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Habeas corpus in the United States
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Habeas corpus (/ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔːrpəs/) is a recourse in law challenging the reasons or conditions of a person's confinement under color of law. A petition for habeas corpus is filed with a court that has jurisdiction over the custodian, and if granted, a writ is issued directing the custodian to bring the confined person before the court for examination into those reasons or conditions.[1] The Suspension Clause of the United States Constitution specifically included the English common law procedure in Article One, Section 9, clause 2, which demands that "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it."
United States law affords persons the right to petition the federal courts for a writ of habeas corpus. Individual states also afford persons the ability to petition their own state court systems for habeas corpus pursuant to their respective constitutions and laws when held or sentenced by state authorities.
Federal habeas review did not extend to those in state custody until almost a century after the nation's founding. During the Civil War and Reconstruction, as later during the War on Terrorism, the right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus was substantially curtailed for persons accused of engaging in certain conduct. In reaction to the former, and to ensure state courts enforced federal law, a Reconstruction Act for the first time extended the right of federal court habeas review to those in the custody of state courts (prisons and jails), expanding the writ essentially to all imprisoned on American soil. The federal habeas statute that resulted, with substantial amendments, is now at 28 U.S.C. § 2241. For many decades, the great majority of habeas petitions reviewed in federal court have been filed by those imprisoned in federal prisons by state courts for state crimes (e.g., murder, rape, robbery, etc.), since in the American system, crime has historically been a matter of state law.
The privilege of habeas corpus is not a right against unlawful arrest, but rather a right to be released from imprisonment after such arrest. If one believes the arrest is without legal merit and subsequently refuses to come willingly, he still may be guilty of resisting arrest, which can sometimes be a crime in and of itself (even if the initial arrest itself was illegal) depending on the state.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 Federal law
3 Suspension during the Civil War
3.1 Presidential suspension of habeas corpus
3.2 Congressional suspension of habeas corpus
3.3 In the Confederacy
4 Suspension during Reconstruction
5 Suspension in the Philippines
6 Habeas corpus during World War II
7 Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act
8 Habeas corpus in the 21st Century
9 Differences in post-trial actions
10 Federal habeas corpus statistics
10.1 Number of cases
10.2 Types of cases in which petitions are filed
10.3 Success rates
10.4 Disposition time
10.5 Filing rates
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Origin[edit]
Habeas corpus derives from the English common law where the first recorded usage was in 1305, in the reign of King Edward I of England. The procedure for the issuing of writs of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ. A previous act had been passed in 1640 to overturn a ruling that the command of the Queen was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus. Winston Churchill, in his chapter on the English Common Law in The Birth of Britain, explains the process thus:
Only the King had a right to summon a jury. Henry [II] accordingly did not grant it to private courts ... But all this was only a first step. Henry also had to provide means whereby the litigant, eager for royal justice, could remove his case out of the court of his lord into the court of the King. The device which Henry used was the royal writ ... and any man who could by some fiction fit his own case to the wording of one of the royal writs might claim the King's justice.
The writ of habeas corpus was issued by a superior court in the name of the Monarch, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the Royal courts of law. Petitions for habeas corpus could be made by the prisoner himself or by a third party on his behalf, and as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge.
The 1679 Act remains important in 21st century cases. This Act and the historical body of British practice that relies upon it has been used to interpret the habeas rights granted by the United States Constitution, while taking into account the understanding of the writ held by the framers of the Constitution.
Federal law[edit]
The Suspension Clause of Article I does not expressly establish a right to the writ of habeas corpus; rather, it prevents Congress from restricting it. There has been much scholarly debate over whether the Clause positively establishes a right under the federal constitution, merely exists to prevent Congress from prohibiting state courts from granting the writ, or protects a pre-existing common law right enforceable by federal judges.[2] However, in the cases of Immigration and Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr (2001),[3] and Boumediene v. Bush (2008)[4] the U.S. Supreme Court suggested that the Suspension Clause protects "the writ as it existed in 1789," that is, as a writ which federal judges could issue in the exercise of their common law authority.
Regardless of whether the writ is positively guaranteed by the constitution, habeas corpus was first established by statute in the Judiciary Act of 1789. This statutory writ applied only to those held in custody by officials of the executive branch of the federal government and not to those held by state governments, which independently afford habeas corpus pursuant to their respective constitutions and laws. From 1789 until 1866, the federal writ of habeas corpus was largely restricted to prisoners in federal custody, at a time when no direct appeals from federal criminal convictions were provided for by law. Habeas corpus remained the only means for judicial review of federal capital convictions until 1889, and the only means for review of federal convictions for other "infamous crimes" until 1891.[5] Until 1983[clarification needed] the writ of habeas corpus remained the only way that decisions of military courts could be reviewed by the Supreme Court.
The authority of federal courts to review the claims of prisoners in state custody was not clearly established until Congress adopted a statute (28 U.S.C. § 2254)[6] granting federal courts that authority in 1867, as part of the post-Civil War Reconstruction. The U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Waley v. Johnson (1942)[7] interpreted this authority broadly to allow the writ to be used to challenge convictions or sentences in violation of a defendant's constitutional rights where no other remedy was available.
The U.S. Congress grants federal district courts, the Supreme Court, and all Article III federal judges, acting in their own right, jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 2241[8] to issue writs of habeas corpus to release prisoners held by any government entity within the country from custody, subject to certain limitations, if the prisoner –
Is in custody under or by color of the authority of the United States or is committed for trial before some court thereof; or
Is in custody for an act done or omitted in pursuance of an Act of Congress, or an order, process, judgment or decree court or judge of the United States; or
Is in custody in violation of the Constitution or laws or treaties of the United States; or
Being a citizen of a foreign state and domiciled therein is in custody for an act done or omitted under any alleged right, title, authority, privilege, protection, or exemption claimed under the commission, order or sanction of any foreign state, or under color thereof, the validity and effect of which depend upon the law of nations; or
It is necessary to bring said persons into court to testify or for trial.
