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Alarm clock
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Traditional wind-up (keywound), mechanical, spring-driven alarm clock
An alarm clock (or sometimes just an alarm) is a clock that is designed to alert an individual or group of individuals at specified time. The primary function of these clocks is to awaken people from their night's sleep or short naps; they are sometimes used for other reminders as well. Most use sound; some use light or vibration. Some have sensors to identify when a person is in a light stage of sleep, in order to avoid waking someone who is deeply asleep, which causes tiredness, even if the person has had adequate sleep. To stop the sound or light, a button or handle on the clock is pressed; most clocks automatically stop the alarm if left unattended long enough. A classic analog alarm clock has an extra hand or inset dial that is used to specify the time at which to activate the alarm. Alarm clocks are also found on mobile phones and watches.
Traditional mechanical alarm clocks have one or two bells that ring by means of a mainspring that powers a gear to propel a hammer back and forth between the two bells or between the interior sides of a single bell. In some models, the back encasement of the clock itself acts as the bell. In an electric bell-style alarm clock, the bell is rung by an electromagnetic circuit and armature that turns the circuit on and off repeatedly.
Digital alarm clocks can make other noises. Simple battery-powered alarm clocks make a loud buzzing or beeping sound to wake a sleeper, while novelty alarm clocks can speak, laugh, sing, or play sounds from nature.
Some alarm clocks have radios that can be set to start playing at specified times, and are known as clock radios. Some alarm clocks can set multiple alarms, a useful feature for couples who have different waking up schedules. A progressive alarm clock, still new in the market, can have different alarms for different times (see Next-Generation Alarms) and even play music of your choice. Most modern televisions, mobile phones and digital watches have alarm clock functions to turn on or make sounds at a specific time.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Clock radio
3 Image gallery
4 Other alarm signals
5 Computer alarms
6 Mobile phone alarms
7 Next-generation alarms
8 Time switches used as alarms
9 See also
10 References
11 Sources
12 External links
History[edit]
The Obelisk of Theodosius, detail of the pedestal: Theodosius I offers laurels of victory; we can see the water organ of Ctesibius, in the lower right-hand corner.
The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428–348 BC) was said to possess a large water clock with an unspecified alarm signal similar to the sound of a water organ; he used it at night, possibly for signaling the beginning of his lectures at dawn (Athenaeus 4.174c).[1] The Hellenistic engineer and inventor Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC) fitted his clepsydras with dial and pointer for indicating the time, and added elaborate "alarm systems, which could be made to drop pebbles on a gong, or blow trumpets (by forcing bell-jars down into water and taking the compressed air through a beating reed) at pre-set times" (Vitruv 11.11).[2]
The late Roman senator Cassiodorus (c. 485–585) advocated in his rulebook for monastic life the water clock as a useful alarm for the 'soldiers of Christ' (Cassiod. Inst. 30.4 f.).[3] The Christian rhetorician Procopius described in detail prior to 529 a complex public striking clock in his home town Gaza which featured an hourly gong and figures moving mechanically day and night.[3]
In China, a striking clock was devised by the Buddhist monk and inventor Yi Xing (683–727).[4] The Chinese engineers Zhang Sixun and Su Song integrated striking clock mechanisms in astronomical clocks in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively.[5] A striking clock outside of China was the water-powered clock tower near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria, which struck once every hour. It was constructed by the Arab engineer al-Kaysarani in 1154. In 1235, an early monumental water-powered alarm clock that "announced the appointed hours of prayer and the time both by day and by night" was completed in the entrance hall of the Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad.[6]
From the 14th century, some clock towers in Western Europe were also capable of chiming at a fixed time every day; the earliest of these was described by the Florentine writer Dante Alighieri in 1319.[7] The most famous original striking clock tower still standing is possibly the one in St Mark's Clocktower in St Mark's Square, Venice. The St Mark's Clock was assembled in 1493, by the famous clockmaker Gian Carlo Rainieri from Reggio Emilia, where his father Gian Paolo Rainieri had already constructed another famous device in 1481. In 1497, Simone Campanato moulded the great bell (h. 1,56 m., diameter m. 1,27), which was put on the top of the tower where it was alternatively beaten by the Due Mori (Two Moors), two bronze statues (h. 2,60) handling a hammer.
