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Football in Australia
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An AFL match at Carrara Stadium between Adelaide and Melbourne.
An NRL match featuring the Brisbane Broncos.
Crusaders scrum against the Brumbies in Super Rugby.
Newcastle Jets and Sydney FC at Energy Australia Stadium in the A-League.
Football in Australia refers to football codes played in the country including Australian rules football, rugby league, rugby union, association football, American football and Gaelic football. Professional football is played in Australia for four of these codes, with the leagues involved including the Australian Football League (Aussie rules), the National Rugby League (Rugby League), Super Rugby (rugby union), and the A-League (soccer). Professional football has been televised for many years, with Australian rules football and rugby league being the most popular codes on television. Australia has a number of national football teams encompassing several football codes including Australian rules, rugby league, rugby union, soccer, Gaelic and gridiron. Australian football is the most popular sport in Australia, followed by cricket, association football and rugby league.[1]
Some form of football was first played in Australia in 1829. By the 1860s, Australian rules and rugby union clubs were established in Melbourne and Sydney. Soccer or "British Association Football" as it was referred to would arrive in the colony by 1870, with the first official match played in 1880. Intercolonial football matches were being played by 1879. Women's football matches were being organised by the 1920s. National football governing bodies were being established in the same time period. The regional football code divide in Australia was still present in the 1980s, with rugby league being the dominant code in Queensland and New South Wales while Australian rules football dominated in the rest of the country, whilst still being played throughout all of Australia and with soccer being played in ethnic enclaves. Attempts to move outside these traditional boundaries were largely unsuccessful. , The different codes attract different participation levels that reflect historical trends. In 2011, soccer had more junior participants nationally than any other football code with Australian rules the second-most played. Historically, soccer drew largely from minority ethnic groups, and rugby league and rugby union drew from populations in Queensland and New South Wales. Australian rules football attracted participants primarily from the remaining states and territories but also throughout all of Australia. Australian rules also has had one of the highest rates of participation amongst Australia's indigenous communities.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Participation
2.1 Indigenous Australians
2.2 Women
2.3 Safety
3 History
4 Professional football
4.1 Spectatorship
5 Media coverage
6 National teams
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Bibliography
Terminology[edit]
Football, as a term, may refer to several popular sports played in Australia. These include Australian rules football, rugby league and rugby union and Association football.[2][3]
Association football is most commonly referred to as soccer.[4][5][6] Historically, the sport has been referred to as British association rules and British football.[7][8] It is also sometimes referred to in the media as "the round ball game", "the world game" and "international football".
Australian rules football can be referred to as Australian football, footy, Aussie rules, AFL or football.[9][10][11] Historically, the sport has been referred to as Victorian rules, the Victorian game and Association football.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18]
Rugby league can be referred to as league, footy, football, league football or rugby.[19][20][21][22]
Rugby union can be referred to as union, football or rugby.[23]
Participation[edit]
According to the December 2012 data release of the Australian Bureau of Statistics, soccer had approximately 489,000 participants in 2011–2012, or 2.7% of all Australians, while Australian Rules football had 241,500 participants, or 1.3%.[24]
There was historically a regional variation in the spread of Australian rules football and rugby football: the Barassi Line is a rough dividing line between areas where Australia rules is most popular and where rugby union and rugby league are most popular. Rugby league participation was historically high in New South Wales and Queensland.[25] Both rugby league and rugby union continue to be popular in the states of New South Wales and Queensland.[26] Some of the relative popularity of one football code over another in terms of participation was a result of media influence on coverage of the two major professional games, rugby league and Australian rules. This influence and their media market desires drove some of the regional patterns for these codes.[27]
Historically, soccer participation was for many years confined to Australian's newly arriving European ethnic groups.[25] Rugby league was also a relative late-comer amongst the Australian football codes, but by 1975 there were 375,000 registered rugby league players, making it for the first time the third most popular football code nationally based on participation.[25] In 1998/1999, Soccer had a 7.7% Australian participation rate.[28] In the same time frame, Australian rules had 6.2% participation rate.[28] Rugby union had a national participation rate of 5.4% in 1998/1999.[28]
According to other data collected within the last 10 years:
Australian rules football had a total participation rate of 615,549 players in 2007.[29]
In 2008, 269,377 children played rugby league competitively in schools. This is a 390% increase from 2002, when the first accurate census of school competition participation numbers. ARLD schools programs have directly involved more than 1,000,000 children in rugby league-based physical activities by in 2008. In a sign of the game's growing influence, in 2010 over 50,000 Victorian school children attended rugby league school programs.[30]
Soccer was the most popular football code by participation rate in Australia amongst males in 2010.[31]
According to the 2011 data release by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, in 2009 and 2010, 1.2 million Australians over the age of fifteen participated in one football code or another.[32] Australian rules football and outdoor soccer were the most popular football codes played by Australian children in 2009, with 8.6% and 13% participation total.[32]
In 2011, rugby league's governing body counted 1,500,000 people who had played the game in the past year, with an overall participation rate of 14.6%.[33]
Indigenous Australians[edit]
Australian rules football has traditionally been one of the most popular football codes played by Australia's Indigenous community.[34] 11% of Australian Football League players identified themselves as Indigenous Australians in 2011.[35]
In 1944, the first Aboriginal rugby league club was founded in Redfern, New South Wales the Redfern All Blacks. The first All Indigenous Australian National Rugby League team was named in 2009.[34]
Arthur Beetson became the first indigenous Australian to captain the national team of any football code when in 1973 he was selected to lead the Australian rugby league team.
