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Barrel (unit)
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"bbl" redirects here. For other uses, see BBL (disambiguation).
Ale casks at a brewery in the UK. These are firkins, each holding 9 imperial gallons (41 l) or a quarter of a barrel.
A barrel is one of several units of volume applied in various contexts; there are dry barrels, fluid barrels (such as the UK beer barrel and US beer barrel), oil barrels and so on. For historical reasons the volumes of some barrel units are roughly double the volumes of others; volumes in common usage range from about 100 to 200 litres (22 to 44 imp gal; 26 to 53 US gal). In many connections the term "drum" is used almost interchangeably with "barrel".
Since medieval times the term barrel as a unit of measure has had various meanings throughout Europe, ranging from about 100 litres to 1000 litres. The name was derived in medieval times from the French baril, of unknown origin, but still in use, both in French and as derivations in many other languages such as Italian, Polish and Spanish. In most countries such usage is obsolescent, increasingly superseded by SI units. As a result, the meaning of corresponding words and related concepts (vat, cask, keg etc.) in other languages often refers to a physical container rather than a known measure.
In the international oil market context, however, prices in United States dollars per barrel are commonly used, and the term is variously translated, often to derivations of the Latin/Teutonic root fat (for example vat or Fass).[1]
In other commercial connections, barrel sizes such as beer keg volumes also are standardised in many countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Dry goods in the US
2 Fluid barrel in the US and UK
2.1 History
3 Oil barrel
3.1 History
3.2 Definitions and units
3.3 Maximum accuracy when converting bbl to cubic metres
3.4 Qualifiers
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Dry goods in the US[edit]
See also: Dry goods
US dry barrel: 7,056 cubic inches (115.6 L) (~3.28 US bushels)
Defined as length of stave 28 1⁄2 in (72 cm), diameter of head 17 1⁄8 in (43 cm), distance between heads 26 in (66 cm), circumference of bulge 64 in (1.6 m) outside measurement; representing as nearly as possible 7,056 cubic inches; and the thickness of staves not greater than 4⁄10 in (10 mm)[2] ([Ø ≈ 20.37 in or 51.7 cm]). Any barrel that is 7,056 cubic inches is recognized as equivalent. This is exactly equal to 26.25 US dry gallons.[3]
US barrel for cranberries 5,826 cubic inches (95.5 L) (~2.71 US bushels)
Defined as length of stave 28 1⁄2 in (72 cm), diameter of head 16 1⁄4 in (41 cm), distance between heads 25 1⁄4 in (64 cm), circumference of bulge 58 1⁄2 in (1.49 m) outside measurement; and the thickness of staves not greater than 4⁄10 in (10.16 mm)[2] ([Ø ≈18.62 in or 47.3 cm]). No equivalent in cubic inches is given in the statute, but later regulations specify it as 5,826 cubic inches.[4]
Some products have a standard weight or volume that constitutes a barrel:
Cornmeal, 200 pounds (90.7 kg)
Cement (including Portland cement[5]), 4 cubic feet (113 L) or 376 pounds (170.6 kg)[3]
Sugar, 5 cubic feet (142 L) (37 US gal)
Wheat or rye flour, three bushels or 196 pounds (88.9 kg)
Lime (mineral), 280 pounds (127 kg) large barrel, or 180 pounds (81.6 kg) small barrel[6]
Butter and cheese in UK, 224 pounds (102 kg)[3]
Salt, 280 pounds (130 kg)[3]
Fluid barrel in the US and UK[edit]
Fluid barrels vary depending on what is being measured and where. In the UK a beer barrel is 36 imperial gallons (43 US gal; 164 L). In the US most fluid barrels (apart from oil) are 31.5 US gallons (26 imp gal; 119 L) (half a hogshead), but a beer barrel is 31 US gallons (26 imp gal; 117 L).[7][8] The size of beer kegs in the US is based loosely on fractions of the US beer barrel. When referring to beer barrels or kegs in many countries, the term may be used for the commercial package units independent of actual volume, where common range for professional use is 20-60 L, typically a DIN or Euro keg of 50 L.
History[edit]
See also: English wine cask units
Richard III, King of England from 1483 until 1485, had defined the wine puncheon as a cask holding 84 gallons and a wine tierce as holding 42 gallons. By 1700 custom had made the 42-gallon watertight tierce a standard container for shipping eel, salmon, herring, molasses, wine, whale oil and many other commodities in the English colonies. After the American Revolution in 1776, American merchants continued to use the same size barrels.[9]
Oil barrel[edit]
"Blue barrel" redirects here. For the cactus known as the "blue barrel cactus", see Echinocactus horizonthalonius.
This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (January 2015)
In the worldwide oil industry, an oil barrel is defined as 42 US gallons, which is about 7002159000000000000♠159 litres[10] or 35 imperial gallons.[11] In Canada, oil companies measure oil in cubic metres but convert to barrels on export, since most of Canada's oil production is exported to the US. The nominal conversion factor is 1 cubic metre = 6.2898 oil barrels,[12] but conversion is generally done by custody transfer meters on the border since the exact conversion factor depends on oil density and temperature.
Oil companies that are listed on American stock exchanges typically report their production in terms of volume and use the units of bbl, Mbbl (one thousand barrels), or MMbbl (one million barrels) and occasionally for widest comprehensive statistics the Gbbl (or sometimes Gbl) denoting a billion.[13] There is a conflict concerning the units for oil barrels (see § Definitions and units). For all other physical quantities, according to the International System of Units, the uppercase letter "M" means Mega ("one million"), for example: Mm (one million metres, megametres), MHz (one million hertz, or megahertz), MW (one million watts, or megawatt), MeV (one million electronvolt, or megaelectronvolt). But due to tradition, the Mbbl acronym is used today meaning "one thousand bbl", as a heritage of the roman number "M" meaning "one thousand". On the other hand, there are efforts to avoid this ambiguity, and most of the barrel dealers today prefer to use bbl, instead of Mbbl, mbbl, MMbbl or mmbbl.
