impeached and convicted officials partly for prior crimes.[1] The actual trial on such charges, and subsequent removal of an official upon conviction, is separate from the act of impeachment itself. Impeachment proceedings have been initiated against several presidents of the United States. Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton are the only two presidents to have been successfully impeached by the House of Representatives, and both were later acquitted by the Senate.[2] The impeachment process against Richard Nixon was never completed, as Nixon resigned his office before the vote of the full House for impeachment, but such a vote was widely expected to pass, and the threat of it and a subsequent conviction in the Senate was the impetus for Nixon's departure. To date, no president has been removed from office by impeachment and conviction. The impeached official continues in office until conviction.
Impeachment is analogous to indictment in regular court proceedings; trial by the other house is analogous to the trial before judge and jury in regular courts. Typically, the lower house of the legislature impeaches the official and the upper house conducts the trial.
At the federal level, Article Two of the United States Constitution states in Section 4 that "The President, Vice President, and all civil Officers of the United States shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other High Crimes and Misdemeanors."[3] The House of Representatives has the sole power of impeaching,[4] while the United States Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments.[5] The removal of impeached officials is automatic upon conviction in the Senate. In Nixon v. United States (1993), the Supreme Court determined that the federal judiciary cannot review such proceedings.
Impeachment can also occur at the state level: state legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors, in accordance with their respective state constitutions.
At the Philadelphia Convention, Benjamin Franklin noted that, historically, the removal of "obnoxious" chief executives had been accomplished by assassination. Franklin suggested that a proceduralized mechanism for legal removal—impeachment—would be preferable.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Federal impeachment
1.1 House of Representatives
1.2 Senate
1.3 History
1.4 Federal officials impeached
1.5 Demands for impeachment
2 Impeachment in the states
2.1 State and territorial officials impeached
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Federal impeachment[edit]
House of Representatives[edit]
Impeachment proceedings may be commenced by a member of the House of Representatives on her or his own initiative, either by presenting a list of the charges under oath or by asking for referral to the appropriate committee. The impeachment process may be initiated by non-members. For example, when the Judicial Conference of the United States suggests a federal judge be impeached, a charge of actions constituting grounds for impeachment may come from a special prosecutor, the President, or state or territorial legislature, grand jury, or by petition.
The type of impeachment resolution determines the committee to which it is referred. A resolution impeaching a particular individual is typically referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary. A resolution to authorize an investigation regarding impeachable conduct is referred to the House Committee on Rules, and then to the Judiciary Committee. The House Committee on the Judiciary, by majority vote, will determine whether grounds for impeachment exist. If the Committee finds grounds for impeachment, it will set forth specific allegations of misconduct in one or more articles of impeachment. The Impeachment Resolution, or Article(s) of Impeachment, are then reported to the full House with the committee's recommendations.
The House debates the resolution and may at the conclusion consider the resolution as a whole or vote on each article of impeachment individually. A simple majority of those present and voting is required for each article for the resolution as a whole to pass. If the House votes to impeach, managers (typically referred to as "House managers", with a "lead House manager") are selected to present the case to the Senate. Recently, managers have been selected by resolution, while historically the House would occasionally elect the managers or pass a resolution allowing the appointment of managers at the discretion of the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. These managers are roughly the equivalent of the prosecution/district attorney in a standard criminal trial.
Also, the House will adopt a resolution in order to notify the Senate of its action. After receiving the notice, the Senate will adopt an order notifying the House that it is ready to receive the managers. The House managers then appear before the bar of the Senate and exhibit the articles of impeachment. After the reading of the charges, the managers return and make a verbal report to the House.
Senate[edit]
Depiction of the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, in 1868, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding.
The proceedings unfold in the form of a trial, with each side having the right to call witnesses and perform cross-examinations. The House members, who are given the collective title of managers during the course of the trial, present the prosecution case, and the impeached official has the right to mount a defense with his own attorneys as well. Senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence. After hearing the charges, the Senate usually deliberates in private. The Constitution requires a two thirds super majority to convict a person being impeached.[5]