The percentage of indigenous players in top-level rugby league premiership was reported to have fallen from 21% in the 1990s to 11% in 2009.[36]
The popularity of soccer began to grow in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the 2000s.[37] One of the first Indigenous Australians to make the national team was John Kundereri Moriarty, who was supposed to tour with the team in 1961 but the national federation was unable to hold the tour as they were facing FIFA sanctions at the time. Other notable indigenous soccer players included Charlie Perkins who played and coached Pan-Hellenic and Harry Williams who was a member of the Australian team at the 1974 FIFA World Cup.[37][38]
Women[edit]
By 2003, there are over 60,000 registered women's soccer players.[39] In Australia, a total of 18,609 girls and women played Australian rules football in 2005 and in 2006 48,054 women played the sport in Australia.[40]
Safety[edit]
The issue of safety around football in Australia is driven by the situation in American sport. Concussions are a problem for all four major football codes in Australia. A summit was held by leadership in the big four professional football leagues to address these issues in 2011.[19]
In Brisbane, Queensland in 1980, 63% of all sport related injuries were as a result of one of the four major football codes.[41] 10.2% of football players in one medical study had a head or neck injury.[41] The most common injury for an Australian rules player is a lower limb injury, accounting for about 60% of all injuries.[41] In Australian rules, injuries as a result of contact occurred 71% of the time compared to other causes of injury.[41]
History[edit]
The 1908 Wallabies, Australia's first Olympic football team.
Early forms of football were played in Sydney by 1829.[42] Regular football competitions were organised in New South Wales by 1850 (an early form of Rugby), with organised competition being played in Queensland (Rugby) and Victoria (Victorian Rules football) soon after. Victorian rules football was codified in 1858.[43][44] Australian rules football clubs still around in the current Australian Football League were founded by 1858.[45][43][44] Australian rules was first played in Australia in 1859.[46] A rugby union team was established at the University of Sydney in 1864.[47] Rugby union was being played in Australia by 1874 when the sport was established in Sydney.[27]:175 Soccer was being played in Australia by the 1870s,[48][25][27]:175 with the game's early base in Australia found in Sydney.[49] with the first team formally being organised in Sydney in 1880 that was named the Wanderers.[50][51]
During the 1890s and 1900s, Australian rules football did not gain much traction in New South Wales in this period, where rugby union was the predominant code. The major exception was the Riverina area of New South Wales close to the Victorian border, and closer to Melbourne than Sydney.[52] In 1900, a soccer league was established in Tasmania that would continue for ten years until being disrupted by the Boer War.[8]
In 1914 and 1915 an amalgamation of rugby league and Australian rules football was considered and trialled.[53][54]
In 1922, a committee in Australia investigated the benefits of physical education for girls. They came up with several recommendations regarding what sports were and were not appropriate for girls to play based on the level of fitness required. Football[clarification needed] was completely medically inappropriate for girls to play. It was medically appropriate for all girls to be able to participate in, so long as they were not done in an overly competitive manner, swimming, rowing, cycling and horseback riding.[55]
In 1928 Australia national rugby league team adopted the national colours of green and gold for the first time, having previously used blue and maroon, making the Kangaroos the first national football team of any code to do so.[56] All others have adopted the colours since.