Outside the United States, volumes of oil are usually reported in cubic metres (m3) instead of oil barrels. Cubic metre is the basic volume unit in the International System. Canadian companies operate internally and report to Canadian governments in cubic metres, but often convert to US barrels for the benefit of American investors and oil marketers. They will generally quote prices in Canadian dollars per cubic metre to other Canadian companies, but use US dollars per barrel in financial reports and press statements, making it appear to the outside world that they operate in barrels.
Companies on the European stock exchanges report the mass of oil in metric tonnes. Since different varieties of petroleum have different densities, however, there is not a single conversion between mass and volume. For example, one tonne of heavy distillates might occupy a volume of 256 US gallons (6.1 bbl). In contrast, one tonne of crude oil might occupy 272 gallons (6.5 bbl) and one tonne of gasoline will require 333 gallons (7.9 bbl).[14] Overall, the conversion is usually between 6 and 8 bbl per tonne.
History[edit]
The measurement of an "oil barrel" originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields. The Drake Well, the first oil well in the US, was drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859, and an oil boom followed in the 1860s. When oil production began, there was no standard container for oil, so oil and petroleum products were stored and transported in barrels of different shapes and sizes. Some of these barrels would originally have been used for other products, such as beer, fish, molasses or turpentine. Both the 42-US-gallon barrels (based on the old English wine measure), the tierce (159 litres) and the 40-US-gallon (151.4-litre) whiskey barrels were used. Also, 45-gallon barrels were in common use. The 40-gallon whiskey barrel was the most common size used by early oil producers, since they were readily available at the time.
Around 1866, early oil producers in Pennsylvania came to the conclusion that shipping oil in a variety of different containers was causing buyer distrust. They decided they needed a standard unit of measure to convince buyers that they were getting a fair volume for their money, and settled on the standard wine tierce which was two gallons larger than the standard whisky barrel. The Weekly Register, an Oil City, Pennsylvania newspaper, stated on August 31, 1866 that "the oil producers have issued the following circular:"
Whereas, It is conceded by all producers of crude petroleum on Oil Creek that the present system of selling crude oil by the barrel, without regard to the size, is injurious to the oil trade, alike to the buyer and seller, as buyers, with an ordinary sized barrel cannot compete with those with large ones. We, therefore, mutually agree and bind ourselves that from this date we will sell no crude by the barrel or package, but by the gallon only. An allowance of two gallons will be made on the gauge of each and every 40 gallons in favor of the buyer.
and by that means King Richard III's English wine tierce became the American standard oil barrel.[15] By 1872, the standard oil barrel was firmly established as 42 US gallons.[16] The 42-gallon standard oil barrel was officially adopted by the Petroleum Producers Association in 1872 and by the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1882.[9]
In modern times, many different types of oil, chemicals, and other products are transported in steel drums. In the United States, these commonly have a capacity of 55 US gallons and are referred to as such. They are called 210-litre or 200-kg drums outside the United States. In the United Kingdom and its former dependencies, a 44-imperial gallon drum is used, even though all those countries now officially use the metric system and the drums are filled to 200 litres. Thus, the 42-US-gallon oil barrel is a unit of measure, and is no longer a physical container used to transport crude oil, as most petroleum is moved in pipelines or oil tankers. In the United States, the 42-US-gallon size of barrel as a unit of measure is largely confined to the oil industry, while different sizes of barrel are used in other industries. Nearly all other countries use the metric system. Many oil-producing countries still use the American oil barrel.[citation needed]
Definitions and units[edit]
The abbreviations Mbbl and MMbbl refer to one thousand and one million barrels, respectively. These are derived from the Latin "mille" meaning "thousand". This is different from the SI convention where "M" stands for the Greek "mega", meaning "million". Outside of the oil industry, the unit Mbbl (megabarrel) can sometimes stand for one million barrels. The "b" may have been doubled originally to indicate the plural (1 bl, 2 bbl), or possibly it was doubled to eliminate any confusion with bl as a symbol for the bale. Some sources assert that "bbl" originated as a symbol for "blue barrels" delivered by Standard Oil in its early days. However, while Ida Tarbell’s 1904 Standard Oil Company history acknowledged the "holy blue barrel", the abbreviation “bbl” had been in use well before the 1859 birth of the U.S. petroleum industry.[17]
Oil wells recover not just oil from the ground, but also natural gas and water. The term barrels of liquids per day (BLPD) refers to the total volume of liquid that is recovered.[18] Similarly, barrels of oil equivalent or BOE is a value that accounts for both oil and natural gas while ignoring any water that is recovered.
Other terms are used when discussing only oil. These terms can refer to either the production of crude oil at an oil well, the conversion of crude oil to other products at an oil refinery, or the overall consumption of oil by a region or country. One common term is barrels per day (BPD, BOPD, bbl/d, bpd, bd, or b/d) where 1 BPD is equivalent to 0.0292 gallons per minute.[19] One BPD also becomes 49.8 tonnes per year.[19] At an oil refinery, production is sometimes reported as barrels per calendar day (b/cd or bcd), which is total production in a year divided by the days in that year. Likewise, barrels per stream day (BSD or BPSD) is the quantity of oil product produced by a single refining unit during continuous operation for 24 hours.[20]
Maximum accuracy when converting bbl to cubic metres[edit]
When used to denote a volume, 1 bbl is exactly equivalent to 42 US gallons and is easily converted to any other unit of volume. A volume of 1 bbl is exactly equivalent to a volume of 158.987294928 litres, but read on.