In 1950s and 1960s, decisions by the Warren Court greatly expanded the use and scope of the federal writ largely due to the "constitutionalizing" of criminal procedure by applying the Bill of Rights, in part, to state courts using the incorporation doctrine. This afforded state prisoners many more opportunities to claim that their convictions were unconstitutional, which provided grounds for habeas corpus relief. In the last thirty years, decisions by the Burger and Rehnquist Courts have somewhat narrowed the writ. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA) further limited the use of the federal writ by imposing a one-year statute of limitations and dramatically increasing the federal judiciary's deference to decisions previously made in state court proceedings either on appeal or in a state court habeas corpus action.
One of AEDPA's most controversial changes is the requirement that any constitutional right invoked to vacate a state court conviction rooted in a mistake of law by the state court must have "resulted in a decision that was contrary to, or involved an unreasonable application of, clearly established Federal law, as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States." Thus, a U.S. Court of Appeals must ignore its own precedents and affirm a state court decision contrary to its precedents, if the U.S. Supreme Court has never squarely addressed a particular issue of federal law.[9]
Suspension during the Civil War[edit]
Presidential suspension of habeas corpus[edit]
On April 27, 1861, the right of habeas corpus was unilaterally suspended by President Abraham Lincoln in Maryland during the American Civil War. Lincoln had received word that anti-war Maryland officials intended to destroy the railroad tracks between Annapolis and Philadelphia, which was a vital supply line for the army preparing to fight the south. (Indeed, soon after, the Maryland legislature would simultaneously vote to stay in the Union and to close these rail lines, in an apparent effort to prevent war between its northern and southern neighbors.[10]) Lincoln did not issue a sweeping order; it only applied to the Maryland route.[11] Lincoln chose to suspend the writ over a proposal to bombard Baltimore, favored by his General-in-Chief Winfield Scott.[12] Lincoln was also motivated by requests by generals to set up military courts to rein in his political opponents, "Copperheads," or Peace Democrats, so named because they did not want to resort to war to force the southern states back into the Union, as well as to intimidate those in the Union who supported the Confederate cause. Congress was not yet in session to consider a suspension of the writs; however, when it came into session it failed to pass a bill favored by Lincoln to sanction his suspensions.[13] During this period one sitting U.S. Congressman from the opposing party, as well as the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and the city council of Baltimore were arrested without charge and imprisoned indefinitely without trial.[14]
Lincoln's action was rapidly challenged in court and overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Maryland (led by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Roger B. Taney) in Ex Parte Merryman. Chief Justice Taney ruled the suspension unconstitutional, stating that only Congress could suspend habeas corpus.[15] Lincoln and his Attorney General Edward Bates not only ignored the Chief Justice's order,[16] but when Lincoln's dismissal of the ruling was criticized in an editorial by prominent Baltimore newspaper editor Frank Key Howard, they had the editor also arrested by federal troops without charge or trial. Ironically, the troops imprisoned Howard, who was Francis Scott Key's grandson, in Fort McHenry, which, as he noted, was the same fort where the Star Spangled Banner had been waving "o'er the land of the free" in his grandfather's song.[17] (In 1863, Howard wrote about his experience as a "political prisoner" at Fort McHenry in the book Fourteen Months in the American Bastille;[17] two of the publishers selling the book were then arrested.[14])
When Congress convened in July 1861 it failed to support Lincoln's unilateral suspension of habeas corpus. A joint resolution was introduced into the Senate to approve of the president's suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, but filibustering by Senate Democrats, who did not support it, and opposition to its imprecise wording by Sen. Lyman Trumbull prevented a vote on the resolution before the end of the first session, and the resolution was not taken up again.[18] Sen. Trumbull himself introduced a bill to suspend habeas corpus, but failed on getting a vote before the end of the first session.[19]
Shortly thereafter, on September 17, 1861, the day the Maryland legislature was to reconvene, Lincoln imprisoned one third of the members of the Maryland General Assembly without charges or hearings in further defiance of the Chief Justice's ruling.[20] Thus, the legislative session had to be cancelled.[10]
On February 14, 1862, the war was firmly in progress and Lincoln ordered most prisoners released,[21] putting an end to court challenges for the time being. He again suspended habeas corpus on his own authority in September that same year, however, in response to resistance to his calling up of the militia.[22]
Congressional suspension of habeas corpus[edit]
When Congress met again in December 1862, the House of Representatives passed a bill indemnifying the president for his suspension of habeas corpus.[23] The Senate amended the bill,[24] and the compromise reported out of the conference committee altered it to remove the indemnity and to suspend habeas corpus on Congress's own authority.[25] That bill, the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, was signed into law March 3, 1863.[26] Lincoln exercised his powers under it in September, suspending habeas corpus throughout the Union in any case involving prisoners of war, spies, traitors, or military personnel,[27] The suspension of habeas corpus remained in effect until Andrew Johnson revoked it on December 1, 1865.[28]
General Ambrose E. Burnside had former-Congressman Clement Vallandigham arrested in May 1863 for continuing to express sympathy for the Confederate cause after having been warned to cease doing so. Vallandigham was tried by a military tribunal and sentenced to two years in a military prison. Lincoln quickly commuted his sentence to banishment to the Confederacy. Vallandigham appealed his sentence, arguing that the Enrollment Act did not authorize his trial by a military tribunal rather than in ordinary civilian courts, that he was not ordinarily subject to court martial, and that Gen. Burnside could not expand the jurisdiction of military courts on his own authority. The Supreme Court did not address the substance of Vallandigham's appeal, instead denying that it possessed the jurisdiction to review the proceedings of military tribunals without explicit congressional authorization.[29]
In 1864, Lambdin P. Milligan and four others were accused of planning to steal Union weapons and invade Union prisoner-of-war camps and were sentenced to hang by a military court. However, their execution was not set until May 1865, so they were able to argue the case after the war ended. In Ex Parte Milligan (1866)[30] the U.S. Supreme Court decided that Congress's 1863 suspension of the writ did not empower the President to try to convict citizens before military tribunals where the civil courts were open and operational. This was one of the key Supreme Court Cases of the American Civil War that dealt with wartime civil liberties and martial law.
