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Gravity of Earth
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Earth's gravity measured by NASA GRACE mission, showing deviations from the theoretical gravity of an idealized smooth Earth, the so-called Earth ellipsoid. Red shows the areas where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue reveals areas where gravity is weaker. (Animated version.)[1]
The gravity of Earth, which is denoted by g, refers to the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (in symbols, m/s2 or m·s−2) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg−1). Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2, which means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about 9.8 metres per second every second. This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as little g (in contrast, the gravitational constant G is referred to as big G).
The precise strength of Earth's gravity varies depending on location. The nominal "average" value at Earth's surface, known as standard gravity is, by definition, 9.80665 m/s2.[2] This quantity is denoted variously as gn, ge (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033 m/s2), g0, gee, or simply g (which is also used for the variable local value).
The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion, or F = ma (force = mass × acceleration). Gravitational acceleration contributes to the total acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of Earth, also contribute, and, therefore, affect the weight of the object.
Contents
1 Definition
2 Variation in magnitude
2.1 Conventional value
2.2 Latitude
2.3 Altitude
2.4 Depth
2.5 Local topography and geology
2.6 Other factors
3 Variation in direction
4 Comparative values in worldwide
5 Mathematical models
5.1 Latitude model
5.2 Free air correction
5.3 Slab correction
6 Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Definition[edit]
Gravity is the net force (or corresponding net acceleration) as measured by a scale and plumb bob. It includes both the gravitation from mass attraction and the centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation.[3]. It does not normally include the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun.[4]
Variation in magnitude[edit]
A non-rotating perfect sphere of uniform mass density, or whose density varies solely with distance from the centre (spherical symmetry), would produce a gravitational field of uniform magnitude at all points on its surface. The Earth is rotating and is also not spherically symmetric; rather, it is slightly flatter at the poles while bulging at the Equator: an oblate spheroid. There are consequently slight deviations in the magnitude of gravity across its surface.
Gravity on the Earth's surface varies by around 0.7%, from 9.7639 m/s2 on the Nevado Huascarán mountain in Peru to 9.8337 m/s2 at the surface of the Arctic Ocean.[5] In large cities, it ranges from 9.7760[6] in Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, and Singapore to 9.825 in Oslo and Helsinki.
Conventional value[edit]
In 1901 the third General Conference on Weights and Measures defined a standard gravitational acceleration for the surface of the Earth: gn = 9.80665 m/s2. It was based on measurements done at the Pavillon de Breteuil near Paris in 1888, with a theoretical correction applied in order to convert to a latitude of 45° at sea level.[7] This definition is thus not a value of any particular place or carefully worked out average, but an agreement for a value to use if a better actual local value is not known or not important.[8] It is also used to define the units kilogram force and pound force.
Latitude[edit]
The differences of Earth's gravity around the Antarctic continent.
The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.
The second major reason for the difference in gravity at different latitudes is that the Earth's equatorial bulge (itself also caused by centrifugal force from rotation) causes objects at the Equator to be farther from the planet's centre than objects at the poles. Because the force due to gravitational attraction between two bodies (the Earth and the object being weighed) varies inversely with the square of the distance between them, an object at the Equator experiences a weaker gravitational pull than an object at the poles.
In combination, the equatorial bulge and the effects of the surface centrifugal force due to rotation mean that sea-level gravity increases from about 9.780 m/s2 at the Equator to about 9.832 m/s2 at the poles, so an object will weigh about 0.5% more at the poles than at the Equator.[3][9]
Altitude[edit]
The graph shows the variation in gravity relative to the height of an object above the surface
Gravity decreases with altitude as one rises above the Earth's surface because greater altitude means greater distance from the Earth's centre. All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to 9,000 metres (30,000 ft) causes a weight decrease of about 0.29%. (An additional factor affecting apparent weight is the decrease in air density at altitude, which lessens an object's buoyancy.[10] This would increase a person's apparent weight at an altitude of 9,000 metres by about 0.08%)
It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of 400 kilometres (250 mi), equivalent to a typical orbit of the Space Shuttle, gravity is still nearly 90% as strong as at the Earth's surface. Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free-fall.[11]
The effect of ground elevation depends on the density of the ground (see Slab correction section). A person flying at 30 000 ft above sea level over mountains will feel more gravity than someone at the same elevation but over the sea. However, a person standing on the earth's surface feels less gravity when the elevation is higher.
The following formula approximates the Earth's gravity variation with altitude:
g h = g 0 ( r e r e + h ) 2 {\displaystyle g_{h}=g_{0}\left({\frac {r_{\mathrm {e} }}{r_{\mathrm {e} }+h}}\right)^{2}}
Where
gh is the gravitational acceleration at height h above sea level.
re is the Earth's mean radius.
g0 is the standard gravitational acceleration.
The formula treats the Earth as a perfect sphere with a radially symmetric distribution of mass; a more accurate mathematical treatment is discussed below.
Depth[edit]
See also: Shell theorem
An approximate value for gravity at a distance r from the center of the Earth can be obtained by assuming that the Earth's density is spherically symmetric. The gravity depends only on the mass inside the sphere of radius r. All the contributions from outside cancel out as a consequence of the inverse-square law of gravitation. Another consequence is that the gravity is the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the center. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at this radius is[12]
g ( r ) = − G M ( r ) r 2 . {\displaystyle g(r)=-{\frac {GM(r)}{r^{2}}}.}
where G is the gravitational constant and M(r) is the total mass enclosed within radius r. If the Earth had a constant density ρ, the mass would be M(r) = (4/3)πρr3 and the dependence of gravity on depth would be
g ( r ) = 4 π 3 G ρ r . {\displaystyle g(r)={\frac {4\pi }{3}}G\rho r.}
g at depth d is given by g'=g(1-d/R) where g is acceleration due to gravity on surface of the earth, d is depth and R is radius of Earth. If the density decreased linearly with increasing radius from a density ρ0 at the center to ρ1 at the surface, then ρ(r) = ρ0 − (ρ0 − ρ1) r / re, and the dependence would be
g ( r ) = 4 π 3 G ρ 0 r − 4 π 3 G ( ρ 0 − ρ 1 ) r 2 r e . {\displaystyle g(r)={\frac {4\pi }{3}}G\rho _{0}r-{\frac {4\pi }{3}}G\left(\rho _{0}-\rho _{1}\right){\frac {r^{2}}{r_{\mathrm {e} }}}.}
The actual depth dependence of density and gravity, inferred from seismic travel times (see Adams–Williamson equation), is shown in the graphs below.