In the oil industry, following the definition of the American Petroleum Institute, a standard barrel of oil is often taken to mean the amount of oil that at a standard pressure (14.696 psi) and temperature (60 F) would occupy a volume of exactly 1 bbl. This standard barrel of oil will occupy a different volume at different pressures and temperatures. A standard barrel in this context is thus not simply a measure of volume, but of volume under specific conditions. The task of converting this standard barrel of oil to a standard cubic metre of oil is complicated by the fact that the standard cubic metre is defined by the American Petroleum Institute to mean the amount of oil that at 101.325 kPa and 15 C occupies 1 cubic metre. The fact that the conditions are not exactly the same means that an exact conversion is impossible unless the exact expansion coefficient of the crude is known, and this will vary from one crude oil to another.
For a light oil with an API gravity of 35, warming the oil from 15.00 °C to 60.00 °F (which is 15.56 °C) might increase its volume by about 0.047%. Conversely, a heavy oil with an API gravity of 20 might only increase in volume by 0.039%. If physically measuring the density at a new temperature is not possible, then tables of empirical data can be used to accurately predict the change in density. In turn, this allows maximum accuracy when converting between standard bbl and standard m3.
International commodity exchanges will often set an arbitrary conversion factor for benchmark crude oils for financial accounting purposes. For instance the conversion factor set by the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) for Western Canadian Select (WCS) crude oil traded at Hardisty, Alberta, Canada is 6.29287 U.S. barrels per cubic metre.,[21] despite the fact that crude oil cannot be measured to that degree of accuracy. Regulatory authorities in producing countries set standards for measurement accuracy of produced hydrocarbons, where such measurements affect taxes or royalties to the government. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the measurement accuracy required is ±0.25%.[22]
Qualifiers[edit]
A barrel can technically be used to specify any volume. Since the actual nature of the fluids being measured varies along the stream, sometimes qualifiers are used to clarify what is being specified. In the oil field, it is often important to differentiate between rates of production of fluids, which may be a mix of oil and water, and rates of production of the oil itself. If a well is producing 10mbd of fluids with a 20% water cut, then the well would also be said to be producing 8,000 barrels of oil a day (bod).
In other circumstances, it can be important to include gas in production and consumption figures. Normally, gas amount is measured in standard cubic feet or cubic metres for volume (as well as in kg or Btu which don't depend on pressure or temperature). But when necessary, such volume is converted to a volume of oil of equivalent enthalpy of combustion. Production and consumption using this analogue is stated in barrels of oil equivalent per day (boed).
In the case of water injection wells, in the United States it is common to refer to the injectivity rate in barrels of water per day (bwd). In Canada, it is measured in cubic metres per day (m3/d). In general, water injection rates will be stated in the same units as oil production rates, since the usual objective is to replace the volume of oil produced with a similar volume of water to maintain reservoir pressure.
See also[edit]
55 gallon drum
Barrel
Barrel of oil equivalent
English brewery cask units
English wine cask units
Imperial units
List of unusual units of measurement
Petroleum
Petroleum pricing around the world
Standard Barrel Act For Fruits, Vegetables, and Dry Commodities
United States customary units
Units of measurement
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Brown, Lesley (1993). The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles. Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon. ISBN 0-19-861271-0.
^ Jump up to: a b 15 USC 234 Archived 25 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cardarelli, François Cradarelli (2003). Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures. London: Springer. pp. 43–46. ISBN 978-1-4471-1122-1.
Jump up ^ cranberry barrel
Jump up ^ "U.S. Traditional and Commercial Barrel Sizes". 2000 Sizes, Inc. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
Jump up ^ 15 USC 237 Archived 25 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ 27 CFR § 25.11.
Jump up ^ Ian Whitelaw. A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement. Macmillan. p. 60.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the 42-Gallon Oil Barrel". Oil & Gas History. American Oil & Gas Historical Society. 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
Jump up ^ 1 US liquid gallon = 231 cu in and 1 inch = 25.4 mm implies exactly 158.987294928 litres
Jump up ^ B. N. Taylor. "B.8 Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically - Section B". Guide for the Use of SI units. NIST. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 18 October 2007.
Jump up ^ "Energy Conversion Tables". Energy Information. Canadian National Energy Board. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/oil.htm
Jump up ^ "How much, for what, and ending up where?". United Nations Environment Programme Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway.
Jump up ^ Samuel T Pees (2004). "Standardization". Oil History. Petroleum History Institute. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Barrel (of petroleum)". Units and Systems of Units. Sizes, Inc. 2004. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "History of the 42-Gallon Oil Barrel". American Oil & Gas Historical Society. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Schlumberger Limited. "Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary". Schlumberger Limited. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b BP Statistical Review 2006
Jump up ^ barrels per stream day [′bar·əlz pər ¦strēm ‚dā] (chemical engineering) A measurement used to denote rate of oil or oil-product flow while a fluid-processing unit is in continuous operation. Abbreviated BSD. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Jump up ^ "Western Canadian Select (WCS) Crude Oil Futures" (PDF). NYMEX Rulebook. CME Group. 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Oil and gas: measurement of petroleum". The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), UK. Retrieved 2016-01-14.