The Senate enters judgment on its decision, whether that be to convict or acquit, and a copy of the judgment is filed with the Secretary of State.[7] Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may also be barred from holding future office.[5] The removed official is also liable to criminal prosecution. The President may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting criminal case.
Beginning in the 1980s with Harry E. Claiborne, the Senate began using "Impeachment Trial Committees" pursuant to Senate Rule XI.[8] These committees presided over the evidentiary phase of the trials, hearing the evidence and supervising the examination and cross-examination of witnesses. The committees would then compile the evidentiary record and present it to the Senate; all senators would then have the opportunity to review the evidence before the chamber voted to convict or acquit. The purpose of the committees was to streamline impeachment trials, which otherwise would have taken up a great deal of the chamber's time. Defendants challenged the use of these committees, claiming them to be a violation of their fair trial rights as well as the Senate's constitutional mandate, as a body, to have "sole power to try all impeachments." Several impeached judges sought court intervention in their impeachment proceedings on these grounds, but the courts refused to become involved due to the Constitution's granting of impeachment and removal power solely to the legislative branch, making it a political question.
History[edit]
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In the United Kingdom, impeachment was a procedure whereby a member of the House of Commons could accuse someone of a crime. If the Commons voted for the impeachment, a trial would then be held in the House of Lords. Unlike a bill of attainder, a law declaring a person guilty of a crime, impeachments did not require royal assent, so they could be used to remove troublesome officers of the Crown even if the monarch was trying to protect them.
The monarch, however, was above the law and could not be impeached, or indeed judged guilty of any crime. When King Charles I was tried before the Rump Parliament of the New Model Army in 1649 he denied that they had any right to legally indict him, their king, whose power was given by God and the laws of the country, saying: "no earthly power can justly call me (who is your King) in question as a delinquent … no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King." While the House of Commons pronounced him guilty and ordered his execution anyway, the jurisdictional issue tainted the proceedings.
With this example in mind, the delegates to the Philadelphia Convention chose to include an impeachment procedure in Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution which could be applied to any government official; they explicitly mentioned the President to ensure there would be no ambiguity. Opinions differed, however, as to the reasons Congress should be able to initiate an impeachment. Initial drafts listed only treason and bribery, but George Mason favored impeachment for "maladministration" (incompetence). James Madison argued that impeachment should only be for criminal behavior, arguing that a maladministration standard would effectively mean that the President would serve at the pleasure of the Senate.[9] Thus the delegates adopted a compromise version allowing impeachment for "treason, bribery and other high crimes and misdemeanors."
The precise meaning of the phrase "high crimes and misdemeanors" is somewhat ambiguous; some scholars, such as Kevin Gutzman, argue that it can encompass even non-criminal abuses of power. Whatever its theoretical scope, however, Congress traditionally regards impeachment as a power to use only in extreme cases. The House of Representatives has actually initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789.[citation needed] Two cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office.
Actual impeachments of 19 federal officers have taken place. Of these, 15 were federal judges: thirteen district court judges, one court of appeals judge (who also sat on the Commerce Court), and one Supreme Court Associate Justice. Of the other four, two were Presidents, one was a Cabinet secretary, and one was a U.S. Senator. Of the 19 impeached officials, eight were convicted. One, former judge Alcee Hastings, was elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives after being removed from office.
The 1797 impeachment of Senator William Blount of Tennessee stalled on the grounds that the Senate lacked jurisdiction over him. No other member of Congress has ever been impeached. The Constitution does give authority to the Senate and House, so that each body may expel its own members. (see List of United States senators expelled or censured and List of United States Representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded). Expulsion removes the individual from functioning as a representative or senator because of their misbehavior, but unlike impeachment, expulsion cannot result in barring an individual from holding future office.
Federal officials impeached[edit]
#
Date of Impeachment
Accused
Office
Accusation(s)
Result[Note 1]
References
1 July 7, 1797