User-settable mechanical alarm clocks date back at least to 15th-century Europe. These early alarm clocks had a ring of holes in the clock dial and were set by placing a pin in the appropriate hole.[8][9]
Another mechanical alarm clock was created by Levi Hutchins, of New Hampshire in the United States, in 1787. This device he made only for himself however, and it only rang at 4 AM, in order to wake him for his job.[10]
The French inventor Antoine Redier was the first to patent an adjustable mechanical alarm clock, in 1847.[citation needed]
Alarm clocks, like almost all other consumer goods in the United States, ceased production in the spring of 1942, as the factories which made them were converted over to war work during World War II, but they were one of the first consumer items to resume manufacture for civilian use, in November 1944. By that time, a critical shortage of alarm clocks had developed due to older clocks wearing out or breaking down. Workers were late for, or missed completely, their scheduled shifts in jobs critical to the war effort. In a pooling arrangement overseen by the Office of Price Administration, several clock companies were allowed to start producing new clocks, some of which were continuations of pre-war designs, and some of which were new designs, thus becoming among the first "postwar" consumer goods to be made, before the war had even ended. The price of these "emergency" clocks was, however, still strictly regulated by the Office of Price Administration.[citation needed]
The first radio alarm clock was invented by James F. Reynolds, in the 1940s and another design was also invented by Paul L. Schroth Sr.[citation needed]
Clock radio[edit]
"Clock radio" redirects here. For the clocks synchronised by radio signals, see radio clock.
A clock radio is an alarm clock and radio receiver integrated in one device. The clock may turn on the radio at a designated time to wake the user, and may also include a buzzer. Typically, they are placed on the bedside stand. Some models offer dual alarm and "snooze", a large button on the top that stops the alarm and sets it to ring again a few minutes later. [11] Some clock radios also have a "sleep" timer, which turns the music from radio on for a set amount of time (usually around one hour). This is useful for people who like to fall asleep with the radio on.
In addition to radio, recent clock radios have other music sources such as iPod, iPhone, and/or audio CD. When the alarm is triggered, it can play a set radio station or the music from a selected music source to awaken the sleeper. These models usually come with a dock for iPod/iPhone that also charges the device while it is docked. They can play FM/AM radio, iPod/iPhone or CD like a typical music player as well (without being triggered by the alarm function). A few popular models offer "nature sounds" like rain, forest, fire, sea, waterfall etc., in place of the buzzer.
Clock radios are powered by AC power from the wall socket. In the event of a power interruption, older electronic digital models used to reset the time to midnight (00:00) and lose alarm settings. This would cause failure to trigger the alarm even if the power is restored. To solve this issue, they trigger the alarm at 00:01 after a reset, so that at least the user is able to correct the clock and alarm settings. Most of the recent clock radios use a battery backup to maintain the time and alarm settings. Some advanced radio clocks (not to be confused with clocks with AM/FM radios) have a feature which sets the time automatically using signals from atomic clock-synced time signal radio stations such as WWV, making the clock accurate and immune to time reset due to power interruptions.
Image gallery[edit]
An early-1930s alarm clock radio with AM radio stations only.
A mid-1970s digital alarm clock radio (AM/FM) using split-flap display.
An early-1990s LED digital clock radio with analog AM/FM radio tuning.
2000s programmable CD clock radio
A modern clock radio features a radio/iPod/buzzer as alarms.
An alarm clock as the emblem of the Nationalist Congress Party in India.
Other alarm signals[edit]
The deaf and hard of hearing are often unable to perceive auditory alarms when asleep. They may use specialized alarms, including alarms with flashing lights instead of or in addition to noise. Alarms which can connect to vibrating devices (small ones inserted into pillows, or larger ones placed under bedposts to shake the bed) also exist.[citation needed]
Computer alarms[edit]
Alarm clock software programs have been developed for personal computers. A computer acting as an alarm clock may allow a virtually unlimited number of alarm times (i.e. Personal information manager) and personalized tones.[citation needed] Online alarm clocks are also available through the use of different websites, e.g. sensorwake.
Mobile phone alarms[edit]
Many modern mobile phones feature built-in alarm clocks that do not need the phone to be switched on for the alarm to ring off.[citation needed] Some of these mobile phones feature the ability for the user to set the alarm's ringtone, and in some cases music can be downloaded to the phone and then chosen to play for waking.[citation needed]
Next-generation alarms[edit]
Sleeptracker, an alarm clock which tracks sleep phases
Scientific studies on sleep having shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Alarm clocks involving sleep stage monitoring appeared on the market in 2005.[12] Using sensing technologies such as EEG electrodes or accelerometers, these alarm clocks are supposed to wake people only from light sleep.[citation needed] Dawn simulators are another technology meant to mediate these effects.