External links[edit]
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Israeli system of government
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Emblem of Israel
Formation
May 14, 1948; 70 years ago (1948-05-14)
Country
State of Israel
Head of state
President (Reuven "Ruvi" Rivlin)
Seat
Beit HaNassi
Legislature
Legislature
Knesset
Leader
Speaker (Yuli-Yoel Edelstein)
Meeting place
Knesset Building
Executive
Head of government
Prime minister (Benjamin "Bibi" Netanyahu)
Main organ
Cabinet
Ministries
28
Responsible to
Knesset
Judiciary
Court
Supreme Court
Chief judge
Chief Justice (Esther Hayut)
Israel
This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
Israel
Constitution[show]
Basic Laws
Jerusalem Law
Law of Return
Presidency[show]
President (list)
Reuven Rivlin
Designated Acting President
Yuli-Yoel Edelstein
Executive[show]
Prime Minister (list)
Benjamin Netanyahu
Office of the Prime Minister
Deputy leaders
Cabinet
Current (34th)
Security Cabinet
Kitchen Cabinet
State Comptroller
Legislature[show]
Speaker: Yuli Edelstein
Members (Arab)
Leader of the Opposition
Isaac Herzog
Knesset Guard
Elections[show]
Political parties
Elections Law
Central Elections Committee
Referendums
Judiciary[show]
Supreme Court
President: Esther Hayut
Attorney General
Avichai Mandelblit
Administrative divisions[show]
Districts
Local government
Municipalities
Local councils
Regional councils
Foreign relations[show]
Arab League
International law
Status of territories
Israel, Palestine, United Nations
Israel and the European Union
Ambassadors
Other countries
Atlas
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The Israeli system of government is based on parliamentary democracy.[1] The Prime Minister of Israel is the head of government and leader of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Knesset. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system of the State of Israel and its main principles are set out in 11 Basic Laws. Israel does not have a written constitution.[2]
Contents
1 Presidency
2 Executive branch
3 Legislative branch
3.1 Knesset
3.2 Electoral system
4 Judicial system
4.1 Judicial courts
4.2 Religious courts
4.3 Labor courts
4.4 Military courts
4.5 Court of Admiralty
5 Membership in International organizations
6 Local government
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Presidency[edit]
The President of the State is the de jure head of state of Israel. The position is largely an apolitical and ceremonial role, and is not considered a part of any Government Branch. The President's ceremonial roles include signing every law (except those pertaining to the President's powers) and international or bilateral treaty, ceremonially appointing the Prime Minister, confirming and endorsing the credentials of ambassadors, and receiving the credentials of foreign diplomats. The President also has several important functions in government. The President is the only government official with the power to pardon or commute prisoners. The President appoints the Governor of the Bank of Israel, the President of Magen David Adom, and the members and leaders of several institutions. The President also ceremonially appoints judges to their posts after their selection.[3]
Executive branch[edit]
Israeli Knesset, Jerusalem
The Prime Minister is the most powerful political figure in the country. The Prime Minister is ceremonially appointed by the President upon recommendation of party Representatives in the Knesset, and makes foreign and domestic policy decisions which are voted on by the cabinet. The cabinet is composed of ministers, most of whom are the heads of government departments, though some are deputy ministers and ministers without portfolio. Cabinet ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister, who must appoint members based on the distribution of votes to political parties. The cabinet's composition must also be approved by the Knesset. The Prime Minister may dismiss cabinet members, but any replacements must be approved by the Knesset. Most ministers are members of the Knesset, though only the Prime Minister is required to be one. The cabinet meets weekly on Sundays, and there may be additional meetings if circumstances require it. Each cabinet meeting is chaired by the Prime Minister.[4]
A select group of ministers led by the Prime Minister forms the security cabinet, responsible for outlining and implementing a foreign and defense policy. This forum is designed to coordinate diplomatic negotiations, and to make quick and effective decisions in times of crisis and war.
The Israeli government has 28 ministries,[5] each of them responsible for a sector of public administration. Many Ministries are located in the Kiryat Ben Gurion Government complex in the area of Givat Ram in Jerusalem. Each ministry is led by a minister, who is also a member of the cabinet and is usually a member of the Knesset. The Office of the Prime Minister coordinates the actions of the work of all government ministries, and serving and assisting the Prime Minister in his daily work.[6]
The State Comptroller, which supervises and reviews the policies and operations of the government, is elected by the Knesset in secret ballot.[7]
Legislative branch[edit]
Knesset[edit]
Israeli Ministry of Finance, Jerusalem
The Knesset is Israel's unicameral legislature and is seated in Jerusalem. Its 120 members are elected to 4-year terms through party-list proportional representation (see electoral system, below), as mandated by the 1958 Basic Law: The Knesset. Knesset seats are allocated among parties using the D'Hondt method of party list proportional representation. Parties select candidates using a closed list. Thus, voters select the party of their choice, rather than any specific candidate. Israel requires a party to meet an election threshold of 3.25% [8] to be allocated a Knesset seat. All Israeli citizens 18 years of age and older may participate in legislative elections, which are conducted by secret ballot.
As the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset has the power to enact and repeal all laws. It enjoys de jure parliamentary supremacy, and can pass any law by a simple majority, even one that might arguably conflict with a Basic Law, unless it has specific conditions for its modification. The Knesset can adopt and amend Basic Laws acting through its capacity as a Constituent Assembly. The Knesset also supervises government activities through its committees, nominates the Prime Minister and approves the cabinet, and elects the President of the State and the State Comptroller. It also has the power to remove the President and State Comptroller from office, revoke the immunity of its members, and to dissolve itself and call new elections.