Earth's radial density distribution according to the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM).[13]
Earth's gravity according to the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM).[13] Two models for a spherically symmetric Earth are included for comparison. The dark green straight line is for a constant density equal to the Earth's average density. The light green curved line is for a density that decreases linearly from center to surface. The density at the center is the same as in the PREM, but the surface density is chosen so that the mass of the sphere equals the mass of the real Earth.
Local topography and geology[edit]
See also: Physical geodesy
Local differences in topography (such as the presence of mountains), geology (such as the density of rocks in the vicinity), and deeper tectonic structure cause local and regional differences in the Earth's gravitational field, known as gravitational anomalies.[14] Some of these anomalies can be very extensive, resulting in bulges in sea level, and throwing pendulum clocks out of synchronisation.
The study of these anomalies forms the basis of gravitational geophysics. The fluctuations are measured with highly sensitive gravimeters, the effect of topography and other known factors is subtracted, and from the resulting data conclusions are drawn. Such techniques are now used by prospectors to find oil and mineral deposits. Denser rocks (often containing mineral ores) cause higher than normal local gravitational fields on the Earth's surface. Less dense sedimentary rocks cause the opposite.
Other factors[edit]
In air, objects experience a supporting buoyancy force which reduces the apparent strength of gravity (as measured by an object's weight). The magnitude of the effect depends on air density (and hence air pressure); see Apparent weight for details.
The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 µm/s2 (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day.
Variation in direction[edit]
Gravity acceleration is a vector quantity. In a spherically symmetric Earth, gravity would point directly towards the sphere's centre. As the Earth is slightly flatter, there are consequently slight deviations in the direction of gravity.
Comparative values in worldwide[edit]
Tools exist for calculating the strength of gravity at various cities around the world.[15] The effect of latitude can be clearly seen with gravity in high-latitude cities: Anchorage (9.826 m/s2), Helsinki (9.825 m/s2), being about 0.5% greater than that in cities near the equator: Kuala Lumpur (9.776 m/s2), Manila (9.780 m/s2). The effect of altitude can be seen in Mexico City (9.776 m/s2; altitude 2,240 metres (7,350 ft)), and by comparing Denver (9.798 m/s2; 1,616 metres (5,302 ft)) with Washington, D.C. (9.801 m/s2; 30 metres (98 ft)), both of which are near 39° N. Measured values can be obtained from Physical and Mathematical Tables by T.M. Yarwood and F. Castle, Macmillan, revised edition 1970.[16]
Mathematical models[edit]
Latitude model[edit]
Main article: Theoretical gravity
If the terrain is at sea level, we can estimate g { ϕ } {\displaystyle g\{\phi \}} , the acceleration at latitude ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } :
g { ϕ } = 9.780327 m ⋅ s − 2 ( 1 + 0.0053024 sin 2  ϕ − 0.0000058 sin 2  2 ϕ ) , = 9.780327 m ⋅ s − 2 ( 1 + 0.0052792 sin 2  ϕ + 0.0000232 sin 4  ϕ ) , = 9.780327 m ⋅ s − 2 ( 1.0053024 − 0.0053256 cos 2  ϕ + 0.0000232 cos 4  ϕ ) , = 9.780327 m ⋅ s − 2 ( 1.0026454 − 0.0026512 cos  2 ϕ + 0.0000058 cos 2  2 ϕ ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}g\{\phi \}&=9.780327\,\,\mathrm {m} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}\,\,\left(1+0.0053024\,\sin ^{2}\phi -0.0000058\,\sin ^{2}2\phi \right),\\&=9.780327\,\,\mathrm {m} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}\,\,\left(1+0.0052792\,\sin ^{2}\phi +0.0000232\,\sin ^{4}\phi \right),\\&=9.780327\,\,\mathrm {m} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}\,\,\left(1.0053024-0.0053256\,\cos ^{2}\phi +0.0000232\,\cos ^{4}\phi \right),\\&=9.780327\,\,\mathrm {m} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}\,\,\left(1.0026454-0.0026512\,\cos 2\phi +0.0000058\,\cos ^{2}2\phi \right)\end{aligned}}} .
This is the International Gravity Formula 1967, the 1967 Geodetic Reference System Formula, Helmert's equation or Clairaut's formula.[17]
An alternative formula for g as a function of latitude is the WGS (World Geodetic System) 84 Ellipsoidal Gravity Formula:[18]
g { ϕ } = G e [ 1 + k sin 2  ϕ 1 − e 2 sin 2  ϕ ] , {\displaystyle g\{\phi \}=\mathbb {G} _{e}\left[{\frac {1+k\sin ^{2}\phi }{\sqrt {1-e^{2}\sin ^{2}\phi }}}\right],\,\!}
where,
a , b {\displaystyle a,\,b} are the equatorial and polar semi-axes, respectively;
e 2 = 1 − ( b / a ) 2 {\displaystyle e^{2}=1-(b/a)^{2}} is the spheroid's eccentricity, squared;
G e , G p {\displaystyle \mathbb {G} _{e},\,\mathbb {G} _{p}\,} is the defined gravity at the equator and poles, respectively;
k = b G p − a G e a G e {\displaystyle k={\frac {b\,\mathbb {G} _{p}-a\,\mathbb {G} _{e}}{a\,\mathbb {G} _{e}}}} (formula constant);
then, where G p = 9.8321849378 m ⋅ s − 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {G} _{p}=9.8321849378\,\,\mathrm {m} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}} ,[18]
g { ϕ } = 9.7803253359 m ⋅ s − 2 [ 1 + 0.00193185265241 sin 2  ϕ 1 − 0.00669437999013 sin 2  ϕ ] {\displaystyle g\{\phi \}=9.7803253359\,\,\mathrm {m} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}\left[{\frac {1+0.00193185265241\,\sin ^{2}\phi }{\sqrt {1-0.00669437999013\,\sin ^{2}\phi }}}\right]} .