William Blount
United States Senator (Tennessee) Conspiring to assist Britain in capturing Spanish territory Senate refused to accept impeachment of a Senator by the House of Representatives, instead expelling him from the Senate on their own authority[10][Note 2] [11]
2 March 2, 1803
John Pickering
Judge (District of New Hampshire) Drunkenness and unlawful rulings Removed on March 12, 1804[10][12] [11][12]
3 March 12, 1804

Samuel Chase
Associate Justice (Supreme Court of the United States) Political bias and arbitrary rulings, promoting a partisan political agenda on the bench [13] Acquitted on March 1, 1805 [10][12]
4 April 24, 1830

James H. Peck
Judge (District of Missouri) Abuse of power[14] Acquitted on January 31, 1831[10][12] [11][12]
5 May 6, 1862

West Hughes Humphreys
Judge (Eastern, Middle, and Western Districts of Tennessee) Supporting the Confederacy Removed and disqualified on June 26, 1862[11][10][12] [11][12]
6 February 24, 1868

Andrew Johnson
President of the United States Violating the Tenure of Office Act Acquitted on May 26, 1868[10] [11]
7 February 28, 1873

Mark W. Delahay
Judge (District of Kansas) Drunkenness Resigned on December 12, 1873[12][15] [12][15]
8 March 2, 1876

William W. Belknap
United States Secretary of War Graft/corruption Acquitted after his resignation on August 1, 1876.[10] [11]
9 December 13, 1904
Charles Swayne
Judge (Northern District of Florida) Failure to live in his district, abuse of power[16] Acquitted on February 27, 1905[10][12] [11][12]
10 July 11, 1912

Robert Wodrow Archbald
Associate Justice (United States Commerce Court)
Judge (Third Circuit Court of Appeals) Improper acceptance of gifts from litigants and attorneys Removed and disqualified on January 13, 1913[11][10][12] [11][12]
11 April 1, 1926

George W. English
Judge (Eastern District of Illinois) Abuse of power Resigned on November 4, 1926,[11][10] proceedings dismissed on December 13, 1926[11][12] [11][12]
12 February 24, 1933
Harold Louderback
Judge (Northern District of California) Corruption Acquitted on May 24, 1933[10][12] [11][12]
13 March 2, 1936
Halsted L. Ritter
Judge (Southern District of Florida) Champerty/corruption, tax evasion, practicing law while a judge Removed on April 17, 1936[10][12] [11][12]
14 July 22, 1986

Harry E. Claiborne
Judge (District of Nevada) Tax evasion Removed on October 9, 1986[10][12] [11][12]
15 August 3, 1988

Alcee Hastings
Judge (Southern District of Florida) Accepting a bribe, and committing perjury during the resulting investigation Removed on October 20, 1989[10][12] [11][12]
16 May 10, 1989

Walter Nixon
Chief Judge (Southern District of Mississippi) Perjury Removed on November 3, 1989[10][12][Note 3] [11][12]
17 December 19, 1998

Bill Clinton
President of the United States Perjury and obstruction of justice Acquitted on February 12, 1999[10] [11]
18 June 19, 2009

Samuel B. Kent
Judge (Southern District of Texas) Sexual assault, and obstruction of justice during the resulting investigation Resigned on June 30, 2009,[12][17] proceedings dismissed on July 22, 2009[10][12][18] [12][19]
19 March 11, 2010