Sleepers can become accustomed to the sound of their alarm clock if it has been used for a period of time, making it less effective.[citation needed] Because progressive alarm clocks have a complex waking procedure, they can deter this adaptation due to the body needing to adapt to more stimuli than just a simple sound alert.[citation needed]
Time switches used as alarms[edit]
Main article: Time switch
Time switches can be used to turn on anything that will awaken a sleeper, and can therefore be used as alarms. Lights, bells, and radio and TV sets can easily be used. More elaborate devices have also been used, such as machines that automatically prepare tea or coffee. A sound is produced when the drink is ready, so the sleeper awakes to find the freshly brewed drink waiting.
See also[edit]
Delayed sleep phase syndrome
Digital clock
Light therapy
Timer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 2003, p. 522; Lewis 2000, p. 363
Jump up ^ Landels 1979, p. 35
^ Jump up to: a b Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard, "Clocks", Brill's New Pauly, edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, 2009
Jump up ^ Joseph Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, pp. 473–5
Jump up ^ Joseph Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, p. 165
Jump up ^ Donald Routledge Hill (1991), "Arabic Mechanical Engineering: Survey of the Historical Sources", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 1: 167–186 [180], doi:10.1017/S0957423900001478
Jump up ^ Joseph Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, p. 445
Jump up ^ p. 249, The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts, Gordon Campbell, vol. 1, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-518948-5.
Jump up ^ "Monastic Alarm Clocks, Italian" Archived 21 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine., entry, Clock Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Mary Bellis. "History of Clocks". Retrieved 2 November 2006.
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams (26 November 1999). "Why does the alarm clock snooze button give you nine extra minutes, not ten?". The Straight Dope. Archived from the original on 31 December 2006. Retrieved 7 January 2007.
Jump up ^ Reuven Fenton (29 August 2007). "Bio-alarm clocks set for perfect wake-up". Reuters. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
Sources[edit]
Humphrey, John William; Oleson, John Peter; Sherwood, Andrew N. (2003), Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcebook. Annotated Translations of Greek and Latin Texts and Documents, Taylor & Francis Routledge, ISBN 978-0-203-41325-8
Landels, John G. (1979), "Water-Clocks and Time Measurement in Classical Antiquity", Endeavour, 3 (1), pp. 32–37, doi:10.1016/0160-9327(79)90007-3
Lewis, Michael (2000), "Theoretical Hydraulics, Automata, and Water Clocks", in Wikander, Örjan, Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 343–369, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
External links[edit]
Media related to Alarm clocks at Wikimedia Commons
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Former Presidents Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Former Presidents Act (known also as FPA; 3 U.S.C. § 102) is a 1958 U.S. federal law that provides several lifetime benefits to former presidents of the United States who have not been removed from office.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Current status
2.1 Pension
2.2 Transition
2.3 Staff and office
2.4 Medical insurance
2.5 Secret Service protection
3 See also
4 Notes
5 External links
History[edit]
Before 1958, the U.S. federal government provided no pension or other retirement benefits to former United States presidents. Andrew Carnegie offered to endow a US$25,000 annual pension for former Chief Executives in 1912, but congressmen questioned the propriety of such a private pension. That prompted legislation to provide benefits to former presidents.[1]
When the Former Presidents Act took effect, there were two living former presidents: Herbert Hoover and Harry S. Truman. Dwight D. Eisenhower was the first president to fall under the act upon leaving office.
The original act provided for lifetime Secret Service protection for former presidents. In 1997, it was reduced to 10 years for presidents taking office after 1997. The 1997 amendment was reverted by the Former Presidents Protection Act of 2012 (Pub.L. 112–257).[2] All living former presidents and their spouses are now entitled to receive lifetime Secret Service protection.[3]
Current status[edit]
By law, former presidents are entitled to a pension, staff and office expenses, medical care or health insurance, and Secret Service protection.