The difference between the WGS-84 formula and Helmert's equation is less than 0.68 μm·s−2.
Free air correction[edit]
Main article: Free-air anomaly
The first correction to be applied to the model is the free air correction (FAC) that accounts for heights above sea level. Near the surface of the Earth (sea level), gravity decreases with height such that linear extrapolation would give zero gravity at a height of one half of the earth's radius - (9.8 m·s−2 per 3,200 km.)[19]
Using the mass and radius of the Earth:
r E a r t h = 6.371 ⋅ 10 6 m {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {Earth} }=6.371\cdot 10^{6}\,\mathrm {m} }
m E a r t h = 5.9722 ⋅ 10 24 k g {\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {Earth} }=5.9722\cdot 10^{24}\,\mathrm {kg} }
The FAC correction factor (Δg) can be derived from the definition of the acceleration due to gravity in terms of G, the Gravitational Constant (see Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation, below):
g 0 = G m E a r t h / r E a r t h 2 = 9.8196 m s 2 {\displaystyle g_{0}=G\,m_{\mathrm {Earth} }/r_{\mathrm {Earth} }^{2}=9.8196\,{\frac {\mathrm {m} }{\mathrm {s} ^{2}}}}
where:
G = 6.67384 ⋅ 10 − 11 m 3 k g ⋅ s 2 . {\displaystyle G=6.67384\cdot 10^{-11}\,{\frac {\mathrm {m} ^{3}}{\mathrm {kg} \cdot \mathrm {s} ^{2}}}.}
At a height h above the nominal surface of the earth gh is given by:
g h = G m E a r t h / ( r E a r t h + h ) 2 {\displaystyle g_{h}=G\,m_{\mathrm {Earth} }/\left(r_{\mathrm {Earth} }+h\right)^{2}}
So the FAC for a height h above the nominal earth radius can be expressed:
Δ g h = [ G m E a r t h / ( r E a r t h + h ) 2 ] − [ G m E a r t h / r E a r t h 2 ] {\displaystyle \Delta g_{h}=\left[G\,m_{\mathrm {Earth} }/\left(r_{\mathrm {Earth} }+h\right)^{2}\right]-\left[G\,m_{\mathrm {Earth} }/r_{\mathrm {Earth} }^{2}\right]}
This expression can be readily used for programming or inclusion in a spreadsheet. Collecting terms, simplifying and neglecting small terms (h<<rEarth), however yields the good approximation:
Δ g h ≈ − G m E a r t h r E a r t h 2 ⋅ 2 h r E a r t h {\displaystyle \Delta g_{h}\approx -\,{\dfrac {G\,m_{\mathrm {Earth} }}{r_{\mathrm {Earth} }^{2}}}\cdot {\dfrac {2\,h}{r_{\mathrm {Earth} }}}}
Using the numerical values above and for a height h in metres:
Δ g h ≈ − 3.086 ⋅ 10 − 6 h {\displaystyle \Delta g_{h}\approx -3.086\cdot 10^{-6}\,h}
Grouping the latitude and FAC altitude factors the expression most commonly found in the literature is:
g { ϕ , h } = g { ϕ } − 3.086 ⋅ 10 − 6 h {\displaystyle g\{\phi ,h\}=g\{\phi \}-3.086\cdot 10^{-6}h}
where g { ϕ , h } {\displaystyle g\{\phi ,h\}} = acceleration in m·s−2 at latitude ϕ {\displaystyle \ \phi } and altitude h in metres.
Slab correction[edit]
Main article: Bouguer anomaly
Note: The section uses the galileo (symbol: "Gal"), which is a cgs unit for acceleration of 1 centimetre/second2.
For flat terrain above sea level a second term is added for the gravity due to the extra mass; for this purpose the extra mass can be approximated by an infinite horizontal slab, and we get 2πG times the mass per unit area, i.e. 4.2×10−10 m3·s−2·kg−1 (0.042 μGal·kg−1·m2) (the Bouguer correction). For a mean rock density of 2.67 g·cm−3 this gives 1.1×10−6 s−2 (0.11 mGal·m−1). Combined with the free-air correction this means a reduction of gravity at the surface of ca. 2 µm·s−2 (0.20 mGal) for every metre of elevation of the terrain. (The two effects would cancel at a surface rock density of 4/3 times the average density of the whole earth. The density of the whole earth is 5.515 g·cm−3, so standing on a slab of something like iron whose density is over 7.35 g·cm−3 would increase one's weight.)
For the gravity below the surface we have to apply the free-air correction as well as a double Bouguer correction. With the infinite slab model this is because moving the point of observation below the slab changes the gravity due to it to its opposite. Alternatively, we can consider a spherically symmetrical Earth and subtract from the mass of the Earth that of the shell outside the point of observation, because that does not cause gravity inside. This gives the same result.
Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation[edit]
From the law of universal gravitation, the force on a body acted upon by Earth's gravity is given by
F = G m 1 m 2 r 2 = ( G m 1 r 2 ) m 2 {\displaystyle F=G\,{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}=\left(G\,{\frac {m_{1}}{r^{2}}}\right)m_{2}}
where r is the distance between the centre of the Earth and the body (see below), and here we take m1 to be the mass of the Earth and m2 to be the mass of the body.
Additionally, Newton's second law, F = ma, where m is mass and a is acceleration, here tells us that
F = m 2 g {\displaystyle F=m_{2}\,g\,}
Comparing the two formulas it is seen that:
g = G m 1 r 2 {\displaystyle g=G\,{\frac {m_{1}}{r^{2}}}}
So, to find the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, substitute the values of the gravitational constant, G, the Earth's mass (in kilograms), m1, and the Earth's radius (in metres), r, to obtain the value of g:
g = G m 1 r 2 = 6.67384 ⋅ 10 − 11 m 3 ⋅ k g − 1 ⋅ s − 2 5.9722 ⋅ 10 24 k g ( 6.371 ⋅ 10 6 m ) 2 = 9.8196 m ⋅ s − 2 {\displaystyle g=G\,{\frac {m_{1}}{r^{2}}}=6.67384\cdot 10^{-11}\,\mathrm {m} ^{3}\cdot \mathrm {kg} ^{-1}\cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-2}\,\,\,{\frac {5.9722\cdot 10^{24}\,\mathrm {kg} }{(6.371\cdot 10^{6}\,\mathrm {m} )^{2}}}=9.8196\,\,{\mbox{m}}\cdot {\mbox{s}}^{-2}}
Note that this formula only works because of the mathematical fact that the gravity of a uniform spherical body, as measured on or above its surface, is the same as if all its mass were concentrated at a point at its centre. This is what allows us to use the Earth's radius for r.
The value obtained agrees approximately with the measured value of g. The difference may be attributed to several factors, mentioned above under "Variations":
The Earth is not homogeneous
The Earth is not a perfect sphere, and an average value must be used for its radius
This calculated value of g only includes true gravity. It does not include the reduction of constraint force that we perceive as a reduction of gravity due to the rotation of Earth, and some of gravity being counteracted by centrifugal force.
There are significant uncertainties in the values of r and m1 as used in this calculation, and the value of G is also rather difficult to measure precisely.
If G, g and r are known then a reverse calculation will give an estimate of the mass of the Earth. This method was used by Henry Cavendish.
See also[edit]
Earth sciences portal
Gravitation portal
Figure of Earth
Gravity (Gravitation)
Gravity anomaly, Bouguer anomaly
Gravitation of the Moon
Gravitational acceleration
Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Vertical deflection
References[edit]
Jump up ^ NASA/JPL/University of Texas Center for Space Research. "PIA12146: GRACE Global Gravity Animation". Photojournal. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Barry N.; Thompson, Ambler, eds. (March 2008). The international system of units (SI) (pdf) (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 52. NIST special publication 330, 2008 edition.
^ Jump up to: a b Boynton, Richard (2001). "Precise Measurement of Mass" (PDF). Sawe Paper No. 3147. Arlington, Texas: S.A.W.E., Inc. Retrieved 2007-01-21.
Jump up ^ Hofmann-Wellenhof, B.; Moritz, H. (2006). Physical Geodesy (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-211-33544-4. § 2.1: “The total force acting on a body at rest on the earth’s surface is the resultant of gravitational force and the centrifugal force of the earth’s rotation and is called gravity.”
Jump up ^ Hirt, Christian; Claessens, Sten; Fecher, Thomas; Kuhn, Michael; Pail, Roland; Rexer, Moritz (August 28, 2013). "New ultrahigh-resolution picture of Earth's gravity field". Geophysical Research Letters. 40 (16): 4279–4283. Bibcode:2013GeoRL..40.4279H. doi:10.1002/grl.50838.
Jump up ^ "Wolfram|Alpha Gravity in Kuala Lumpur", Wolfram Alpha, accessed May 2017
Jump up ^ Terry Quinn (2011). From Artefacts to Atoms: The BIPM and the Search for Ultimate Measurement Standards. Oxford University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-19-530786-3.
Jump up ^ Resolution of the 3rd CGPM (1901), page 70 (in cm/s2). BIPM – Resolution of the 3rd CGPM
Jump up ^ "Curious About Astronomy?", Cornell University, retrieved June 2007
Jump up ^ "I feel 'lighter' when up a mountain but am I?", National Physical Laboratory FAQ
Jump up ^ "The G's in the Machine", NASA, see "Editor's note #2"
Jump up ^ Tipler, Paul A. (1999). Physics for scientists and engineers (4th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman/Worth Publishers. pp. 336&ndash, 337. ISBN 9781572594913.
^ Jump up to: a b A. M. Dziewonski, D. L. Anderson (1981). "Preliminary reference Earth model" (PDF). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 25 (4): 297–356. Bibcode:1981PEPI...25..297D. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(81)90046-7. ISSN 0031-9201.
Jump up ^ Watts, A. B.; Daly, S. F. (May 1981). "Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies" (PDF). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 9: 415–418. Bibcode:1981AREPS...9..415W. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215.
Jump up ^ Gravitational Fields Widget as of Oct 25th, 2012 – WolframAlpha
Jump up ^ T.M. Yarwood and F. Castle, Physical and Mathematical Tables, revised edition, Macmillan and Co LTD, London and Basingstoke, Printed in Great Britain by The University Press, Glasgow, 1970, pp 22 & 23.
Jump up ^ International Gravity formula Archived 2008-08-20 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984 ― Its Definition and Relationships with Local Geodetic Systems,NIMA TR8350.2, 3rd ed., Tbl. 3.4, Eq. 4-1
Jump up ^ The rate of decrease is calculated by differentiating g(r) with respect to r and evaluating at r=rEarth.