During the 1930s, rugby league, which had gone professional, began to overtake rugby union in popularity in Queensland, with the league being the dominant spectator code by 1937.[57]
The 1951 French rugby league tour of Australia and New Zealand saw the first tour of Australia by a French football team of any code.
The 1954 Rugby League World Cup saw the first time that any Australian national football team participated in a World Cup tournament. The Australian rugby league team then won the cup in the following tournament in 1957 which was held in Australia. This was also the first World Cup tournament for any code of football to be hosted in the country.
The regional football code divide in Australia was still present in the 1980s, with rugby league being the dominant code in Queensland and New South Wales while Australian rules football dominated in the rest of the country. When codes went outside of their traditional geographic home, they had little success in gaining new fans and participants.[58] During the 1980s and 1990s both Aussie rules' and rugby league's major peak governing bodies changed their names to reflect a more nation-wide approach and added expansion teams outside their traditional areas.
During the 1990s, soccer faced a challenge in attracting youth players because of the ethnic nature of the sport at the highest levels of national competition. The sport's governing body made an effort to make the game less ethnically oriented. At the same time, rival football codes were intentionally trying to bring in ethnic participants in order to expand their youth playing base.[59]
In 2006, both Sydney's and Melbourne's grand finals featured teams from interstate, reflecting the shift in professional football in Australia.[60]
In the late 2000s, Karmichael Hunt made history by becoming the first professional footballer to change codes from rugby league to rugby union to Australian rules football.
Professional football[edit]
The first professional football leagues in Australia were the Australian Football League, and the National Rugby League.[61][62] Up until the late 2000s, there were three major football codes competing every weekend, which included Australian rules, rugby league and rugby union.[63] Unlike in Europe and the United States, professional clubs tend to be member run organisations instead of single owner, for profit businesses.[64] The major football codes and professional leagues in the country all watch what their competition does in order to improve their own strategic picture in the Australian sporting landscape.[62]
Australia is unique among major sporting markets in having four football codes competing for market share. The irony is that the two international games, football (soccer) and rugby union, are getting trounced by the two parochial codes, rugby league and Australian Rules, which are both fast and furious, and both built on deep tribal roots.
Paul Sheehan, 2010[65]
The Australian Football League saw money pour into the sport during the 1990s and 2000s. In 1993, total player payments were A$24 million but reached A$95 million by 2003.[66] In 2007, the Australian Football League had the greatest financial stability of all the leagues in Australia with turnover of A$280 million, with the National Rugby League coming in second with A$120 million. At the same time, the AFL had highest level of corporate support with major national and international sponsors such as Air Emirates, Vodafone and Toyota. The AFL also beat the NRL in terms of geographic spread of their teams, with the AFL having teams in five states while the NRL had teams in three states in 2007. In 2007, the AFL was also spending A$30 million in youth player development compared to the NRL's A$15 million.[67]
The National Rugby League traces its roots back to the 1890s when rugby league split from rugby union as the code went professional. By 1908, the professional New South Wales Rugby League was created.[61] Collective player bargaining came to the professional game by 1982, with 95% of all played having joined the player union by 1991.[68] Media access to the sport was one of the main reasons for a split in the sport in the 1990s that resulted in the New South Wales Rugby League facing competition from the Rupert Murdoch backed Super League, and the "Super League war" in 1997, which ended with the founding of the National Rugby League which had become a national, not state based, professional competition.[69]
Football code
Main governing body
National competition
Australian clubs
Australian rules football AFL Commission Australian Football League 18
Rugby league Australian Rugby League Commission National Rugby League 15 (+1 in NZ)
Soccer Football Federation Australia A-League 9 (+1 in NZ)
Rugby union Australian Rugby Union Super Rugby 5 (+5 in NZ, 6 in SA, 1 in AR, 1 in JP)
Spectatorship[edit]
Australian sport fans have historically attended events in large numbers, dating back to the country's early history. An early football game played in Melbourne in 1858 had 2,000 spectators.[70] Australian sport fans have behaved unruly at times, with police being required at football games dating back to the 1860s.[70] By 1897, tens of thousands of spectators attended an early Australian rules football match at a time when top level soccer matches in England would draw six thousand fans. A finals match between the Carlton Football Club and Collingwood in 1938 drew 96,834 fans.[71] In 1909, at a time when rugby union had not yet become professionalised, 52,000 people in Sydney attended a game between New South Wales and New Zealand. The spectators accounted for 10% of the total population of Sydney at the time.[57] The 1914 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand included a match in Melbourne, the first rugby league game to be played in Victoria. The match between England and New South Wales drew 12,000 spectators.[72]