In the Confederacy[edit]
In the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis also suspended habeas corpus and imposed martial law.[31] This was in part to maintain order and spur industrial growth in the South to compensate for the economic loss inflicted by its secession.
Suspension during Reconstruction[edit]
Main article: Civil Rights Act of 1871
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2011)
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Proclamation 201
Following the end of the Civil War, numerous groups arose in the South to oppose Reconstruction, including the Ku Klux Klan. In response, Congress passed the Enforcement Acts in 1870–71. One of these, the Civil Rights Act of 1871, permitted the president to suspend habeas corpus if conspiracies against federal authority were so violent that they could not be checked by ordinary means. That same year, President Ulysses S. Grant suspended the writ of habeas corpus in nine South Carolina counties;[32] the Act's sunset clause ended that suspension with the close of the next regular session of Congress.
Suspension in the Philippines[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2011)
In response to continuing unrest, the Philippine Commission availed itself of an option in the Philippine Organic Act of 1902, 32 Stat. 692, and on January 31, 1905, requested that Governor-General Luke Edward Wright suspend the writ of habeas corpus. He did so the same day, and habeas corpus was suspended until he revoked his proclamation on October 15, 1905.[33][34] The suspension gave rise to the United States Supreme Court case Fischer v. Baker, 203 U.S. 174 (1906).
Habeas corpus during World War II[edit]
Immediately following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the governor of Hawaii, Joseph Poindexter, invoked the Hawaiian Organic Act, 31 Stat. 141 (1900), suspended habeas corpus, and declared martial law. Hawaii was governed by Lieutenant Generals Walter Short, Delos Emmons, and Robert C. Richardson, Jr. for the remainder of the war. In Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946), the United States Supreme Court held that the declaration of martial law did not permit the trial of civilians in military tribunals for offenses unrelated to the military (in this case, public drunkenness).
In 1942, eight German saboteurs, including two U.S. citizens, who had secretly entered the United States to attack its civil infrastructure as part of Operation Pastorius were convicted by a secret military tribunal set up by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In Ex parte Quirin (1942),[35] the U.S. Supreme Court decided that the writ of habeas corpus did not apply, and that the military tribunal had jurisdiction to try the saboteurs, due to their status as unlawful combatants.
In the aftermath of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor martial law was declared in Hawaii and habeas corpus was suspended, pursuant to a section of the Hawaiian Organic Act. The period of martial law in Hawaii ended in October 1944. It was held in Duncan v. Kahanamoku (1946)[36] that although the initial imposition of martial law in December 1941 may have been lawful, due to the Pearl Harbor attack and threat of imminent invasion, by 1944 the imminent threat had receded and civilian courts could again function in Hawaii. The Organic Act therefore did not authorize the military to continue to keep civilian courts closed.
After the end of the war, several German prisoners held in American-occupied Germany petitioned the District Court for the District of Columbia for a writ of habeas corpus. In Johnson v. Eisentrager (1950)[37] the U.S. Supreme Court decided that the American court system had no jurisdiction over German war criminals who had been captured in Germany, and had never entered U.S. soil.
Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act[edit]
In 1996, following the Oklahoma City bombing, Congress passed (91–8 in the Senate, 293–133 in the House) and President Clinton signed into law the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA). The AEDPA was intended to "deter terrorism, provide justice for victims, provide for an effective death penalty, and for other purposes." The AEDPA introduced one of the few limitations on habeas corpus. For the first time, its Section 101 set a statute of limitations of one year following conviction for prisoners to seek the writ. The Act limits the power of federal judges to grant relief unless the state court's adjudication of the claim has resulted in a decision that
Is contrary to, or has involved an unreasonable application of clearly established federal law as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States; or
Has resulted in a decision that was based on an unreasonable determination of the facts in light of the evidence presented in the state court proceeding.
It barred second or successive petitions generally but with several exceptions. Petitioners who had already filed a federal habeas petition were required first to secure authorization from the appropriate United States Court of Appeals, to ensure that such an exception was at least facially made out.
Habeas corpus in the 21st Century[edit]
The November 13, 2001, Presidential Military Order purported to give the President of the United States the power to detain non-citizens suspected of connection to terrorists or terrorism as enemy combatants. As such, that person could be held indefinitely, without charges being filed against him or her, without a court hearing, and without legal counsel. Many legal and constitutional scholars contended that these provisions were in direct opposition to habeas corpus, and the United States Bill of Rights and, indeed, in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004)[38] the U.S. Supreme Court re-confirmed the right of every American citizen to access habeas corpus even when declared to be an enemy combatant. The Court affirmed the basic principle that habeas corpus could not be revoked in the case of a citizen.
In Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006)[39] Salim Ahmed Hamdan petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus, challenging that the military commissions set up by the Bush administration to try detainees at Guantanamo Bay "violate both the UCMJ and the four Geneva Conventions." In a 5-3 ruling the Court rejected Congress's attempts to strip the court of jurisdiction over habeas corpus appeals by detainees at Guantánamo Bay. Congress had previously passed the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2006 which stated in Section 1005(e), "Procedures for Status Review of Detainees Outside the United States":
(1) Except as provided in section 1005 of the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of habeas corpus filed by or on behalf of an alien detained by the Department of Defense at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
(2)The jurisdiction of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on any claims with respect to an alien under this paragraph shall be limited to the consideration of whether the status determination ... was consistent with the standards and procedures specified by the Secretary of Defense for Combatant Status Review Tribunals (including the requirement that the conclusion of the Tribunal be supported by a preponderance of the evidence and allowing a rebuttable presumption in favor of the Government's evidence), and to the extent the Constitution and laws of the United States are applicable, whether the use of such standards and procedures to make the determination is consistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States.