External links[edit]
Altitude gravity calculator
GRACE – Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
GGMplus high resolution data (2013)
Geoid 2011 model Potsdam Gravity Potato
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text:
List of Padma Bhushan award recipients (1990–1999)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Padma Bhushan
Awarded by

Government of India
Country
India
Type
National Civilian
Ribbon
Obverse
A centrally located lotus flower is embossed and the text "Padma" written in Devanagari script is placed above and the text "Bhushan" is placed below the lotus.
Reverse
A platinum State Emblem of India placed in the centre with the national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari Script
Statistics
Established
1954
Previous name(s)
Padma Vibhushan "Dusra Warg" (Class II)
First awarded
1954
Total awarded
113
Precedence
Next (higher)
Padma Vibhushan
Next (lower)
Padma Shri
The Padma Bhushan is the third-highest civilian award of the Republic of India.[1] Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for "distinguished service of a high order", without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex.[2] The recipients receive a Sanad, a certificate signed by the President of India and a circular-shaped medallion with no monetary association. The recipients are announced every year on Republic Day (26 January) and registered in The Gazette of India—a publication used for official government notices and released weekly by the Department of Publication, under the Ministry of Urban Development.[3] The conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. The name of recipient, whose award have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, is archived and they are required to surrender their medal when their name is struck from the register;[4] none of the conferments of Padma Bhushan during 1990–1999 have been revoked or restored. The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments, as well as from Ministries of the Government of India, the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan awardees, the Institutes of Excellence, the Ministers, the Chief Ministers and the Governors of State, and the Members of Parliament including private individuals.[3]
When instituted in 1954, the Padma Bhushan was classified as "Dusra Warg" (Class II) under the three-tier Padma Vibhushan awards, which were preceded by the Bharat Ratna in hierarchy. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards as the Padma Vibhushan, the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri.[3] The criteria included "distinguished service of a high order in any field including service rendered by Government servants", but excluded those working with the public sector undertakings with the exception of doctors and scientists. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards; this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute.[4] The design was also changed to the form that is currently in use; it portrays a circular-shaped toned bronze medallion 1 3⁄4 inches (44 mm) in diameter and 1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) thick. The centrally placed pattern made of outer lines of a square of 1 3⁄16 inches (30 mm) side is embossed with a knob carved within each of the outer angles of the pattern. A raised circular space of diameter 1 1⁄16 inches (27 mm) is placed at the centre of the decoration. A centrally located lotus flower is embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma" is placed above and the text "Bhushan" is placed below the lotus written in Devanagari script. The State Emblem of India is displayed in the centre of the reverse side, together with the national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari script, which is inscribed on the lower edge. The rim, the edges and all embossing on either side is of standard gold with the text "Padma Bhushan" of gold gilt. The medal is suspended by a pink riband 1 1⁄4 inches (32 mm) in width with a broad white stripe in the middle.[3][4] It is ranked fifth in the order of precedence of wearing of medals and decorations of the Indian civilian and military awards.[a]
In the 1990s, a total of 113 people were conferred with the award. Twenty-four awards were presented in both 1990 and 1991, followed by thirty-three in 1992. In February 1992, a writ petition was filed in the Kerala High Court questioning whether the civilian awards presented the Government of India were "titles" as per the Article 18 (1) of the Constitution of India.[6] The subject constitutional article states that "no title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State".[7] Similar petition was also filed in August 1992 in the Indore Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court and a notice was issued on 25 August that led to provisional suspension of all civilian awards.[8][9] A Special Divisional Bench of the Supreme Court of India was set up with a panel of five judges that delivered the verdict on 15 December 1995 that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles within Article 18 of the Constitution of India".[8][10] Later in 1998 when the presentation of the awards resumed, eighteen recipients received the award followed by fourteen in 1999. The Padma Bhushan in the 1990s was also conferred upon five foreign recipients – two from the United Kingdom and one each from Japan, New Zealand, and the United States. Individuals from ten fields were honoured that included twenty-six artists, twenty-three from literature and education, eighteen from science and engineering, fifteen from medicine, eleven from public affairs, ten from social work, three sportspersons, three from trade and industry, and two from civil services and other fields each.[11]
Journalist Nikhil Chakravarty declined the award in 1990 so as to "not be identified with the establishment".[12] Historian Romila Thapar declined to accept the award in 1992, and later again in 2005, stating that she would accept awards only "from academic institutions or those associated with my professional work".[12] Similar to Chakravarty, journalist and civil servant K. Subrahmanyam also refused the honour citing that "bureaucrats and journalists should not accept any award from the government because they are more liable to be favoured."[12]