The February 2009 elections produced five prominent political parties; Kadima, Likud, Israel Beytenu, Labor and Shas, each with more than ten seats in the Knesset. Three of these parties were ruling parties in the past. However, only once has a single party held the 61 seats needed for a majority government (the Alignment from 1968 until the 1969 elections). Therefore, aside from that one exception, since 1948 Israeli governments have always comprised coalitions. As of 2009, there are 12 political parties represented in the Knesset, spanning both the political and religious spectra.
Electoral system[edit]
IDF soldier at voting booth
Israel's electoral system operates within the parameters of a Basic Law (The Knesset) and of the 1969 Knesset Elections Law.
The Knesset's 120 members are elected by secret ballot to 4-year terms, although the Knesset may decide to call for new elections before the end of the 4-year term, and a government can change without a general election; since the 1988 election, no Knesset has finished its 4-year term. In addition a motion of confidence may be called[by whom?]. Voting in general elections takes place using the highest averages method of party-list proportional representation, using the d'Hondt formula.
General elections use closed lists: voters vote only for party lists and cannot affect the order of candidates within the lists. Since the 1992 Parties Law, only registered parties may stand. There are no separate electoral districts; all voters vote on the same party lists. Suffrage is universal among Israeli citizens aged 18 years or older, but voting is optional. Polling locations are open throughout Israel; absentee ballots are limited to diplomatic staff and the merchant marine. While each party attains one seat for 1 in 120 votes, there is a minimum threshold (recently increased to 3.25%[9]) for parties to attain their first seat in an election. This requirement aimed to bar smaller parties from parliament but spurred some parties to join together simply to overcome the threshold. The low vote-threshold for entry into parliament, as well as the need for parties with small numbers of seats to form coalition governments, results in a highly fragmented political spectrum, with small parties exercising extensive power (relative to their electoral support) within coalitions.[10]
The president selects the prime minister as the party leader most able to form a government, based on the number of parliament seats his or her coalition has won. After the president's selection, the prime minister has forty-five days to form a government. The Knesset collectively must approve the members of the cabinet. This electoral system, inherited from the Yishuv (Jewish settlement organization during the British Mandate), makes it very difficult for any party to gain a working majority in the Knesset and thus governments generally form on the basis of coalitions. Due to the difficulties in holding coalitions together, elections often occur earlier than scheduled. The average life-span of an Israeli government is about two years. Over the years, the peace process, the role of religion in the state, and political scandals have caused coalitions to break apart or have produced early elections.[10]
Judicial system[edit]
Israeli Supreme Court and High Court of Justice, Jerusalem
The Judicial branch is an independent branch of the government, including secular and religious courts for the various religions present in Israel. The court system involves three stages of justice.
Judges for all courts are appointed by the Judicial Selection Committee. The committee is composed of nine members: two cabinet members (one being the Minister of Justice), two Knesset members, two members of the Israel Bar Association, and three Supreme Court justices (one being the President of the Supreme Court). The committee is chaired by the Minister of Justice.
In November 1985, the Israeli government informed the United Nations Secretariat that it would no longer accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.[11]
Judicial courts[edit]
Israeli judicial courts consist of a three-tier system:
Magistrate Courts serve as the court of first instance
District Courts serve as the appellate courts and the court of first instance for some cases;
The Supreme Court acts as both a court of first instance in matters concerning the legality of decisions of state authorities, and as a supreme appellate court.
Religious courts[edit]
See also: Religion in Israel
Jerusalem Great Synagogue, seat of Chief Rabbinate
Some issues of family law (marriage and divorce in particular) fall either under the jurisdiction of religious courts or under parallel jurisdiction of those and the state's family courts. The state maintains and finances Rabbinical, Sharia and various Canonical courts for the needs of the various religious communities. All judges are civil servants, and required to uphold general law in their tribunals as well. The Supreme Court serves as final appellate instance for all religious courts.
Jewish religious courts are under control of the Prime Minister's Office and the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. These courts have jurisdiction in only five areas: Kashrut, Sabbath, Jewish burial, marital issues (especially divorce), and Jewish status of immigrants. However, except for determining a person's marital status, all other marital issues may also be taken to secular Family Courts.
The other major religious communities in Israel, such as Muslims and Christians, have their own religious courts. These courts have similar jurisdiction over their followers as Jewish religious courts, although Muslim religious courts have more control over family affairs.
Labor courts[edit]
Israel National Labor Court, Jerusalem
Main article: Labor Courts of Israel
There are five regional labor courts in Israel as a tribunal of first instance, and a National Labor Court in Jerusalem to hear appeals and few cases of national importance. The labor courts have exclusive jurisdiction over cases involving employer-employee relationship, employment, strikes and labor union disputes, labor-related complaints against the National Insurance Institute, and Health Insurance claims.
Military courts[edit]
Israel Military Court, Jaffa
See also: Military Court of Appeals
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) maintains a series of district military courts and special military tribunals. The Military Court of Appeals is the IDF's supreme appellate court. It considers and judges over appeals submitted by the Military Advocate General, which challenges decisions rendered by the lower courts.
Court of Admiralty[edit]
In all matters having to do with admiralty, commercial shipping, accidents at sea, and other maritime matters, the Haifa District Court, sitting as the Court of Admiralty, has exclusive statewide jurisdiction.
Membership in International organizations[edit]
BSEC (observer), CE (observer), CERN (observer), EBRD, ECE, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OAS (observer), OPCW, OECD, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNFM, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WTO.