Total average game attendance for the Australian Football League and the National Rugby League increased between 1970 and 2000, with the AFL going from an average attendance of 24,344 people per match in 1970 to 27,325 by 1980 to 25,238 in 1990 and 34,094 by 2000. The National Rugby League had an average per game attendance of 11,990 in 1970, saw a decrease in 1980 to 10,860 but increased to 12,073 by 1990 and improved on that to 14,043 by 2000.[73]
73,811 people attended a gridiron National Football League game between the Denver Broncos and San Diego Chargers at ANZ Stadium in Sydney in 1999.[74] In March 1999, 104,000 fans attended a double header match in the National Rugby League at Stadium Australia four days after the venue formally opened.[75] A National Soccer League game was held in Launceston, Tasmania in 2002 between Perth Glory and Melbourne Knights at Aurora Stadium. The match was a 1–1 draw and attracted a crowd of 5324 fans.[76] Aurora Stadium in Tasmania hosted two A-League pre-season games, attracting over 8000 spectators at the 2007–08 match.[77] FFT is actively pursuing the possibility of an A-League club based in the state.[78] Australian rules football was the most popular football code by attendance in Western Australia in 2004 with over 1,030,000 spectators attending WAFL and AFL matches in 2004.[79] In the 2006/2007 season, the A-League Melbourne Victory averaged 27,728 people to their home matches throughout the season. The 2009–10 regular season was considerably lower.[80] In 2011, the Australian Football League had a cumulative attendance of 7,139,272, a record for the competition and an average attendance of 36,425.[81] In 2010, the National Rugby League's premiership set a record for regular season attendance to NRL matches.[82]
Australian Bureau of Statistics survey Spectator Attendance at Sporting Events, 2009–10 reported the following findings regarding female attendance at football sporting events. Survey found that an estimated 3.3 million females attended one or more sporting events as spectators. This represented 37% of females aged 15 years and over in Australia and 54% of females aged 15–17 years. The top footbal sports in attendance were: Australian rules football (1,171,100), rugby league (594,700), soccer (354,800), and rugby union (209,300).[83]
Leagues/tournaments
Total spectatorship
Average match attendance
Year
Refs
A-League 1,778,844 12,706 2015–16 [84]
Australian Football League 6,872,005 33,198 2016 [85]
National Rugby League 2,921,005 15,214 2016 [86]
Media coverage[edit]
There is a long history of television coverage of football in Australia. From 1957 to 2001, the Seven Network was the network for the Australian Football League. The only year that Seven was not the network for the league was in 1987 when the AFL was on the ABC. An exclusive deal was agreed upon by Seven in 1976 for a five-year deal worth A$3 million.[87] Not all football television deals have been good. The deal made by Ten Network to the New South Wales Rugby League was worth considerably more, worth A$48 million for a five-year deal that also included broadcasting rights for the State of Origin and the Australia national rugby league team. This deal was terminated early because the network could not afford to pay out.[88] The 1967 NSWRFL season's grand final became the first football grand final of any code to be televised live in Australia. The Nine Network had paid $5,000 for the broadcasting rights.[89] Rugby league, which includes NRL, State of Origin and national team matches, had the highest aggregate television ratings of any sport in 2009[90] and 2010.[91] Also, in a world first, the Nine Network broadcast free-to-air the first match of the 2010 State of Origin series live in 3D in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria.[92][93]
There are few Australian film which incorporate Australia's football codes.[94] When football is depicted, the primary codes presented are Australian rules football and rugby. The sports often appear in the background in an attempt to make a film more authentically Australian.[94][95] They include The Club. The film was based on a play produced in 1977, in Melbourne. It has been in the senior English syllabi for four Australian states for many years.[95] The film was written by David Williamson, directed by Bruce Beresford and starring John Howard, Jack Thompson, Graham Kennedy and Frank Wilson.[96] The Final Winter, released in 2007, is another Australian film incorporating football. It was directed by Brian Andrews and Jane Forrest and produced by Anthony Coffee, and Michelle Russell, while independently produced it is being distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was written by Matthew Nable who also starred as the lead role 'Grub' Henderson. The film, which earned praise from critics,[97] focuses around Grub who is the captain of the Newtown Jets rugby league team in the early 1980s and his determination to stand for what rugby league traditionally stood for while dealing with his own identity crisis.[98] Other Australian films incorporating football include Australian Rules and Footy Legends.[99][100]
National teams[edit]
National football teams include the Australia national soccer team ("Socceroos") who compete in FIFA World Cup / AFC Asian Cup / Olympic Football qualification and finals tournaments, the Australia national rugby union team ("Wallabies") who compete in The Rugby Championship and the World Cup while the Australian rugby league team ("Kangaroos") compete in various Ashes, ANZAC, Four Nations and World Cup rugby league test matches. The Australia international rules football team is composed of players from the Australian Football League and compete against the best Gaelic football players from Ireland in a hybrid International Rules Series.