Pension[edit]
The Secretary of the Treasury pays a taxable pension to the president. Former presidents receive a pension equal to the pay that the head of an executive department (Executive Level I) would be paid, as of 2017[update] $207,800 per year.[4] The pension begins immediately after a president's departure from office.[5] A former president's spouse may also be paid a lifetime annual pension of $20,000 if they relinquish any other statutory pension.[1]
Transition[edit]
Washington Transition funding for the expenses of leaving office is available for seven months. It covers office space, staff compensation, communications services, and printing and postage associated with the transition.[1]
Staff and office[edit]
Private office staff and related funding is provided by the Administrator of the General Services Administration. Persons employed under this subsection are selected by and responsible only to the former president for the performance of their duties. Each former president fixes basic rates of compensation for persons employed for him, not exceeding an annualized total of $150,000 for the first 30 months and $96,000 thereafter.[1]
Medical insurance[edit]
Former presidents are entitled to medical treatment in military hospitals; they pay for this at interagency rates set by the Office of Management and Budget. Two-term presidents may buy health insurance under the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program; a GSA legal opinion ruled Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush ineligible.[1][6]
Secret Service protection[edit]
Former presidents were entitled from 1965 to 1996 to lifetime Secret Service protection, for themselves, spouses, and children under 16. A 1994 statute, (Pub.L. 103–329), limited post-presidential protection to ten years for presidents inaugurated after January 1, 1997.[7] Under this statute, Bill Clinton would still be entitled to lifetime protection, and all subsequent presidents would have been entitled to ten years' protection.[8] On January 10, 2013, President Barack Obama signed the Former Presidents Protection Act of 2012, reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection for his predecessor George W. Bush, himself, and all subsequent presidents.[9]
Richard Nixon relinquished his Secret Service protection in 1985, the only president to do so.[10]
See also[edit]
Presidential Townhouse
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Smith, Stephanie (2008-03-18). "Former Presidents: Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. U.S. Senate. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
Jump up ^ Public Law 112-257 Jan. 10, 2013
Jump up ^ Ann Compton (10 January 2013). "Lifetime Secret Service Protection Restored for Presidents Bush and Obama". ABC News. Retrieved 1 May 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/salaries-wages/salary-tables/17Tables/exec/html/EX.aspx
Jump up ^ Brandon, Emily (January 16, 2009). "President Bush Will Get a $196,700 Pension". US News and World Report. Retrieved 2012-11-08. Former presidents currently receive a pension that is equal to pay for the head of an executive department.
Jump up ^ Brandon, Emily (2009-01-16). "President Bush Will Get a $196,700 Pension". Washington, D.C.: U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2009-04-09. Bush’s payouts will grow to $203,600 next year and $210,700 in 2011
Jump up ^ "United States Secret Service: History". U.S. Department of Treasury. Archived from the original on March 14, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-09. 1965 Congress authorized protection of former presidents and their spouses during their lifetime and minor children until age 16....1997 Congress passed legislation in 1994 stating that presidents elected to office after January 1, 1997, will receive Secret Service protection for 10 years after leaving office. Individuals elected to office prior to January 1, 1997, will continue to receive lifetime protection. (Public Law 103-329)
Jump up ^ Ginsberg, Wendy (2008-08-22). "Former Presidents: Pensions, Office Allowances, and Other Federal Benefit" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ "Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses". Washington Post. Associated Press. 10 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Sharkey, Nancy (1985-07-28). "Follow-Up On The News; Nixon Guards". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-11-18. His sole reason was to save money for the government, according to his assistant, John Taylor....Mr. Nixon's wife, Pat, dropped Secret Service protection last year. The others on the agency's permanent-protection rolls are former Presidents Gerald R. Ford and Jimmy Carter, and President Lyndon B. Johnson's widow, Lady Bird.
External links[edit]
National Archives: Former Presidents Act
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Former_Presidents_Act&oldid=825905127"
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United States federal government administration legislation
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Weather balloon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Transosonde ready for release
Picture taken at approximately 30 km above Oregon using a 1,500 gram weather balloon
Rawinsonde weather balloon just after launch. Notice a parachute in the center of the string and a small instrument box at the end. After release it measures many parameters. These include temperature, relative humidity, pressure, and wind speed and wind direction. This information is transmitted back to surface observers.