On September 29, the U.S. House and Senate approved the Military Commissions Act of 2006, a bill which suspended habeas corpus for any alien determined to be an "unlawful enemy combatant engaged in hostilities or having supported hostilities against the United States"[40][41] by a vote of 65-34. (This was the result on the bill to approve the military trials for detainees; an amendment to remove the suspension of habeas corpus failed 48-51.[42]) President Bush signed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 (MCA) into law on October 17, 2006. With the MCA's passage, the law altered the language from "alien detained ... at Guantanamo Bay":
Except as provided in section 1005 of the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of habeas corpus filed by or on behalf of an alien detained by the United States who has been determined by the United States to have been properly detained as an enemy combatant or is awaiting such determination." §1005(e)(1), 119 Stat. 2742.
The Supreme Court ruled in Boumediene v. Bush that the MCA amounts to an unconstitutional encroachment on habeas corpus rights, and established jurisdiction for federal courts to hear petitions for habeas corpus from Guantanamo detainees tried under the Act.[43] Under the MCA, the law restricted habeas appeals for only those aliens detained as enemy combatants, or awaiting such determination. Left unchanged was the provision that, after such determination is made, it is subject to appeal in federal courts, including a review of whether the evidence warrants the determination. If the status was upheld, then their imprisonment was deemed lawful; if not, then the government could change the prisoner's status to something else, at which point the habeas restrictions no longer applied.
Wikinews has related news: President Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006
There is, however, no legal time limit which would force the government to provide a Combatant Status Review Tribunal hearing. Prisoners were, but are no longer, legally prohibited from petitioning any court for any reason before a CSRT hearing takes place.
In January 2007, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales told the Senate Judiciary Committee that in his opinion: "There is no express grant of habeas in the Constitution. There's a prohibition against taking it away." He was challenged by Sen. Arlen Specter who asked him to explain how it is possible to prohibit something from being taken away, without first being granted.[44] Robert Parry wrotes in the Baltimore Chronicle & Sentinel:
Applying Gonzales's reasoning, one could argue that the First Amendment doesn't explicitly say Americans have the right to worship as they choose, speak as they wish or assemble peacefully. Ironically, Gonzales may be wrong in another way about the lack of specificity in the Constitution's granting of habeas corpus rights. Many of the legal features attributed to habeas corpus are delineated in a positive way in the Sixth Amendment ...[45]
The Department of Justice has taken the position in litigation that the Military Commissions Act of 2006 does not amount to a suspension of the writ of habeas corpus. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit agreed in a 2-1 decision,[46] on February 20, 2007,[47] which the U.S. Supreme Court initially declined to review. The U.S. Supreme Court then reversed its decision to deny review and took up the case in June 2007. In June 2008, the court ruled 5-4 that the act did suspend habeas and found it unconstitutional.[48]
On June 7, 2007, the Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007 was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee with an 11–8 vote split along party lines, with all but one Republican voting against it.[49] Although the Act would restore statutory habeas corpus to enemy combatants, it would not overturn the provisions of the AEDPA which set a statute of limitations on habeas corpus claims from ordinary civilian federal and state prisoners.[citation needed]
On June 11, 2007, a federal appeals court ruled that Ali Saleh Kahlah al-Marri, a legal resident of the United States, could not be detained indefinitely without charge. In a two-to-one ruling by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, the Court held the President of the United States lacks legal authority to detain al-Marri without charge; all three judges ruled that al-Marri is entitled to traditional habeas corpus protections which give him the right to challenge his detainment in a U.S. Court.
In July 2008, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit ruled that "if properly designated an enemy combatant pursuant to the legal authority of the President, such persons may be detained without charge or criminal proceedings for the duration of the relevant hostilities."[50]
On October 7, 2008, U.S. District Judge Ricardo M. Urbina ruled that 17 Uyghurs, Muslims from China's northwestern Xinjiang region, must be brought to appear in his court in Washington, DC, three days later: "Because the Constitution prohibits indefinite detentions without cause, the continued detention is unlawful."[51]
On January 21, 2009, President Barack Obama issued an executive order regarding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and the individuals held there. This order stated that the detainees "have the constitutional privilege of the writ of habeas corpus."[52]
Regarding U.S. Citizens accused of supporting terrorism, senator Lindsey Graham has stated before the senate, "When they say, 'I want my lawyer,' you tell them: 'Shut up. You don't get a lawyer. You are an enemy combatant, and we are going to talk to you about why you joined Al Qaeda.'"
– U.S. Senator Lindsey Graham, 2011[53]
Following the December 1, 2011, vote by the United States Senate to reject an NDAA amendment proscribing the indefinite detention of U.S. citizens, the ACLU has argued that the legitimacy of Habeas Corpus is threatened: "The Senate voted 38-60 to reject an important amendment [that] would have removed harmful provisions authorizing the U.S. military to pick up and imprison without charge or trial civilians, including American citizens, anywhere in the world... We're disappointed that, despite robust opposition to the harmful detention legislation from virtually the entire national security leadership of the government, the Senate said 'no' to the Udall amendment and 'yes' to indefinite detention without charge or trial."[54] The New York Times has stated that the vote leaves the constitutional rights of U.S. citizens "ambiguous," with some senators including Carl Levin and Lindsey Graham arguing that the Supreme Court had already approved holding Americans as enemy combatants, and other senators, including Dianne Feinstein and Richard Durbin, asserting the opposite.[55]
On April 20, 2015, a New York Supreme Court justice issued an order to "show cause & writ of habeas corpus" in a proceeding on behalf of two chimpanzees used in research at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. The justice, Barbara Jaffe, amended her order later in the day by striking the reference to habeas corpus.[56][57]
Differences in post-trial actions[edit]
Habeas corpus is an action often taken after sentencing by a defendant who seeks relief for some perceived error in his criminal trial. There are a number of such post-trial actions and proceedings, their differences being potentially confusing, thus bearing some explanation. Some of the most common are an appeal to which the defendant has as a right, a writ of certiorari, a writ coram nobis and a writ of habeas corpus.