Contents
1 Recipients
2 Explanatory notes
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Recipients[edit]
A recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award, social worker Rajanikant Arole (awarded in 1990) was the founder president of Maharashtra Social Forum, a popular NGO network in the state.[13]
Purushottam Laxman Deshpande (awarded in 1990) was a marathi theatre personality and actor, acting in twenty five films. He has been the President of both the Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan and Natya Sammelan.[14]
Sarangi player Ram Narayan (awarded in 1991) popularised the instrument as a solo concert instrument and is considered as first internationally successful sarangi player.[15]
Widely known for her "pioneering" work in the field of family planning, Shakuntala Paranjpye (awarded in 1991) also acted in movies like Sairandhri (1933) and Kunku (1937).[16]
Girish Karnad (awarded in 1992) is an actor, film director, writer and playwright in Kannada language. He is also the recipient of the Jnanpith Award.[17]
Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan (awarded in 1992) is an Indian space scientist who has headed the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) from 1994 to 2003 and the Karnataka Knowledge Commission.[18]
A recipient of the Sangeetha Kalanidhi, Padma Shri and the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award, T. N. Krishnan (awarded in 1992) is a Carnatic music violinist.[19]
Sonal Mansingh (awarded in 1992) is an Indian classical dancer in Bharatanatyam and Odissi dancing style.[20]
Bhisham Sahni (awarded in 1998) was a Hindi writer, playwright and actor, famously known for his novel Tamas, for which he received the Sahitya Akademi Award.[21]
Considered as "the pioneer of satellite based imaging sensors in the country", George Joseph (awarded in 1999) has made significant contribution to Electro-optical sensor development.[22]
Award recipients by year[11]
Year
Number of recipients
1990
24
1991
24
1992
33
1993
0
1994
0
1995
0
1996
0
1997
0
1998
18
1999
14
Award recipients by field[11]
Field
Number of recipients
Arts
26
Civil Service
2
Literature & Education
23
Medicine
15
Others
2
Public Affairs
11
Science & Engineering
18
Social Work
10
Sports
3
Trade & Industry
3
Key
# Indicates a posthumous honour
List of Padma Bhushan award recipients, showing the year, field, and state/country[11]
Year
Recipient
Field
State
1990
Rajanikant Arole
Social Work Maharashtra
1990
Bimal Kumar Bachhawat
Science & Engineering Delhi
1990
Purushottam Laxman Deshpande
Arts Maharashtra
1990
Sattaiyappa Dhandapani Desikar
Literature & Education Tamil Nadu
1990
L. K. Doraiswamy
Science & Engineering —[A]
1990
Nikhil Ghosh
Arts Maharashtra
1990
B. K. Goyal
Medicine Maharashtra
1990
Jasraj
Arts Maharashtra
1990
Mohammad Khalilullah
Medicine Delhi
1990
R. N. Malhotra
Civil Service Maharashtra
1990
Bimal Krishna Matilal
Literature & Education —[B]
1990
Inder Mohan
Social Work Delhi
1990
Sumant Moolgaokar
Trade & Industry Maharashtra
1990
Hirendranath Mukherjee
Literature & Education West Bengal
1990
C. D. Narasimhaiah
Literature & Education Karnataka
1990
M. S. Narasimhan
Science & Engineering Maharashtra
1990
Kunwar Singh Negi
Literature & Education Uttarakhand
1990
Trilochan Pradhan
Science & Engineering Odisha
1990
N. Ram
Literature & Education Tamil Nadu
1990
Sukumar Sen
Literature & Education West Bengal
1990
Arun Shourie
Literature & Education Delhi
1990
Julius Silverman
Public Affairs —[B]
1990
M. R. Srinivasan
Science & Engineering Maharashtra
1990
M. S. Valiathan
Medicine Kerala
1991
Ebrahim Alkazi
Arts Delhi
1991
Lala Amarnath
Sports Delhi
1991
Narayan Shridhar Bendre
Arts Maharashtra
1991
Shyam Benegal
Arts Maharashtra
1991
D. B. Deodhar
Sports Maharashtra
1991
Amjad Ali Khan
Arts Delhi
1991
Dilip Kumar
Arts Maharashtra
1991
Narayan Singh Manaklao
Social Work Rajasthan
1991
Muthu Krishna Mani
Medicine Tamil Nadu
1991
Ram Narayan
Arts Maharashtra
1991
Fali Sam Nariman
Public Affairs Delhi
1991
Kapil Dev
Sports Delhi
1991
Manubhai Pancholi
Public Affairs Gujarat
1991
Shakuntala Paranjpye
Social Work Maharashtra
1991
Bindeshwar Pathak
Social Work Bihar
1991
Samta Prasad
Arts Uttar Pradesh
1991
Basavaraj Rajguru
Arts Karnataka
1991
Prathap C. Reddy
Medicine Andhra Pradesh
1991
Amala Shankar
Science & Engineering West Bengal
1991
Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar (Kusumagraj)
Literature & Education Maharashtra
1991
Kuthur Ramakrishnan Srinivasan
Literature & Education Tamil Nadu
1991
Ale Ahmad Suroor
Arts Uttar Pradesh
1991
Leslie Denis Swindale
Science & Engineering —[C]
1991
Jiwan Singh Umranangal
Public Affairs Punjab
1992
Bijoy Chandra Bhagavati
Public Affairs Assam
1992
Debu Chaudhuri
Arts Delhi
1992
Hariprasad Chaurasia
Arts Maharashtra
1992
Thayil John Cherian
Medicine Tamil Nadu
1992
Ranjan Roy Daniel
Science & Engineering Tamil Nadu
1992
Virendra Dayal
Civil Service Delhi
1992
B. Saroja Devi
Arts Karnataka
1992
Khem Singh Gill
Science & Engineering Punjab
1992
Vavilala Gopalakrishnayya
Public Affairs Andhra Pradesh
1992
Anna Hazare
Social Work Maharashtra
1992
Hakim Abdul Hameed
Medicine Delhi
1992
Kongara Jaggaiah
Arts Andhra Pradesh
1992
Girish Karnad
Arts Karnataka
1992
Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan
Science & Engineering Karnataka
1992
Triloki Nath Khoshoo
Science & Engineering Delhi
1992
Goro Koyama
Others —[D]
1992
Adusumalli Radha Krishna
Arts Andhra Pradesh
1992
T. N. Krishnan
Arts Tamil Nadu
1992
Ramachandra Datatraya Lele
Medicine Maharashtra
1992
Talat Mahmood
Arts Maharashtra
1992
Syed Abdul Malik
Literature & Education Assam
1992
Dalsukh Dahyabhai Malvania
Literature & Education Gujarat
1992
Sonal Mansingh
Arts Delhi
1992
M. Sarada Menon
Social Work Tamil Nadu
1992
Naushad
Arts Maharashtra
1992
Setu Madhavrao Pagdi
Literature & Education Maharashtra
1992
Hasmukhbhai Parekh
Trade & Industry Maharashtra
1992
C. Narayana Reddy
Literature & Education Andhra Pradesh
1992
Mrinalini Sarabhai
Arts Gujarat
1992
Gursaran Talwar
Medicine Delhi