Local government[edit]
Main article: Local government in Israel
Jerusalem Municipality, Kikar Safra, Jerusalem
For governmental purposes, Israel is divided into six districts: Central District; Haifa District; Jerusalem District; Northern District; Southern District; and Tel Aviv District. The districts further subdivide into fifteen sub-districts and into fifty natural regions. Administration of the districts is coordinated by the Ministry of Interior.
There are three forms of local government in Israel: city councils, local councils, and regional councils. City councils govern municipalities classified as cities, local councils govern small municipalities, and regional councils govern groups of communities. These bodies look after public services such as urban planning, zoning, the provision of water, emergency services, and education and culture, as per guidelines of the Ministry of Interior. Local governments consist of a governing council chaired by a mayor. The mayor and all council members are chosen in municipal elections.
The Ministry of Defense has responsibility for the administration of the occupied territories.
See also[edit]
List of political parties in Israel
Israeli judicial system
List of Knesset members
List of Knesset speakers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Government". 2010. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Constitution". 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
Jump up ^ http://www.president.gov.il Archived 2002-09-25 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Basic Law: The Government (2001)".
Jump up ^ "Address and Phone Number of the Israeli Government and Ministries".
Jump up ^ "Prime Minister's Office".
Jump up ^ "Article 1 of the State Comptroller Act, 5718-1958 [Consolidated Version] (In Hebrew)".
Jump up ^ Jonathan Lis (Mar 12, 2014). "Israel Raises Electoral Threshold to 3.25 Percent".
Jump up ^ The Electoral System in Israel
^ Jump up to: a b Migdalovitz, Carol (2007-07-06). "Israel: Background and Relations with the United States" (PDF). Congressional Research Service (via the U.S. Mission to Italy). p. 23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-22. Retrieved 2009-02-20.
Jump up ^ United Nations Treaty Collection. "Declarations recognizing as compulsory the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court".
External links[edit]
Israel Government at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
The Political Economy of Israel by Ira Sharkansky
Knesset website
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List of Microsoft Office filename extensions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The following is a list of Microsoft Office filename extensions, used in Microsoft Office software suite as of January 2017.
Word[edit]
Legacy
Legacy filename extensions denote binary Microsoft Word formats that became outdated with the release of Microsoft Office 2007. Although the latest version of Microsoft Word can still open them, they are no longer developed. Legacy filename extensions include:
.doc – Legacy Word document; Microsoft Office refers to them as "Microsoft Word 97 - 2003 Document"
.dot – Legacy Word templates; officially designated "Microsoft Word 97 - 2003 Template"
.wbk - Legacy Word document backup; referred as "Microsoft Word Backup Document"
OOXML
Office Open XML (OOXML) format was introduced with Microsoft Office 2007 and became the default format of Microsoft Word ever since. Pertaining file extensions include:
.docx – Word document
.docm – Word macro-enabled document; same as docx, but may contain macros and scripts
.dotx – Word template
.dotm – Word macro-enabled template; same as dotx, but may contain macros and scripts
.docb – Word binary document introduced in Microsoft Office 2007
Excel[edit]
Legacy
Legacy filename extensions denote binary Microsoft Excel formats that became oudated with the release of Microsoft Office 2007. Although the latest version of Microsoft Excel can still open them, they are no longer developed. Legacy filename extensions include:
.xls – Legacy Excel worksheets; officially designated "Microsoft Excel 97-2003 Worksheet"
.xlt – Legacy Excel templates; officially designated "Microsoft Excel 97-2003 Template"
.xlm – Legacy Excel macro
OOXML
Office Open XML (OOXML) format was introduced with Microsoft Office 2007 and became the default format of Microsoft Excel ever since. Excel-related file extensions of this format include:
.xlsx – Excel workbook
.xlsm – Excel macro-enabled workbook; same as xlsx but may contain macros and scripts
.xltx – Excel template
.xltm – Excel macro-enabled template; same as xltx but may contain macros and scripts
Other formats
Microsoft Excel uses dedicated file format that are not part of OOXML and use the following extensions:
.xlsb – Excel binary worksheet (BIFF12)
.xla – Excel add-in or macro
.xlam – Excel add-in
.xll – Excel XLL add-in; a form of DLL-based add-in[1]
.xlw – Excel work space; previously known as "workbook"
PowerPoint[edit]
Legacy
.ppt – Legacy PowerPoint presentation
.pot – Legacy PowerPoint template
.pps – Legacy PowerPoint slideshow
OOXML
.pptx – PowerPoint presentation
.pptm – PowerPoint macro-enabled presentation
.potx – PowerPoint template
.potm – PowerPoint macro-enabled template
.ppam – PowerPoint add-in
.ppsx – PowerPoint slideshow
.ppsm – PowerPoint macro-enabled slideshow
.sldx – PowerPoint slide
.sldm – PowerPoint macro-enabled slide
Access[edit]
For a more extensive list of extensions, see Microsoft_Access § File_extensions.
Microsoft Access 2007 introduced new file extensions:
ACCDB – The file extension for the new Office Access 2007 file format. This takes the place of the MDB file extension.
ACCDE – The file extension for Office Access 2007 files that are in "execute only" mode. ACCDE files have all Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) source code hidden. A user of an ACCDE file can only execute VBA code, but not view or modify it. ACCDE takes the place of the MDE file extension.
ACCDT – The file extension for Access Database Templates.
ACCDR – is a new file extension that enables you to open a database in runtime mode. By simply changing a database's file extension from .accdb to .accdr, you can create a "locked-down" version of your Office Access database. You can change the file extension back to .accdb to restore full functionality.