An appeal to which the defendant has a right cannot be abridged by the court which is, by designation of its jurisdiction, obligated to hear the appeal. In such an appeal, the appellant feels that some error has been made in his trial, necessitating an appeal. A matter of importance is the basis on which such an appeal might be filed: generally appeals as a matter of right may only address issues which were originally raised in trial (as evidenced by documentation in the official record). Any issue not raised in the original trial may not be considered on appeal and will be considered waived via estoppel. A convenient test for whether a petition is likely to succeed on the grounds of error is confirming that
a mistake was indeed made
an objection to that mistake was presented by counsel and
that mistake negatively affected the defendant's trial.
A writ of certiorari, otherwise known simply as cert, is an order by a higher court directing a lower court to send record of a case for review, and is the next logical step in post-trial procedure. While states may have similar processes, a writ of cert is usually only issued, in the United States, by the Supreme Court, although some states retain this procedure. Unlike the aforementioned appeal, a writ of cert is not a matter of right. A writ of cert will have to be petitioned for, the higher court issuing such writs on limited bases according to constraints such as time. In another sense, a writ of cert is like an appeal in its constraints; it too may only seek relief on grounds raised in the original trial.
A petition for a writ of error coram nobis or error coram vobis challenges a final judgment in a criminal proceeding. Use of this type of petition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but is usually limited to situations where it was not possible to raise this issue earlier on direct appeal. These petitions focus on issues outside the original premises of the trial, i.e., issues that require new evidence or those that could not otherwise be raised by direct appeal or writs of cert.[58] These often fall in two logical categories: (1) that the trial lawyer was ineffectual or incompetent or (2) that some constitutional right has been violated.
Federal habeas corpus statistics[edit]
Number of cases[edit]
In 2004, there were about 19,000 non-capital federal habeas corpus petitions filed and there were about 210 capital federal habeas corpus petitions filed in U.S. District Court. The vast majority of these were from state prisoners, not from those held in federal prisons. There are about 60 habeas corpus cases filed in the U.S. Supreme Court's original jurisdiction each year. The U.S. Courts of Appeal do not have original jurisdiction over habeas corpus petitions.
Types of cases in which petitions are filed[edit]
In 1992, less than 1% of federal habeas corpus petitions involved death penalty sentences, although 21% involved life sentences. At that time about 23% had been convicted of homicide, about 39% had been convicted of other serious violent crimes, about 27% had been convicted of serious non-violent crimes, and about 12% were convicted of other offenses. These are almost exclusively state offenses and thus petitions filed by state prisoners.
Exhaustion of state-court remedies often takes five to ten years after a conviction, so only state prisoners facing longer prison sentences are able to avail themselves of federal habeas corpus rights without facing a summary dismissal for failure to exhaust state remedies. The lack of state remedies to exhaust also means that the timeline for federal death penalty habeas review is much shorter than the timeline for state death penalty habeas review (which can drag on literally for decades).
In 2004, the percentage of federal habeas corpus petitions involving state death sentences was still about 1% of the total.
Success rates[edit]
About 63% of issues raised in habeas corpus petitions by state court prisoners are dismissed on procedural grounds at the U.S. District Court level, and about 35% of those issues are dismissed based on the allegations in the petition [[on the merits](on the merits has a different meaning than what it's used for here)]. About 2% are either "remanded" to a state court for further proceedings (which poses an interesting problem of federalism – the federal court usually issues a writ to the state prison to release the prisoner, but only if the state court does not hold a certain proceeding within a certain time), or, far less frequently, resolved favorably to the prisoner on the merits outright. About 57% of habeas corpus issues dismissed on procedural grounds in 1992 were dismissed for a failure to exhaust state remedies.
Success rates are not uniform, however. James Liebman, Professor of Law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995."[59] Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabek in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47% of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted."[60] Most habeas corpus petitioners in death penalty cases are represented by attorneys, but most habeas corpus petitioners in non-death penalty cases represent themselves. This is because federal funds are not available to non-capital state habeas petitioners to pay for attorneys unless there is good cause, there being no federal right to counsel in such matters. However, in state capital cases, the federal government provides funding for the representation of all capital habeas petitioners.
Thus, about 20% of successful habeas corpus petitions involve death penalty cases.
These success rates predate major revisions in habeas corpus law that restricted the availability of federal habeas corpus relief when AEDPA was adopted in 1996, over a decade ago. Post-AEDPA, the great disparity in success rates remains, however, with the federal courts' overturning of state capital cases a major reason that many states have been unable to carry out a majority of capital sentences imposed and have long backlog lists.
Disposition time[edit]
The time required to adjudicate habeas corpus petitions varies greatly based upon factors including the number of issues raised, whether the adjudication is on procedural grounds or on the merits, and the nature of the claims raised.
In 1992, U.S. District Courts took an average of two and a half years to adjudicate habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases raising multiple issues that were resolved on the merits, about half of that time-length for other multiple issue homicide cases, and about nine months in cases resolved on procedural grounds.
AEDPA was designed to reduce the disposition times of federal habeas corpus petitions. But AEDPA has a little impact in non-capital cases, where a majority of cases are dismissed on procedural grounds, very few prisoners prevail and most prisoners are not represented by attorneys. The disposition time in capital cases has actually increased 250% from the time of AEDPA's passage to 2004.
Filing rates[edit]
In 1991, the average number of federal habeas corpus petitions filed in the United States was 14 per 1,000 people in state prison, but this ranged greatly from state to state from a low of 4 per 1,000 in Rhode Island to a high of 37 per 1,000 in Missouri.
The Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA) produced a brief surge in the number of habeas corpus filings by state prisoners, as deadlines imposed by the act encouraged prisoners to file sooner than they might have otherwise done so, but this had run its course by 2000, and by 2004, habeas corpus petition filing rates per 1,000 prisoners was similar to pre-AEDPA filing rates.
There was a temporary surge in habeas corpus petitions filed by federal prisoners in 2005 as a result of the Booker decision by the U.S. Supreme Court.[61]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Larson, Aaron. "What is Habeas Corpus". ExpertLaw.com. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
Jump up ^ See Erwin Chemerinsky, Federal Jurisdiction, Section 15.2 (5th ed. 2007)
Jump up ^ 533 U.S. 289 (2001)
Jump up ^ 553 U.S. 723 (2008)
Jump up ^ "FindLaw - Cases and Codes". findlaw.com.
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 2254
Jump up ^ 316 U.S. 101 (1942)
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 2241
Jump up ^ "FindLaw - Cases and Codes". findlaw.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861". Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.
Jump up ^ Goodwin, Doris Kearns Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (2005) ISBN 0-684-82490-6 p.354-355
Jump up ^ Neely, p.7
Jump up ^ George Clarke Sellery, Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus as viewed by Congress (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1907), 11–26.
^ Jump up to: a b "A time liberties weren't priority". tribunedigital-baltimoresun.
Jump up ^ 17 F. Cas. 144(C.C.D. Md. 1861)
Jump up ^ Goodwin, p. 355
^ Jump up to: a b Howard, F. K. (Frank Key) (1863). Fourteen Months in American Bastiles. London: H.F. Mackintosh. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, Thirty-Seventh Congress, First Session (1861), pp. 40–50, 64–71, 127, 137–44, 177, 180, 208, 217, 220, 234–35, 288–97, 332–36, 391–95, 451–54.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, Thirty-Seventh Congress, First Session (1861), pp. 336–43, 364, 372–82.
Jump up ^ William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011) p 71
Jump up ^ Amnesty to Political or State Prisoners
Jump up ^ Proclamation 94.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, Thirty-Seventh Congress, Third Session (1862–63), pp. 14, 20–22.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, Thirty-Seventh Congress, Third Session (1862–63), pp. 529–54.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, Thirty-Seventh Congress, Third Session (1862–63), pp. 1354–58, 1435–38, 1459–79, 1489–94, 1532.
Jump up ^ Pub. L. 37-81, 12 Stat. 755.
Jump up ^ Proclamation 104.
Jump up ^ Proclamation 148.
Jump up ^ Ex parte Vallandigham, 68 U.S. (1 Wall.) 243 (1864).
Jump up ^ 71 U.S. 2 (1866).
Jump up ^ Heidler, D.S., Heidler, J.T., Coles, D.J., Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: a political, social and military history (2000) ISBN 0-393-04758-X p.441
Jump up ^ Proclamation 201
Jump up ^ Fisher v. Baker , 203 U.S. 174, 179–81 (U.S. Supreme Court 1906). .
Jump up ^ "Habeas Corpus Suspension". onecl. , n1784.
Jump up ^ 317 U.S. 1 (1942)
Jump up ^ 327 U.S. 304 (1946)
Jump up ^ 339 U.S. 763 (1950)
Jump up ^ 542 U.S. 507 (2004)
Jump up ^ 548 U.S. 557 (2006)
Jump up ^ "Bill Text - 109th Congress (2005-2006) - THOMAS (Library of Congress)". loc.gov.
Jump up ^ Klein, Rick (29 September 2006). "Senate's passage of detainee bill gives Bush a win: Democrats say GOP capitulate". Boston Globe.
Jump up ^ "Bill Summary & Status - 109th Congress (2005 - 2006) - S.AMDT.5087 - THOMAS (Library of Congress)". loc.gov.
Jump up ^ https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/06-1195.pdf
Jump up ^ San Francisco Chronicle, Gonzales says the Constitution doesn't guarantee habeas corpus, January 24, 2007
Jump up ^ "Gonzales Questions Habeas Corpus". baltimorechronicle.com.
Jump up ^ "Object not found!" (PDF). uscourts.gov.
Jump up ^ Al Odah v. United States, 476 F.3d 981 (D.C. Cir. 2007)
Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (2008-06-13). "Justices, 5-4, Back Detainee Appeals for Guantánamo". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Panel OKs Bill For Guantanamo Detainees". CBS News. 2007-06-07. Archived from the original on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
Jump up ^ "Al-Marri and the power to imprison U.S. citizens without charges". Salon.com. 2008-07-16. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ "U.S. judge orders Chinese Muslims at Guantanamo freed". Reuters. October 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-01-30. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
Jump up ^ Savage, Charlie (1 December 2001). "Senate Declines to Clarify Rights of American Qaeda Suspects Arrested in U.S". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Khaki, Ategah (29 November 2011). "Senate Rejects Amendment Banning Indefinite Detention". ACLU Blog of Rights.
Jump up ^ Savage, Charlie (1 December 2011). "Senate Declines to Clarify Rights of American Qaeda Suspects Arrested in U.S". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Apes are people too? NY judge grants human rights to chimpanzees". rt.com. 2015-04-21. Retrieved 2015-04-22.
Jump up ^ Grimm, David (2015-04-20). "Updated: Judge's ruling grants legal right to research chimps". Retrieved 2015-04-22.
Jump up ^ Smith, Kyle (29 December 2015). "Habeas Corpus Petitions in California State Court". Retrieved 13 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Habeas Corpus Studies". 1 April 1996 – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ "Readings - The New Speed-Up In Habeas Corpus Appeals - The Execution - FRONTLINE - PBS". pbs.org.
Jump up ^ "Page Not Found". uscourts.gov. Archived from the original on 2007-07-05.