Thomas Porteous
Judge (Eastern District of Louisiana) Making false financial disclosures Removed and disqualified on December 8, 2010[10][12][20] [12][21]
Demands for impeachment[edit]
See also: Impeachment investigations of United States federal officials
While the actual impeachment of a federal public official is a rare event, demands for impeachment, especially of presidents, are common,[22][23] going back to the administration of George Washington in the mid-1790s. In fact, most of the 63 resolutions mentioned above were in response to presidential actions.
While almost all of them were for the most part frivolous and were buried as soon as they were introduced, several did have their intended effect. Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon[24] and Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas both resigned in response to the threat of impeachment hearings, and, most famously, President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the House Judiciary Committee had already reported articles of impeachment to the floor.
Impeachment in the states[edit]
State legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors. The court for the trial of impeachments may differ somewhat from the federal model—in New York, for instance, the Assembly (lower house) impeaches, and the State Senate tries the case, but the members of the seven-judge New York State Court of Appeals (the state's highest, constitutional court) sit with the senators as jurors as well.[25] Impeachment and removal of governors has happened occasionally throughout the history of the United States, usually for corruption charges. A total of at least eleven U.S. state governors have faced an impeachment trial; a twelfth, Governor Lee Cruce of Oklahoma, escaped impeachment conviction by a single vote in 1912. Several others, most recently Alabama's Robert J. Bentley, have resigned rather than face impeachment, when events seemed to make it inevitable.[26] The most recent impeachment of a state governor occurred on January 14, 2009, when the Illinois House of Representatives voted 117–1 to impeach Rod Blagojevich on corruption charges;[27] he was subsequently removed from office and barred from holding future office by the Illinois Senate on January 29. He was the eighth U.S. state governor to be removed from office.
The procedure for impeachment, or removal, of local officials varies widely. For instance, in New York a mayor is removed directly by the governor "upon being heard" on charges—the law makes no further specification of what charges are necessary or what the governor must find in order to remove a mayor.
State and territorial officials impeached[edit]
Date
Accused
Office
Result
1804

William W. Irvin
Associate Judge, Fairfield County, Ohio Court of Common Pleas Removed
1832

Theophilus W. Smith
Associate Justice, Illinois Supreme Court Acquitted[28]
February 26, 1862

Charles L. Robinson
Governor of Kansas Acquitted[29]
February 26, 1862
John Winter Robinson
Secretary of State of Kansas Removed on June 12, 1862[30]
February 26, 1862
George S. Hillyer
Kansas State auditor Removed on June 16, 1862[30]
1871

William Woods Holden
Governor of North Carolina Removed
1871

David Butler
Governor of Nebraska Removed[29]
February 1872

Harrison Reed
Governor of Florida Acquitted[31]
1872

Henry C. Warmoth
Governor of Louisiana "suspended from office," though trial was not held[32]
1876

Adelbert Ames
Governor of Mississippi Resigned[29]
1888

James W. Tate
Kentucky State Treasurer Removed
1901
David M. Furches
Chief Justice, North Carolina Supreme Court Acquitted[33]
1901
Robert M. Douglas
Associate Justice, North Carolina Supreme Court Acquitted[33]
August 13, 1913[34]

William Sulzer
Governor of New York Removed on October 17, 1913[35]
July 1917

James E. Ferguson
Governor of Texas Removed[36]
October 23, 1923

John C. Walton
Governor of Oklahoma Removed
January 21, 1929

Henry S. Johnston
Governor of Oklahoma Removed
April 6, 1929[37]

Huey P. Long
Governor of Louisiana Acquitted
May 1958[38]
Raulston Schoolfield
Judge, Hamilton County, Tennessee Criminal Court Removed on July 11, 1958[39]
March 14, 1984[40]
Paul Douglas
Nebraska Attorney General Acquitted by the Nebraska Supreme Court on May 4, 1984[41]
February 6, 1988[42]
Evan Mecham
Governor of Arizona Removed on April 4, 1988[43]
March 30, 1989[44]
A. James Manchin
West Virginia State treasurer Resigned on July 9, 1989 before trial started[45]
January 25, 1991[46]
Ward "Butch" Burnette
Kentucky Commissioner of Agriculture Resigned on February 6, 1991 before trial started[47]
May 24, 1994[48]
Rolf Larsen
Associate Justice, Pennsylvania Supreme Court Removed on October 4, 1994, and declared ineligible to hold public office in Pennsylvania[49]
October 6, 1994[50]
Judith Moriarty
Secretary of State of Missouri Removed by the Missouri Supreme Court on December 12, 1994[51]
November 11, 2004[52]