1992
Brihaspati Dev Triguna
Medicine Delhi
1992
K. Venkatalakshamma
Arts Karnataka
1992
C. R. Vyas
Arts Maharashtra
1998
U. R. Ananthamurthy
Literature & Education Karnataka
1998
Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar
Science & Engineering Karnataka
1998
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya
Literature & Education West Bengal
1998
Satyapal Dang
Public Affairs Punjab
1998
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
Public Affairs Madhya Pradesh
1998
H. K. Dua
Literature & Education Delhi
1998
Maligali Ram Krishna Girinath
Medicine Tamil Nadu
1998
Hemlata Gupta
Medicine Delhi
1998
K. M. Mathew
Literature & Education Kerala
1998
G. Madhavan Nair
Science & Engineering Kerala
1998
Rajendra Singh Paroda
Science & Engineering Delhi
1998
G. B. Parulkar
Medicine Maharashtra
1998
Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman
Science & Engineering Karnataka
1998
Bhisham Sahni
Literature & Education Delhi
1998
Vempati Chinna Satyam
Arts Tamil Nadu
1998
Laxmi Mall Singhvi
Public Affairs Delhi
1998
V. M. Tarkunde
Public Affairs Uttar Pradesh
1998
Panangipalli Venugopal
Medicine Delhi
1999
S. S. Badrinath
Medicine Tamil Nadu
1999
Jag Parvesh Chandra
Public Affairs Delhi
1999
Jacob Cherian
Social Work Tamil Nadu
1999
Pushpalata Das
Social Work Assam
1999
Sohrab Pirojsha Godrej
Trade & Industry Maharashtra
1999
George Joseph
Science & Engineering Gujarat
1999
Anil Kakodkar
Science & Engineering Maharashtra
1999
D. C. Kizhakemuri[i]#
Literature & Education Kerala
1999
Ashok Kumar
Arts Maharashtra
1999
Vidya Niwas Mishra
Literature & Education Uttar Pradesh
1999
Krishnamurthy Santhanam
Science & Engineering Delhi
1999
H. D. Shourie
Social Work Delhi
1999
Shivmangal Singh Suman
Literature & Education Madhya Pradesh
1999
Ram Kinkar Upadhyay
Others Uttar Pradesh
Explanatory notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The order of precedence is: Bharat Ratna, Param Vir Chakra, Ashoka Chakra, Padma Vibhushan and Padma Bhushan.[5]
Non-citizen recipients
Jump up ^ Indicates a citizen of the United States
^ Jump up to: a b Indicates a citizen of the United Kingdom
Jump up ^ Indicates a citizen of New Zealand
Jump up ^ Indicates a citizen of Japan
Posthumous recipients
Jump up ^ D. C. Kizhakemuri died on 26 January 1999, at the age of 85.[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "PV Sindhu recommended for Padma Bhushan, India's third highest civilian award, by sports ministry". Firstpost. 25 September 2017. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Lal, Shavax A. (1954). "The Gazette of India—Extraordinary—Part I" (PDF). The Gazette of India. The President's Secretariat (published 2 January 1954): 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2018. The President is pleased to institute an award to be designated 'Padma Vibhushan' in three classes, namely: 'Pahela Varg', 'Dusra Varg' and 'Tisra Varg'
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Padma Awards Scheme" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs (India). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ayyar, N. M. (1955). "The Gazette of India—Extraordinary—Part I" (PDF). The Gazette of India. The President's Secretariat (published 15 January 1955): 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2018. All persons upon whom the decoration of 'Padma Vibhushan' ('Dusra Varg') was conferred under the Regulations issued with Notification No. 2-Pres./54, dated the 2nd January, 1954, shall, for all purposes of these regulations, be deemed to be persons on whom the decoration of Padma Bhushan has been conferred by the President.
Jump up ^ "Wearing of Medals: Precedence Of Medals". Indian Army. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Chatterjee, Saibal; Prakash, Amit (10 January 1996). "An Honourable Judgement". Outlook. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of India" (PDF). Ministry of Law and Justice (India). p. 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Balaji Raghavan S. P. Anand Vs. Union of India: Transfer Case (civil) 9 of 1994". Supreme Court of India. 4 August 1997. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Mukul, Akshaya; Mohan, Vishwa; Dhawan, Himanshi (6 February 2010). "Chatwal fiasco: Top civilian awards losing sheen". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Thorpe 2011, p. C-105.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Padma Awards Directory (1954–2014)" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs (India). 21 May 2014. pp. 94–117. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 November 2014. Retrieved 22 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Those who said no to top awards". The Times of India. 20 January 2008. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Mascarenhas, Anuradha (27 May 2011). "Social activist, Magsaysay winner Dr Rajnikant Arole dies at 77". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Profile: P. L. Deshpande". Sangeet Natak Akademi. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sarangi maestro Ram Narayan gets Bhimsen Joshi Award". Business Standard. Indo-Asian News Service. 3 February 2016. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Nair 2017, p. 149.
Jump up ^ "Jnanpith for Dr Girish Karnad". Rediff.com. 21 January 1999. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Agha, Eram (26 June 2017). "Scientist Kasturirangan to Head Panel on National Education Policy". CNN-News18. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Profile: T. N. Krishnan". Sangeet Natak Akademi. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Profile: Sonal Mansingh". Jaipur Literature Festival. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Profile: Bhisham Sahni". Penguin Books. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Profile: George Joseph". CRC Press. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Our Inspiration: D. C. Kizhakemuri [1914–1999]". DCSMAT Institute of Printing and Imaging. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Thorpe, Edgar (2011). The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2011. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-3175-640-9.