Sport
Team
Nickname
Refs
American football National team Australian Outbacks [101][102]
International rules football Men's
Women's
Rugby union Men's Wallabies [103]
Women's Wallaroos [104]
Rugby league Men's test Kangaroos [105][106][107]
Men's Under-20 Junior Kangaroos
Women's Jillaroos [108][109]
Wheelchair rugby Steelers (official) Wheelabies (unofficial) [110][111]
Soccer Men's Socceroos [112]
Men's Under-23 Olyroos
Men's Under-20 Young Socceroos
Men's Under-17 Joeys
Men's Beach Beach Socceroos
Men's Paralympic Pararoos
Women's Matildas
Women's Under-20 Young Matildas
Women's Under-17 Mini Matildas
See also[edit]
Sport in Australia
American football in Australia
Australian rules football in Australia
Rugby league in Australia
Rugby union in Australia
Soccer in Australia
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^ Jump up to: a b Albert Moran; Errol Vieth (21 July 2009). The A to Z of Australian and New Zealand Cinema. Scarecrow Press. pp. 240–244. ISBN 978-0-8108-6347-7. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Studies of Australian Drama — David Williamson : The Club". Web.archive.org. 13 January 2006. Archived from the original on 13 January 2006. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
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Stell, Marion K. (1991). Half the Race, A history of Australian women in sport. North Ryde, Australia: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-207-16971-3.
Stell, Marion (2004). Soccer. Girls in Sport. ABC Books. ISBN 0-7333-1426-0.
Grainey, Timothy F. (2012). Beyond Bend It Like Beckham: The Global Phenomenon of Women's Soccer. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-4036-0. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
Adair, Daryl; Vamplew, Wray (1997). Sport in Australian history. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195535907. OCLC 37217245.
Andreff, Wladimir; Szymański, Stefan (2006). Handbook on the Economics of Sport. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84376-608-7. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
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Bloomfield, John (2003). Australia's Sporting Success: The Inside Story. UNSW Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-582-7.
Crego, Robert (2003). Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-31610-4.
Fort, Rodney D.; Fizel, John (2004). International Sports Economics Comparisons. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-98032-0.
Hoye, Russell; Nicholson, Matthew; Westerbeek, Hans; Smith, Aaron; Stewart, Bob (2012). Sport Management. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7506-8755-3.
Nauright, John; Parrish, Charles (2012). Sports Around the World: History, Culture, and Practice. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-300-2.
R.I.C. Publications (2008). Primary Australian History. R.I.C. Publications. ISBN 978-1-74126-684-9.
Rolls, Eric C; Halligan, Marion; Mathews, Marlene; Cliff, Paul (1999). A sporting nation : celebrating Australia's sporting life. Canberra: National Library of Australia. ISBN 0642107041. OCLC 44839640.
Hess, Rob; Nicholson, Matthew; Stewart, Bob; de Moore, Gregory (2008). A national game : the history of Australian rules football. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin. ISBN 9780670070893. OCLC 247974138.
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Varṇa (वर्णः) is a Sanskrit word which means type, order, colour or class.[1][2] The term refers to social classes in Brahminical books like the Manusmriti.[1][3][4] These and other Hindu literature classified the society in principle into four varnas:[1][5]
Brahmins: priests, scholars and teachers.