Other[edit]
Publisher[edit]
.pub - a Microsoft Publisher publication
XPS Document
.xps - a XML-based document format used for printing (on Windows Vista and later) and preserving documents.
See also[edit]
Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office XML formats
Filename extension
Alphabetical list of file extensions
Office Open XML
External links[edit]
Introducing the Microsoft Office (2007) Open XML File Formats
Introduction to new file-name extensions
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Excel 2007 XLL Software Development Kit Documentation". MSDN. Microsoft. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
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James Bond 007 (role-playing game)
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
James Bond 007
Cover of James Bond 007 role-playing game rules
Designer(s)
Gerard Christopher Klug
Publisher(s)
Victory Games
Publication date
1983
Genre(s)
Spy fiction
System(s)
Custom (based on result quality ratings)
James Bond 007: Role-Playing In Her Majesty's Secret Service is a spy fiction role-playing game based on the James Bond books and films. The game was designed by Gerard Christopher Klug and published by Victory Games (a branch of Avalon Hill). The game and its supplements were published from 1983 until 1987, when the license lapsed. At that time, it was the most popular espionage role-playing game.[1] James Bond 007: Role-Playing In Her Majesty's Secret Service won an Origins Award in 1983 and a Strategists' Club Award as Outstanding Role-Playing Game in 1984.[2]
Contents
1 Setting
2 System
2.1 Action Rounds
2.2 Hero Points
3 History
3.1 Main rules
3.2 Adventures
3.3 Supplements
4 Reception
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Setting[edit]
The game is set in the world of the James Bond books and movies. The characters take the role of secret agents, either James Bond himself or his allies, other agents of MI6, the British Secret Intelligence Service, or allied agencies (usually the American CIA), and thwart plots of world domination from foreign dictators, megalomaniacal mad scientists, and arch-criminals.
Unlike many role-playing games, where the player characters are, or at least start, relatively unimportant to the universe, and much less powerful than the non-player characters, the James Bond setting is much more centered on the player characters. The PCs are usually more competent than the NPCs, better outfitted with gadgets (from Q branch), have more Hero Points (see System, below) to perform cinematic feats, and in general have a lot of influence on their surroundings.
Following the setting, the game is focused on just a few leading roles, not large groups, and is intended to play well with just one gamemaster and as few as one player.
The game was licensed from both Danjaq/Eon Productions, which holds the film rights, and Glidrose Publications (now Ian Fleming Publications), which holds the literary rights, and tried to be as faithful as possible to both the books and the films as circumstances permitted. However, to challenge the players appropriately, key plot elements in the modules based on the films were changed with the open warning to players that exactly imitating Bond's choices and actions in the film's original story would be dangerous. For instance, in the module for Live and Let Die, the players learn that Mr. Big and Doctor Kanaga are definitely two separate people rather than Kanaga playing the New York gangster in disguise. In addition, the module for You Only Live Twice is largely rewritten to change the outdated space hijacking scheme to a plot to investigate the crash of a Soviet space station that crashes near Japan and deal with the reported bioweapons being researched on board.
The characters from the Bond universe, including Bond himself, his allies and enemies, Anya Amasova, Jaws, Goldfinger, etc., play important roles. One notable exception was the villainous organization SPECTRE and its leader, Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the rights to which were contested by Kevin McClory, so in the game, they were replaced by a similar organization called T.A.R.O.T. (with a Tarot card theme), led by Karl Ferenc Skorpios.
System[edit]
The system requires 6 and 10-sided dice. Most rolls are made with percentile dice against a Success Chance (abbreviated SC), on a table to get a quality rating. Rolling low is good. A roll of over the SC is a failure, (100 always fails), under the SC but over approximately half the SC is a Quality 4, Acceptable success, between approximately a fourth and half the SC is a Quality 3, Good success, and lower rolls still can get Quality 2, Very Good, or even Quality 1, Excellent ratings. The quality rating directly influences the result, so, for example, rather than rolling once to hit, and once to damage with weapons, as in most RPGs, the quality rating of the result determines the damage.
The Success Chance is determined by multiplying the Primary Chance of an action by the Ease Factor. Ease Factors are set by the gamemaster, starting at 5 for most situations and modified down for more difficult, or up for easier tasks, always ranging between 1/2 and 10. The Primary Chance of most actions is a combination of a characteristic plus skill levels in a specific skill.
Characters have five characteristics, Strength, Dexterity, Willpower, Perception, and Intelligence, ranging from 5 to 15, and bought at creation time with Generation Points. Remaining Generation Points are used to buy skill levels, and the physical aspects of height, weight and appearance (attractiveness). As characters are supposed to be secret agents, the less unusual a character's appearance is, the more generation points it costs; distinctive appearances stand out, and earn a character Fame Points which make others, especially villains, notice them more. There are optional rules for character Weaknesses, which gain generation points at the expense of disadvantages, usually psychological (such as Fear of <something>, Superstition, or James Bond's own Attraction to Members of the Opposite Sex), and Fields of Experience, which gains Generation Points simulating a specific prior character history before becoming an operative, at the expense of greater age, and Fame points.
Skills are focused on the James Bond genre, such as Disguise, Demolitions, and Seduction. All player characters begin with skill levels in Connoisseur, First Aid, and Photography.
Experience Points, awarded at the end of missions, are spent similarly to Generation Points, with restrictions on gaining new skills or modifying characteristics. They can also be spent on equipment (requisitioned from Q branch).