Nair, Pratap (2017). The Double-X Factor. Jaico Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-8495-993-2.
External links[edit]
Official website
"Awards & Medals". Ministry of Home Affairs (India). 14 September 2015. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
show
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e
Padma Bhushan award recipients (1990–1999)
1990
Rajanikant Arole
Bimal Kumar Bachhawat
Purushottam Laxman Deshpande
L. K. Doraiswamy
Nikhil Ghosh
B. K. Goyal
Jasraj
R. N. Malhotra
Bimal Krishna Matilal
Sumant Moolgaokar
Hirendranath Mukherjee
C. D. Narasimhaiah
M. S. Narasimhan
Kunwar Singh Negi
Trilochan Pradhan
N. Ram
Sukumar Sen
Arun Shourie
Julius Silverman
M. R. Srinivasan
M. S. Valiathan
1991
Ebrahim Alkazi
Lala Amarnath
Narayan Shridhar Bendre
Shyam Benegal
D. B. Deodhar
Amjad Ali Khan
Dilip Kumar
Narayan Singh Manaklao
Muthu Krishna Mani
Ram Narayan
Fali Sam Nariman
Kapil Dev
Manubhai Pancholi
Shakuntala Paranjpye
Bindeshwar Pathak
Samta Prasad
Basavaraj Rajguru
Prathap C. Reddy
Amala Shankar
Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar (Kusumagraj)
Kuthur Ramakrishnan Srinivasan
Ale Ahmad Suroor
Leslie Denis Swindale
Jiwan Singh Umranangal
1992
Bijoy Chandra Bhagavati
Debu Chaudhuri
Hariprasad Chaurasia
Thayil John Cherian
Ranjan Roy Daniel
Virendra Dayal
B. Saroja Devi
Khem Singh Gill
Vavilala Gopalakrishnayya
Anna Hazare
Hakim Abdul Hameed
Jaggayya
Girish Karnad
Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan
Triloki Nath Khoshoo
T. N. Krishnan
Ramachandra Datatraya Lele
Talat Mahmood
Syed Abdul Malik
Dalsukh Dahyabhai Malvania
Sonal Mansingh
M. Sarada Menon
Naushad
Setumadhavarao Pagadi
Hasmukhbhai Parekh
C. Narayana Reddy
Mrinalini Sarabhai
Gursaran Talwar
Brihaspati Dev Triguna
K. Venkatalakshamma
C. R. Vyas
1998
U. R. Ananthamurthy
Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya
Satyapal Dang
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
H. K. Dua
Hemlata Gupta
K. M. Mathew
G. Madhavan Nair
Rajendra Singh Paroda
G. B. Parulkar
Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman
Bhisham Sahni
Vempati Chinna Satyam
Laxmi Mall Singhvi
V. M. Tarkunde
Panangipalli Venugopal
1999
S. S. Badrinath
Jacob Cherian
Pushpalata Das
Sohrab Pirojsha Godrej
George Joseph
Anil Kakodkar
D. C. Kizhakemuri
Ashok Kumar
Vidya Niwas Mishra
H. D. Shourie
Shivmangal Singh Suman
Ram Kinkar Upadhyay
# Posthumous conferral
1954–1959
1960–1969
1970–1979
1980–1989
1990–1999
2000–2009
2010–2019
show
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Indian honours and decorations
Civilian
National
Bharat Ratna
Padma Vibhushan
Padma Bhushan
Padma Shri
Children
National Bravery Award
National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement
National Bal Shree Honour
Women
Stree Shakti Puraskar
Police
President's Police Medal for Gallantry
Police Medal for Gallantry
Central
Ganga Sharan Award
George Grierson Award
Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan Award
Moturi Satyanarayan Award
National Award for Child Welfare
Subramanya Bharathi Award
By field
Literature
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
Sahitya Akademi Award
Cinema
Dadasaheb Phalke Award
National Film Awards
Other arts
Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship
Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Lalit Kala Akademi Fellowship
Sports
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna
Arjuna Award
Dronacharya Award
Dhyan Chand Award
Science &
Technology
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize
Kalinga Prize
Aryabhata Award
Gallantry
Sarvottam Jeevan Raksha Padak
Uttam Jeevan Raksha Padak
Jeevan Raksha Padak
Medical
Dr. B. C. Roy Award
International
Gandhi Peace Prize
Indira Gandhi Peace Prize
Tagore Award for Cultural Harmony
Military
Wartime
Param Vir Chakra
Maha Vir Chakra
Vir Chakra
Peacetime
Ashoka Chakra
Kirti Chakra
Shaurya Chakra
Distinguished
Service & Gallantry
Sena Medal
Army
Nao Sena Medal
Navy
Vayu Sena Medal
Air Force
Wartime
Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal
Uttam Yudh Seva Medal
Yudh Seva Medal
Peacetime
Param Vishisht Seva Medal
Ati Vishisht Seva Medal
Vishisht Seva Medal
Service and
campaign medals
Wound Medal
General Service Medal 1947
Samanya Seva Medal
Special Service Medal
Samar Seva Star
Poorvi Star
Paschimi Star
Operation Vijay Star
Siachen Glacier Medal
Raksha Medal
Sangram Medal
Operation Vijay Medal
Operation Parakram Medal
Sainya Seva Medal
High Altitude Service Medal
Videsh Seva Medal
Long service awards
Meritorious Service Medal
Long Service and Good Conduct Medal
30 Years Long Service Medal
20 Years Long Service Medal
9 Years Long Service Medal
Territorial Army Decoration
Territorial Army Medal
Independence Awards
Indian Independence Medal
50th Independence Anniversary Medal
25th Independence Anniversary Medal
Other Awards
Mention in Dispatches
Commendation Card
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Padma_Bhushan_award_recipients_(1990–1999)&oldid=844495428"
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