Kshatriyas: rulers, warriors and administrators.
Vaishyas: agriculturalists and merchants.[6]
Shudras: laborers and service providers.
Communities which belong to one of the four varnas or classes are called savarna. In the present-day context, they include all the forward castes. The Dalits and scheduled tribes who do not belong to any varna, are called avarna.[7][8]
This quadruple division is a form of social stratification not to be confused with the much more nuanced Jāti or the European term "caste".[9]
The varna system is discussed in Hindu texts, and understood as idealised human callings.[10][11] The concept is generally traced to the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rig Veda.
The commentary on the Varna system in the Manusmriti is oft-cited.[12] Counter to these textual classifications, many Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with the Varna system of social classification.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology and origins
2 The Vedas
3 The Dharmasastras
4 The Epics
5 Varna in Buddhist texts
6 Varna in Jaina texts
7 Varna in Sikh texts
8 Tantra
9 Varna and jāti
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
Etymology and origins[edit]
Varna is a Sanskrit term varṇa (वर्णः). It is derived from the root vṛ, meaning "to cover, to envelop, count, classify consider, describe or choose" (compare vṛtra).[14]
The word appears in the Rigveda, where it means "colour, outward appearance, exterior, form, figure or shape".[3] The word means "color, tint, dye or pigment" in the Mahabharata.[3][clarification needed] Varna contextually means "colour, race, tribe, species, kind, sort, nature, character, quality, property" of an object or people in some Vedic and medieval texts.[3] Varna refers to four social classes in the Manusmriti.[3][4]
The Vedas[edit]
The earliest application to the formal division into four social classes (without using the term varna) appears in the late Rigvedic Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90.11–12), which has the Brahman, Rajanya (instead of Kshatriya), Vaishya and Shudra classes forming the mouth, arms, thighs and feet at the sacrifice of the primordial Purusha, respectively:[15]
11. When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make?
What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet?
12. The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made.
His thighs became the Vaishya, from his feet the Shudra was produced.[15]
This Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth.[16] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".[16]
Ram Sharan Sharma states that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth ... [it] was primarily organised on the basis of kin, tribe and lineage."[17]
In the post-Vedic period, the varna division is described in the Dharmashastra literature, the Mahabharata and in the Puranas.[18]
The Dharmasastras[edit]
See also: Caste system in India
Varna system is extensively discussed in Dharma-sastras.[19] The Varna system in Dharma-sastras divides society into four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Shudras). Those who fall out of this system because of their grievous sins are ostracised as outcastes (untouchables) and considered outside the varna system.[20][21] Barbarians and those who are unrighteous or unethical are also considered outcastes.[22]
Recent scholarship suggests that the discussion of varna as well as untouchable outcastes, in these texts does not resemble the modern era caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity-impurity as the basis for varna system.[23] According to Olivelle, purity-impurity is discussed in the Dharma-sastra texts, but only in the context of the individual's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, urination and defecation).[19] In his review of Dharma-sastras, Olivelle writes, "we see no instance when a term of pure/impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste".[23] The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna. These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people" and impure, declaring that they be ostracised.[24] Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity/impurity in the Dharma-sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation" and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance, stipulations, and ritualistic behaviours.[25]
Olivelle states:
Dumont is correct in his assessment that the ideology of varna is not based on purity. If it were we should expect to find at least some comment on the relative purity and impurity of the different vamas. What is even more important is that the ideology of purity and impurity that emerges from the Dharma literature is concerned with the individual and not with groups, with purification and not with purity, and lends little support to a theory which makes relative purity the foundation of social stratification.[26]
The first three[27] varnas are described in the Dharmasastras as "twice born" and they are allowed to study the Vedas. Such a restriction of who can study Vedas is not found in the Vedic era literature.