Action Rounds[edit]
The inevitable combat and chase sequences in the James Bond theme are handled by Action Rounds, representing 3–5 seconds of time. All characters involved in a chase or combat declare their actions in reverse order of Speed (1-3, based on the sum of Perception and Dexterity), then executed in order of speed, giving faster characters the advantages of knowing what slower characters are going to do, and being able to take their action earlier. Speed also affects how many attacks a character may make in a round.
Chases add a bidding step; fleeing and pursuing sides bid by lowering the Ease Factor of the chase maneuver, with the winning bidder getting to choose whether to try to close or widen the gap first or last, but all sides then having to make a roll at the resulting Ease Factor.
Hero Points[edit]
Hero Points allow characters to perform the unlikely or cinematic stunts from the genre. Characters earn a Hero Point every time they get a Quality 1 result on a skill other than combat, also when the GM chooses to award one for a clever or dramatic action. A Hero Point may be spent to change the Quality Rating of any result by one level, whether for or against the character, also to change the environment, such as having something just show up by coincidence - the more fantastic, the more expensive in terms of Hero Points.
A similar but more restricted system of "Survival Points" applies to villainous characters, but these may only be spent to reduce the impact of or prevent entirely actions taken against them by the characters, never as an offensive tool. Also, villains do not gain survival points through their successes in an adventure.
History[edit]
The game was considered successful, selling almost 100,000 copies and quickly taking over the status of most popular espionage role-playing game from Top Secret. It was also well supported with supplements by Victory Games. But Avalon Hill had trouble renewing the license from Danjaq in 1987, with each side blaming the other for unwillingness to continue, and the game ceased publication.
Publications in the James Bond 007 line included:
Main rules[edit]
James Bond 007: Role Playing in Her Majesty's Secret Service (October 1983) ISBN 0-912515-00-7 - the role-playing game rules only.
James Bond 007: Role Playing in Her Majesty's Secret Service (Box Set) (October 1983) ISBN 0-912515-02-3 - game rules, dice, record sheets
Adventures[edit]
Most adventures were based on specific James Bond movies, with a few vital plot details changed, so players who had seen the film would still be surprised by the adventure. A few were written as sequels to earlier adventures based on specific movies.
Goldfinger (October 1983) ISBN 0-912515-03-1, based on the book and film.
Octopussy (October 1983) ISBN 0-912515-04-X, by Gerard Klug, based on the film.
Dr. No (1984), ISBN 0-912515-06-6, by Neil Randall, Gerry Klug, based on the book and film.
You Only Live Twice (1984), ISBN 0-912515-08-2, by Neil Randall, Gerry Klug, based on the film.
Live and Let Die (1984), ISBN 0-912515-09-0, based on the book and film.
Goldfinger II - The Man with the Midas Touch (1985), ISBN 0-912515-12-0, by Robert Kern - sequel to the Goldfinger adventure
The Man with the Golden Gun (1985), ISBN 0-912515-13-9, by Brian H. Peterson, Gerry Klug, based on the film.
A View to a Kill (1985), ISBN 0-912515-35-X, by Gerard Christopher Klug, based on the film
You Only Live Twice II: Back of Beyond (1986), ISBN 0-912515-41-4, by Raymond Benson, Gerry Klug - sequel to the You Only Live Twice adventure
For Your Eyes Only (1986), ISBN 0-912515-43-0, by Robert Kern, Gerry Klug, based on the book and film
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1987), ISBN 0-912515-36-8, by David Spangler - four linked solitaire adventures, based on the book and film
Supplements[edit]
Q Manual (October 1983) ISBN 0-912515-01-5 - sourcebook detailing required equipment for a "00" agent
Gamesmaster Pack (October 1983) ISBN 0-912515-05-8 - various tools including a gamesmaster screen with charts and other game-related references.
For Your Information (1983) ISBN 0-912515-07-4 - additional rules as well as information on characters and equipment not included in the original rulebook or Q Manual.
Thrilling Locations (June 1985) ISBN 0-912515-10-4 - detailing hotels, casinos, restaurants, and the Orient Express, with floorplans and NPCs
Villains (1986), ISBN 0-912515-11-2, by Gerard Christopher Klug - 7 original major villains, and an updating of SMERSH for the modern day
Reception[edit]
James Bond 007 was ranked 46th in the 1996 reader poll of Arcane magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time. The UK magazine's editor Paul Pettengale commented: "Because of the subject matter, and because the rules are easy to get to grips with, this proved to be an instant hit. It has also been backed up with a couple of cracking supplements – Thrilling Locations and the Q Manual - which makes creating all manner of interesting scenarios an absolute breeze."[3]
See also[edit]
Outline of James Bond
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lawrence Schick (1991). Heroic Worlds: A History and Guide to Role-Playing Games. New York: Prometheus Books. p. 63. ISBN 978-0879756536.
Jump up ^ James Bond 007, RPG.net review
Jump up ^ Pettengale, Paul (Christmas 1996). "Arcane Presents the Top 50 Roleplaying Games 1996". Arcane. Future Publishing (14): 25–35.
External links[edit]
Paul Landry; Deane Barker. "Mr. Kiss Kiss Bang Bang. Of Dice and Men". IanFleming.org. Archived from the original on 2007-12-04. Retrieved 2014-09-09.
James Bond 007 RPG. John H. Kim's campaign notes and characters.
RPGnet Review
"James Bond 007 Books". Pen & Paper, RPG Database. Archived from the original on 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2014-09-09.
The espionage roleplaying resource. Modus Operandi.
Serrat, Michel (July–August 1992). "James Bond 007, le jeu de rôle". Casus Belli (70): 22–29. Review (in French)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Bond_007_(role-playing_game)&oldid=803653094"
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