Kathy Augustine
Nevada State Controller Censured on December 4, 2004, not removed from office[53]
April 11, 2006[54]
David Hergert
Member of the University of Nebraska Board of Regents Removed by the Nebraska Supreme Court on July 7, 2006[55]
January 8, 2009 (first vote)[56]

Rod Blagojevich
Governor of Illinois 95th General Assembly ended
January 14, 2009 (second vote)[57] Removed on January 29, 2009, and declared ineligible to hold public office in Illinois[58]
February 11, 2013[59]

Benigno Fitial
Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands Resigned on February 20, 2013
See also[edit]
Censure in the United States
Efforts to impeach George W. Bush
Impeachment investigations of United States federal officials
Impeachment investigations of United States federal judges
Jefferson's Manual
List of federal political scandals in the United States
Recall election
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Removed and disqualified" indicates that following conviction the Senate voted to disqualify the individual from holding further federal office pursuant to Article I, Section 3 of the United States Constitution, which provides, in pertinent part, that "[j]udgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States."
Jump up ^ During the impeachment trial of Senator Blount, it was argued that the House of Representatives did not have the power to impeach members of either House of Congress; though the Senate never explicitly ruled on this argument, the House has never again impeached a member of Congress. The Constitution allows either House to expel one of its members by a two-thirds vote, which the Senate had done to Blount on the same day the House impeached him (but before the Senate heard the case).
Jump up ^ Judge Nixon later challenged the validity of his removal from office on procedural grounds; the challenge was ultimately rejected as nonjusticiable by the Supreme Court in Nixon v. United States, 506 U.S. 224 (1993).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cole, J.P.; Garvey, T. (October 29, 2015). "Impeachment and Removal" (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. pp. 15–16. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Erskine, Daniel H. (2008). "The Trial of Queen Caroline and the Impeachment of President Clinton: Law As a Weapon for Political Reform". Washington University Global Studies Law Review. 7 (1). ISSN 1546-6981.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Constitution, Article 2, Section 4". usconstitution.net. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 2". usconstitution.net. Retrieved 7 January 2018. “The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.”
^ Jump up to: a b c "U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 3". usconstitution.net. Retrieved 7 January 2018. “The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.”
Jump up ^ Josh Chafetz (2010). "Impeachment and Assassination". 95. Minnesota Law Review. SSRN 1568950
Jump up ^ "Rules of Procedure and Practice in the Senate When Sitting on Impeachment Trials" (PDF). law.cornell.edu.
Jump up ^ https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/3_1986SenatesImpeachmentRules.pdf
Jump up ^ Welcome to The American Presidency
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Staff (n.d.). "Chapter 4: Complete List of Senate Impeachment Trials". United States Senate. Archived from the original on 2010-12-08. Retrieved 2010-12-08. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ()
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s U.S. Joint Committee on Printing (September 2006). "Impeachment Proceedings". Congressional Directory. Retrieved 2009-06-19. (Archived by WebCite)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad staff (n.d.). "Impeachments of Federal Judges". Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved 2017-05-16.
Jump up ^ "1801: Senate Tries Supreme Court Justice". 25 November 2014.
Jump up ^ PBS NewsHour
^ Jump up to: a b staff (n.d.). "Judges of the United States Courts – Delahay, Mark W". Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved 2009-06-20.
Jump up ^ "Hinds' Precedents, Volume 3 – Chapter 78 – The Impeachment and Trial of Charles Swayne".