Manusmriti assigns cattle rearing as Vaishya occupation but historical evidence shows that Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Shudras also owned and reared cattle and that cattle-wealth was mainstay of their households. Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History and specialising in social exclusion in the Indian subcontinent, states that 19th century British records show that Chamars, listed as untouchables, also owned land and cattle and were active agriculturalists.[28] The emperors of Kosala and the prince of Kasi are other examples.[6]
Tim Ingold, an anthropologist, writes that the Manusmriti is a highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions".[29] Susan Bayly states that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmin in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create the phenomenon of caste" in India.[30]
The Epics[edit]
The Mahabharata, estimated to have been completed by about the 4th century CE, discusses the Varna system in section 12.181.[18]
The Epic offers two models on Varna. The first model describes Varna as colour-coded system, through a sage named Bhrigu, "Brahmins Varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black".[18] This description is questioned by another prominent sage Bharadvaja who says that colours are seen among all the Varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the Varnas, he asks? The Mahabharata then declares, according to Alf Hiltebeitel, a professor of religion, "There is no distinction of Varnas. This whole universe is Brahman. It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts."[18]
The Mahabharata thereafter recites a behavioural model for Varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya Varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishyas; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudras. The Brahmin class is modelled in the epic, as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct.[31] Indeed, it goes on to assert that all men are children of Brahmins, which does not make sense, unless understood this way.In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognize, in theory, Varna is nongenealogical. The four Varnas are not lineages, but categories."[32]
The Bhagavad Gita describe the professions, duties and qualities of members of different varnas.
There is no entity on earth, or again in heaven among the Devas, that is devoid of these three Gunas, born of Prakriti.
Of Brâhmanas and Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, as also of Sudras, O scorcher of foes, the duties are distributed according to the Gunas born of their own nature.
The control of the mind and the senses, austerity, purity, forbearance, and also uprightness, knowledge, realisation, belief in a hereafter– these are the duties of the Brâhmanas, born of (their own) nature.
Prowess, boldness, fortitude, dexterity, and also not flying from battle, generosity and sovereignty are the duties of the Kshatriyas, born of (their own) nature.
Agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade are the duties of the Vaishyas, born of (their own) nature; and action consisting of service is the duty of the Sudras, born of (their own) nature.[33]
Varna in Buddhist texts[edit]
Ancient Buddhist texts mention Varna system in South Asia, but the details suggest that it was a non-rigid, flexible and with characteristics devoid of features of a social stratification system.[34] Maurice Walshe, a German scholar and translator of Digha Nikaya, provides a discussion between Gotama Buddha and a Hindu Brahmin named Sonadanda who was very learned in the Vedas.[35][36] Gotama Buddha asks in Digha Nikaya, according to the Theravada Pali text translation by Walshe, "By how many qualities do Brahmins recognize another Brahmin? How would one declare truthfully and without falling into falsehood, "I am a Brahmin?"[35] Sonadanda initially lists five qualities as, "he is of pure descent on both the mother's and the father's side, he is well versed in mantras, he is of fair color handsome and pleasing, he is virtuous learned and wise, and he is the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle".[35][36] Buddha then asks the Brahmin, "If we omit one of these qualities you just listed, could not one be still a true Brahmin?" Sonadanda, one by one, eliminates fair colour and looks, then eliminates Varna in which one was born, and then eliminates the ability to recite mantra and do sacrifices as a requirement of being a Brahmin.[35][36] Sonadanda asserts that just two qualities are necessary to truthfully and without falling into falsehoold identify a Brahmin; these two qualities are "being virtuous and being learned and wise".[35][36] Sonadanda adds, states Walshe, that it is impossible to reduce the requirement for being a Brahmin any further, because "for wisdom is purified by morality, and morality is purified by wisdom; where one is, the other is, the moral man has wisdom and the wise man has morality, and the combination of morality and wisdom is called the highest thing in the world".[35] Brian Black and Dean Patton state Sonadanda admits after this, "we [Brahmins] only know this much Gotama; it would be well if Reverend Gotama would explain meaning of the two [morality, wisdom]".[37]
Peter Masefield,[34] a Buddhism scholar and ancient Pali texts translator, states that during the Nikāya texts period of Buddhism (3rd century BC to 5th century AD), Varna as a class system is attested, but the described Varna was not a caste system. The Pali texts enumerate the four Varnas Brahmin, "Kshatriya",Vessa (Vaishya) and Sudda (Shudra).[34] Masefield notes that people in any Varna could in principle perform any profession. The early Buddhist texts, for instance, identify some Brahmins to be farmers and in other professions. The text state that anyone, of any birth, could perform the priestly function,[34] and that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown. The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated in ancient India. Masefield concludes, "if any form of caste system was known during the Nikaya period - and it is doubtful that it was - this was in all probability restricted to certain non-Aryan groups".[34]