Federal Habeas Corpus Review (United States Department of Justice 1995)
Federal Habeas Corpus Relief (Congressional Research Service 2006)
Further reading[edit]
Wert Justin J. Habeas Corpus in America: The Politics of Individual Rights (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 296 pages; how presidents, Congress, interest groups, legal scholars, and others have shaped it.
External links[edit]
Media related to Habeas corpus in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
Petition for Habeas Corpus April 16, 1843 From Texas Tides
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Tiwanaku
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Tiwanaku
The "Gate of the Sun"
Shown within Bolivia
Alternate name
Tiahuanaco, Tiahuanacu
Location
Tiwanaku Municipality, Bolivia
Coordinates
16°33′17″S 68°40′24″W / 16.55472°S 68.67333°W / -16.55472; -68.67333Coordinates: 16°33′17″S 68°40′24″W / 16.55472°S 68.67333°W / -16.55472; -68.67333
Type
Settlement
History
Cultures
Tiwanaku empire
Site notes
Condition
In ruins
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture
Type
Cultural
Criteria
iii, iv
Designated
2000 (24th session)
Reference no.
567
Region
Latin America and the Caribbean
Tiwanaku (Spanish: Tiahuanaco or Tiahuanacu) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia.
The site was first recorded in written history by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León. He came upon the remains of Tiwanaku in 1549 while searching for the Inca capital in Qullasuyu.[1]
The name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language.[2][3] The ancient inhabitants of Tiwanaku are believed to have spoken the Puquina language.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structures
2 Archaeology
2.1 Contemporary excavation and restoration
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
Structures[edit]
The area around Tiwanaku may have been inhabited as early as 1500 BC as a small agricultural village.[5] During the time period between 300 BC and AD 300, Tiwanaku is thought to have been a moral and cosmological center for the Tiwanaku empire, and one to which many people made pilgrimages. Researchers believe it achieved this standing prior to Tiwanaku expanding its powerful empire.[1]
In 1945, Arthur Posnansky[6][page needed] estimated that Tiwanaku dated to 15,000 BC, based on his archaeoastronomical techniques. In the 21st century, experts concluded Posnansky's dates were invalid and a "sorry example of misused archaeoastronomical evidence."[7]
The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the Akapana, Akapana East, and Pumapunku stepped platforms, the Kalasasaya, the Kheri Kala, and Putuni enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple. These may be visited by the public.
The Akapana is an approximately cross-shaped pyramidal structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looters excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase with sculptures is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure.
Originally, the Akapana was thought to have been developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first century studies have shown that it is an entirely manmade earthen mound, faced with a mixture of large and small stone blocks. The dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the "moat" that surrounds the site.[8] The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of andesite, is estimated to weigh 65.70 metric tons.[9] The structure was possibly for the shaman-puma relationship or transformation through shape shifting. Tenon puma and human heads stud the upper terraces.[8]
Snuff tablet ("rapero"), Lombards Museum
The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay were used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture.[8]
The Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east–west axis like the Akapana. It is a rectangular, terraced earthen mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north–south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east–west axis, and is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure.
A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the "Plataforma Lítica". The Plataforma Lítica contains the largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site.[9][10] According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tons.[9] The second largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tons.[9][10]
The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not the gateway's original location.
Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north–south rather than east–west axis.[11] The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time.[12] It was built with walls of sandstone pillars and smaller blocks of Ashlar masonry.[12][13] The largest stone block in the Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons.[9]
"Gateway of the Sun", Tiwanaku, drawn by Ephraim Squier in 1877. The scale is exaggerated in this drawing.
Gate of the Moon.
Within many of the site's structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. Many gateways show iconography of the Staff God. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. This iconography is most present on the Gateway of the Sun.[14]
The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a chambranle, which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the recently discovered Akapana Gate, have a unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of descriptive geometry. The regularity of elements suggest they are part of a system of proportions.
Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku's architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a luk’a, which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Another argument is for the Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had a system set for individual elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together.[15]
As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry and textiles. Like the later Inca, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution.[16] That is, the elites of the empire controlled essentially all economic output, but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the empire.[17]
The elites of Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes, since it was home to the holiest of shrines.[1]
Archaeology[edit]
As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after Tiwanaku's fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during 19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel.
No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout the period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today.[15]
Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s, Ephraim George Squier visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist Alphons Stübel spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation was published in 1892 by engineer B. von Grumbkow. With commentary by archaeologist Max Uhle, this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins.
Pictures of archaeological excavations in 1903
Stairs of Kalasasaya (1903)
Temple of Kalasasaya (1903)
Gate of the Sun (1903)
Gate of the Sun, Rear View (1903)
Contemporary excavation and restoration[edit]
Walls around the temple Kalasasaya
In the 1960s, the Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of the Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The original stones making up the Kalasasaya would have resembled a more "Stonehenge"-like style, spaced evenly apart and standing straight up. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on research; for instance, a new wall was built around Kalasasaya. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present in Tiwanaku.[12] As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, was moved from its original location.[1]
Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by University of Chicago anthropologist Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of the suka kollus, accurate dating of the civilization's growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization.
Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the Tiwanaku empire ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the Moquegua Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound.[11] Evidence of similar types of cranial deformation in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument.[18]
Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, administered by the Bolivian government.
Robotic exploration of a newly discovered tunnel in the Akapana pyramid, June 13, 2006
Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on the Akapana pyramid. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the University of Pennsylvania, has been excavating in the area surrounding the pyramid for the past few years, and also conducting Ground Penetrating Radar surveys of the area.
In former years, an archaeological field school offered through Harvard's Summer School Program, conducted in the residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists.[19] The program was directed by Dr. Gary Urton,[20] of Harvard, who was an expert on quipus, and Dr. Alexei Vranich of the University of Pennsylvania. The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy was charged with nationalistic and political undertones.[21] The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so.