Jump up ^ Gamboa, Suzanne (2009-06-30). "White House accepts convicted judge's resignation". AP. Archived from the original on July 23, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-22. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ()
Jump up ^ Gamboa, Suzanne (2009-07-22). "Congress ends jailed judge's impeachment". AP. Archived from the original on September 27, 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-08. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ()
Jump up ^ Powell, Stewart (2009-06-19). "U.S. House impeaches Kent". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 20, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-19. In action so rare it has been carried out only 14 times since 1803, the House on Friday impeached a federal judge—imprisoned U.S. District Court Judge Samuel B. Kent... CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) ()
Jump up ^ Alpert, Bruce; Jonathan Tilove (2010-12-08). "Senate votes to remove Judge Thomas Porteous from office". New Orleans Times-Picayune. Retrieved 2010-12-08.
Jump up ^ Alpert, Bruce (2010-03-11). "Judge Thomas Porteous impeached by U.S. House of Representatives". New Orleans Times-Picayune. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
Jump up ^ Tentative description of a dinner given to promote the impeachment of President Dwight Eisenhower: [poem] by Lawrence Ferlinghetti; City Lights Books: (1958)
Jump up ^ Clark, Richard C. (2008-07-22). "McFadden's Attempts to Abortababy the Federal Reserve System". Scribd. Retrieved 2009-06-20. Though a Republican, he moved to impeach President Herbert Hoover in 1932 and introduced a resolution to bring conspiracy charges against the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve.
Jump up ^ "National Affairs: Texan, Texan & Texan". Time. January 25, 1932. Retrieved May 5, 2010.
Jump up ^ NYS Constitution, Article VI, § 24
Jump up ^ Staff reporter (2004-06-21). "Embattled Conn.governor resigns". AP. Retrieved 2010-12-08.
Jump up ^ "House votes to impeach Blagojevich again". Chicago Tribune. 2009-01-14. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
Jump up ^ Bateman, Newton; Paul Selby; Frances M. Shonkwiler; Henry L Fowkes (1908). Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois. Chicago, IL: Munsell Publishing Company. p. 489.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Impeachment of State Officials". Cga.ct.gov. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Blackmar, Frank (1912). Kansas: A Cyclopedia of State History. Standard Publishing Co. p. 598.
Jump up ^ "Letters Relating to the Efforts to Impeach Governor Harrison Reed During the Reconstruction Era". floridamemory.com. Archived from the original on 2016-05-29. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
Jump up ^ "State Governors of Louisiana: Henry Clay Warmoth". Enlou.com. Archived from the original on 2008-04-06. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b News & Observer: NC’s dark impeachment history by Rob Christensen
Jump up ^ "SULZER IMPEACHED BY ASSEMBLY BUT REFUSES TO SURRENDER OFFICE", Syracuse Herald, August 13, 1913, p1
Jump up ^ "HIGH COURT REMOVES SULZER FROM OFFICE BY A VOTE OF 43 TO 12", Syracuse Herald, October 17, 1913, p1
Jump up ^ Block, Lourenda (2000). "Permanent University Fund: Investing in the Future of Texas". TxTell (University of Texas at Austin). Retrieved 2009-02-14.
Jump up ^ Official Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana, April 6, 1929 pp. 292–94
Jump up ^ "Raulston Schoolfield, Impeached Judge, Dies". UPI. October 8, 1982. Retrieved 2016-01-27.
Jump up ^ "Impeachment Trial Finds Judge Guilty". AP. July 11, 1958. Retrieved 2016-01-27.
Jump up ^ Staff reporter (1984-03-14). "Attorney General is Impeached". AP. Retrieved 2012-10-11.
Jump up ^ Staff reporter (1984-05-04). "Nebraskan Found Not Guilty". AP. Retrieved 2012-10-11.
Jump up ^ Gruson, Lindsey (1988-02-06). "House Impeaches Arizona Governor". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ Gruson, Lindsey (1988-04-05). "Arizona's Senate Ousts Governor, Voting Him Guilty of Misconduct". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ Staff reporter (1989-03-30). "Impeachment in West Virginia". AP. Retrieved 2009-10-17.
Jump up ^ Wallace, Anise C. (1989-07-10). "Treasurer of West Virginia Retires Over Fund's Losses". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-10-17.