A weather or sounding balloon is a balloon (specifically a type of high-altitude balloon) which carries instruments aloft to send back information on atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity and wind speed by means of a small, expendable measuring device called a radiosonde. To obtain wind data, they can be tracked by radar, radio direction finding, or navigation systems (such as the satellite-based Global Positioning System, GPS). Balloons meant to stay at a constant altitude for long periods of time are known as transosondes.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Materials and equipment
3 Launch time, location, and uses
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
One of the first people to use weather balloons was Léon Teisserenc de Bort, the French meteorologist. Starting in 1896 he launched hundreds of weather balloons from his observatory in Trappes, France. These experiments led to his discovery of the tropopause and stratosphere.[1] Transosondes, weather balloons with instrumentation meant to stay at a constant altitude for long periods of time to help diagnose radioactive debris from atomic fallout, were experimented with in 1958.[2]
Materials and equipment[edit]
The balloon itself produces the lift, and is usually made of a highly flexible latex material, though Chloroprene may also be used. The unit that performs the actual measurements and radio transmissions hangs at the lower end of the string, and is called a radiosonde. Specialized radiosondes are used for measuring particular parameters, such as determining the ozone concentration. An example of specialized measurements is found in the Tethered Balloon Measurements in Cyprus in 2003, as part of the Preliminary Evaluation of Air Quality in Cyprus,.[3]
The balloon is usually filled with hydrogen due to lower cost, though helium can also be used. The ascent rate can be controlled by the amount of gas with which the balloon is filled. Weather balloons may reach altitudes of 40 km (25 miles) or more, limited by diminishing pressures causing the balloon to expand to such a degree (typically by a 100:1 factor) that it disintegrates. In this instance the instrument package is usually lost.[4] Above that altitude sounding rockets are used, and for even higher altitudes satellites are used.
Launch time, location, and uses[edit]
A hydrogen filled balloon at Cambridge Bay Upper Air station, Nunavut, Canada
Weather balloons are launched around the world for observations used to diagnose current conditions as well as by human forecasters and computer models for weather forecasting. About 800[5] locations around the globe do routine releases, twice daily, usually at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC. Some facilities will also do occasional supplementary "special" releases when meteorologists determine there is a need for additional data between the 12-hour routine launches in which time much can change in the atmosphere. Military and civilian government meteorological agencies such as the National Weather Service in the US typically launch balloons, and by international agreements almost all the data are shared with all nations.
Specialized uses also exist, such as for aviation interests, pollution monitoring, photography or videography and research. Examples include pilot balloons (Pibal). Field research programs often use mobile launchers from land vehicles as well as ships and aircraft (usually dropsondes in this case). In recent years weather balloons have also been used for scattering human ashes at high-altitude by companies such as Stardust Ashes, founded by Chester Mojay-Sinclare.[6]
The Weather balloon was also used to create the fictional entity 'Rover' during production of the 1960s TV series 'The Prisoner' in Portmeirion, Gwynedd, North Wales, UK in September 1966. This was retained in further scenes shot at MGM Borehamwood UK during 1966-67.[7]
See also[edit]
Ceiling balloon
High-altitude balloon
SCR-658 radar
Skyhook balloon
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
High-altitude platform
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). "Teisserenc de Bort, Léon Philippe". Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York.
Jump up ^ Staff (February 1958). "Chief Special Projects Section: Dr. Lester Machta" (PDF). United States Weather Bureau: 39–41. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Air Quality in Cyprus
Jump up ^ Radiosonde
Jump up ^ NWS factsheet Archived 2016-02-20 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Out of this world! Space fan gives late grandmother the ultimate send-off by scattering her ashes in SPACE". The Daily Mail.
Jump up ^ Paul-Davies, Steven (2002). The Prisoner Handbook. London: Pan Books. ISBN 978-0-230-53028-7.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Weather balloon.
Atmospheric Soundings for Canada and the United States – University of Wyoming
Balloon Lift With Lighter Than Air Gases – University of Hawaii
Examples of Launches of Instrumented Balloons in Storms – NSSL
Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 3 – Rawinsonde and Pibal Observations
Kites and Balloons – NOAA Photo Library
NASA Balloon Program Office – Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia
National Science Digital Library: Weather Balloons – Lesson plan for middle school
Pilot Balloon Observation Theodolites – Martin Brenner, CSULB
StratoCat – Historical recompilation project on the use of stratospheric balloons in the scientific research, the military field and the aerospace activity
WMO spreadsheet of all Upper Air stations around the world (revised location September 2008)
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Earth-based meteorological equipment and instrumentation
Anemometer
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This page was last edited on 22 January 2018, at 23:07.
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