In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on the Akapana pyramid was halted due to a complaint from UNESCO. The restoration had consisted of facing the pyramid with adobe, although researchers had not established this as appropriate.[22][23]
See also[edit]
Kimsa Chata
Las Ánimas complex
List of megalithic sites
Wari culture
Puma Punku
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kolata, Alan L. (December 11, 1993). The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-55786-183-2. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Holly (October 20, 2008). Places to See Before They Disappear. 500 Places. Frommers. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-470-18986-3. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Profile: Fabricio R. Santos – The Genographic Project". Genographic Project. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
Jump up ^ Heggarty, P; Beresford-Jones, D (2013). "Andes: linguistic history". In Ness, I; P, Bellwood. The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 401–9.
Jump up ^ Fagan, Brian M (2001), The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations, New York: Thames & Hudson .
Jump up ^ Posnansky, A (1945), Tihuanacu, the Cradle of American Man, I–II, James F. Sheaver transl, New York: JJ Augustin ; Vols. III–IV, La Paz, Bolivia: Minister of Education
Jump up ^ Kelley, D.H.; Milone, E.F. (2002), Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy, New York: Springer Science+Business, p. 460
^ Jump up to: a b c Isbell, W. H., 2004, Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon. in S. T. Evans and J. Pillsbury, eds., pp. 191-246. Palaces of the Ancient New World, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ponce Sanginés, C. and G. M. Terrazas, 1970, Acerca De La Procedencia Del Material Lítico De Los Monumentos De Tiwanaku. Publication no. 21. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia.
^ Jump up to: a b Vranich, A., 1999, Interpreting the Meaning of Ritual Spaces: The Temple Complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
^ Jump up to: a b Goldstein, Paul (1993). Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru.
^ Jump up to: a b c Browman, D. L., 1981, "New light on Andean Tiwanaku," New Scientist vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408-419.
Jump up ^ Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, 1986, Atlas of Ancient America p. 190
Jump up ^ Silverman, Helaine Andean Archaeology Volume 2. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004
^ Jump up to: a b Protzen, J.-P., and S. E. Nair, 2000, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture": The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 59, no., 3, pp. 358-371.
Jump up ^ Smith, Michael E. (2004), "The Archaeology of Ancient Economies," Annu. Rev. Anthrop. 33: 73-102.
Jump up ^ Bahn, Paul G. Lost Cities. New York: Welcome Rain, 1999.
Jump up ^ Hoshower, Lisa M. (1995). Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru.
Jump up ^ Lémuz, C (2007), "Buenos Negocios, ¿Buena Arqueologia?", Crítica Arqueológica Boliviana [Bolivian archæological critic] (World Wide Web log) (in Spanish) .
Jump up ^ "Program in Tiwanaku, Bolivia", Summer School Archives, Harvard University, 2005 .
Jump up ^ Kojan, David; Angelo, Dante, "Dominant narratives, social violence and the practice of Bolivian archaeology", Journal of Social Archaeology, 5 (3): 383–408, doi:10.1177/1469605305057585 .
Jump up ^ Carroll, Rory (20 October 2009). "Makeover may lose Bolivian pyramid its world heritage site listing". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Pyramid may lose World Heritage status after renovation fiasco". Sydney Morning Herald. October 20, 2009.
Bibliography[edit]
Bermann, Marc Lukurmata Princeton University Press (1994) ISBN 978-0-691-03359-4.
Bruhns, Karen Olsen, Ancient South America, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, c. 1994.
Goldstein, Paul, "Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moduegua, Peru", Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 4, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 22–47, Society for American Archaeology.
Hoshower, Lisa M., Jane E. Buikstra, Paul S. Goldstein, and Ann D. Webster, "Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru", Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June, 1995) pp. 145–64, Society for American Archaeology.
Janusek, John Wayne Ancient Tiwanaku Cambridge University Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-521-01662-9.
Kolata, Alan L., "The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland", American Antiquity, Vol. 51, No. 4 (October 1986), pp. 748–762, Society for American Archaeology.
Kolata, Alan L (June 1991), "The Technology and Organization of Agricultural Production in the Tiwanaku State", Latin American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, 2 (2): 99–125, doi:10.2307/972273 .
Protzen, Jean-Pierre and Stella E. Nair, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture", The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 59, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 358–71, Society of Architectural Historians.
Reinhard, Johan, "Chavin and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers." National Geographic Research 1(3): 395–422, 1985.
——— (1990), "Tiahuanaco, Sacred Center of the Andes", in McFarren, Peter, An Insider's Guide to Bolivia, La Paz, pp. 151–81 .
——— (1992), "Tiwanaku: Ensayo sobre su cosmovisión" [Tiwanaku: essay on its cosmovision], Revista Pumapunku (in Spanish), 2: 8–66 .
Stone-Miller, Rebecca (2002) [c. 1995], Art of the Andes: from Chavin to Inca, London: Thames & Hudson .
Vallières, Claudine (2013). A Taste of Tiwanaku: Daily Life in an Ancient Andean Urban Center as Seen through Cuisine (Ph.D.). McGill University.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Tiwanaku (category)
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Tiwanaku.
Library resources about
Tiwanaku
Online books
Resources in your library
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Map of Ingavi Province, Agua en Bolivia, CGIAB, archived from the original on April 18, 2009, retrieved September 22, 2013
"Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture", World Heritage List, World Heritage Centre, UNESCO, retrieved September 22, 2013
Daily Life at Tiwanaku, Archæology student, archived from the original on May 22, 2010, retrieved September 22, 2013
"Revealing Ancient Bolivia", Archaeology Magazine, Archaeological Institute of America, 2004, retrieved September 22, 2013
"Geophysics and Geomatics at Tiwanaku", Center for Advanced Spatial Technologies, Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas, retrieved September 22, 2013
Heinrich, P (2008), "Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Site Bibliography", Papers, Hall of Ma’at
Higueros, A (1999), "Archaeological Research on the Tiwanaku polity in Peru and Bolivia", Arqueologia Andina y Tiwanaku
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