Jump up ^ "Kentucky House Votes To Impeach Jailed Official". Orlando Sentinel. 1991-01-26. Retrieved 2015-11-16. The House voted unanimously Friday to impeach the agriculture commissioner six days after he began serving a one-year sentence for a payroll violation.
Jump up ^ "Jailed Official Resigns Before Impeachment Trial". Orlando Sentinel. 1991-02-07. Retrieved 2015-11-16. Kentucky's commissioner of agriculture, serving a one-year jail sentence for felony theft, resigned Wednesday hours before his impeachment trial was scheduled to begin in the state Senate.
Jump up ^ Hinds, Michael deCourcy (1994-05-25). "Pennsylvania House Votes To Impeach a State Justice". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-24. A State Supreme Court justice convicted on drug charges was impeached today by the Pennsylvania House of Representatives.
Jump up ^ Moushey, Bill; Tim Reeves (1994-10-05). "Larsen Removed Senate Convicts Judge On 1 Charge". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Pittsburgh, PA USA. p. A1. Retrieved 2013-09-14. Rolf Larsen yesterday became the first justice of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court to be removed from office through impeachment. The state Senate, after six hours of debate, found Larsen guilty of one of seven articles of impeachment at about 8:25 p.m, then unanimously voted to remove him permanently from office and bar him from ever seeking an elected position again.
Jump up ^ Young, Virginia (1994-10-07). "Moriarty Is Impeached – Secretary Of State Will Fight Removal". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. St. Louis, MO USA. p. 1A. Retrieved 2013-09-14. The House voted overwhelmingly Thursday to impeach Secretary of State Judith K. Moriarty for misconduct that "breached the public trust." The move, the first impeachment in Missouri in 26 years, came at 4:25 p.m. in a hushed House chamber.
Jump up ^ Young, Virginia; Kim Bell (1994-12-13). "High Court Ousts Moriarty". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. St. Louis, MO. p. 1A. Retrieved 2013-09-14. In a unanimous opinion Monday, the Missouri Supreme Court convicted Secretary of State Judith K. Moriarty of misconduct and removed her from office.
Jump up ^ Vogel, Ed (2004-11-12). "Augustine impeached". Review-Journal. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ Whaley, Sean (2004-12-05). "Senate lets controller keep job". Review-Journal. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ Jenkins, Nate (2006-04-11). "Hergert impeached". Lincoln Journal Star. Retrieved 2012-10-11. With the last vote and by the slimmest of margins, the Legislature did to University of Nebraska Regent David Hergert Wednesday what it hadn’t done in 22 years—move to unseat an elected official.
Jump up ^ Staff reporter (2006-08-08). "Hergert Convicted". WOWT-TV. Retrieved 2012-10-11. University of Nebraska Regent David Hergert was convicted Friday of manipulating campaign-finance laws during his 2004 campaign and then lying to cover it up. The state Supreme Court ruling immediately removed Hergert, 66, from office.
Jump up ^ Staff reporter (2009-01-09). "Illinois House impeaches Gov. Rod Blagojevich". AP. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ Mckinney, Dave; Jordan Wilson (2009-01-14). "Illinois House impeaches Gov. Rod Blagojevich". Chicago Sun-Times'. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ Long, Ray; Rick Pearson (2009-01-30). "Blagojevich is removed from office". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Haidee V. Eugenio (2009-01-09). "CNMI governor impeached on 13 charges". Saipan Tribune. Retrieved 2013-09-14.
Further reading[edit]
Berger, Raoul (1999). Impeachment: The Constitutional Problems. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674444782.
Black, Charles L. (1998). Impeachment: A Handbook. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300079500.
Lichtman, Allan J. (2017), The Case for Impeachment, Dey Street Books, ISBN 978-0062696823
Sunstein, Cass R. (2017). Impeachment: A Citizen’s Guide. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674983793.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Impeachment in the United States.
An Overview of the Impeachment Process
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