Varna in Jaina texts[edit]
Ādi purāṇa, an 8th-century text of Jainism by Jinasena, is the earliest mention of Varna and Jati in Jainism literature.[38] Jinasena does not trace the origin of Varna system to Rigveda or to Purusha Sukta, instead traces varna to the Bharata legend. According to this legend, Bharata performed an "ahimsa-test" (test of non-violence), and those members of his community who refused to harm or hurt any living being were called as the priestly varna in ancient India, and Bharata called them dvija, twice born.[39] Jinasena states that those who are committed to ahimsa are deva-Brāhmaṇas, divine Brahmins.[40]
The text Adi purana also discusses the relationship between varna and jati. According to Padmanabh Jaini, a professor of Indic studies, Jainism and Buddhism, the Adi purana text states "there is only one jati called manusyajati or the human caste, but divisions arise account of their different professions".[41] The varna of Kshatriya arose when Rishabh procured weapons to serve the society and assumed the powers of a king, while Vaishya and Shudra varna arose from different means of livelihood in which they specialised.[42]
Varna in Sikh texts[edit]
Sikhism is a 15th-century religion that originated in the Punjab region in the Medieval India. Sikh text mention Varna as Varan, and Jati as Zat or Zat-biradari. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and specialising in Christian, Hindu and Sikh studies, states that the Varan is described as a class system in 18th- to 20th-century Sikh literature, while Zat developed into caste system particularly during the British colonial era.[43] In theory, Nesbitt quotes the Sikh dictum to be,
A Sikh should be a Brahmin in piety, a Kshatriya in defense of truth and the oppressed, a Vaishya in business acumen and hard work, and a Shudra in serving humanity. A Sikh should be all castes in one person, who should be above caste.[43]
Tantra[edit]
The Tantric movement that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox Hinduism between the 8th and 11th centuries CE[44] also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and community distinction. However it would be an over generalisation to say that the Tantrics did away with all social restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains:
For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the [class] system but in the later Tantras [class] elements are pronounced. This is because although many of our known Tantric teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were Brāhmaṇas.[45]
Varna and jāti[edit]
Main article: Jāti
The terms varna (theoretical classification based on occupation) and jāti (caste) are two distinct concepts. Jāti (community) refers to the thousands of endogamous groups prevalent across the subcontinent. A jati may be divided into exogamous groups based on the same gotras. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas; even Indologists sometimes confuse the two.[46]
See also[edit]
Adi Dravidar
Classical Hindu law
Four occupations – fourfold Confucian division
Hindu law
Hindu reform movements
Manuvāda
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) Who were the Shudras?
Alain Danielou (1976). Les Quatre Sens de la Vie, Paris
Sri Aurobindo (1970), The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, War and Self-Determination, (Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust), ISBN 81-7058-281-4 (hardcover), ISBN 81-7058-014-5 (paperback)
Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law)—Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962–1975
G. S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (Original print: 1932)
Prabhat Rainjan Sarkar (1967) Human Society-2, Ananda Marga Publications, Anandanagar, P.O. Baglata,Dist. Purulia, West Bengal, India.
Ghanshyam Shah, Caste and Democratic Politics in India, 2004
Welzer, Albrecht. 1994. "Credo, Quia Occidentale: A Note on Sanskrit varna and its Misinterpretation in Literature on Mamamsa and Vyakarana". In: Studies in Mamamsa: Dr Mandan Mishra Felicitation Volume edited by R.C. Dwivedi. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Lal, Vinay (2005), Introducing Hinduism, New York: Totem Books, pp. 132–33, ISBN 978-1-84046-626-3
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values: Варна (кастов ред) – Bulgarian

values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
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values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varno
Varno – Esperanto
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values:
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values: हिन्दू वर्ण व्यवस्था – Hindi

values:
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values: ವರ್ಣಾಶ್ರಮ ಪದ್ಧತಿ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
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values: Варна (философия) – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
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values: ചാതുർവർണ്ണ്യം – Malayalam

values:
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values: चातुर्वर्ण्य – Marathi

values: Варна – Moksha

values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
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values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varnalar
Varnalar – Uzbek
uz
uz
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values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
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values: Варна (индуизм) – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
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values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna
Varna – Simple English
simple
simple
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values:
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values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
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values: வர்ணம் (இந்து சமயம்) – Tamil

values: วรรณะ – Thai

values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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