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Composition (visual arts)
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The Art of Painting by Jan Vermeer, noted for his subtle compositions
In the visual arts, composition is the placement or arrangement of visual elements or 'ingredients' in a work of art, as distinct from the subject. It can also be thought of as the organization of the elements of art according to the principles of art.
The composition of a picture is different from its subject, what is depicted, whether a moment from a story, a person or a place. Many subjects, for example Saint George and the Dragon, are often portrayed in art, but using a great range of compositions even though the two figures are typically the only ones shown.
The term composition means 'putting together' and can apply to any work of art from music to writing to photography that is arranged using conscious thought. In the visual arts, composition is often used interchangeably with various terms such as design, form, visual ordering, or formal structure, depending on the context. In graphic design for press and desktop publishing, composition is commonly referred to as page layout.
Contents
[hide]
1 Elements of design
1.1 Line and shape
1.2 Color
2 Principles of organization
2.1 Viewpoint (leading with the eye)
3 Compositional techniques
3.1 Rule of thirds
3.2 Rule of odds
3.3 Rule of space
3.4 Simplification
3.4.1 Shallow Depth of Field
3.5 Geometry and symmetry
3.6 Creating movement
3.7 Other techniques
4 Example
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Elements of design[edit]
Main article: Elements of art
The various visual elements, known as elements of design, formal elements, or elements of art, constitute the vocabulary with which the visual artist composes. These elements in the overall design usually relate to each other and to the whole art work.
The elements of design are:
Line — the visual path that enables the eye to move within the piece
Shape — areas defined by edges within the piece, whether geometric or organic
Color — hues with their various values and intensities
Texture — surface qualities which translate into tactile illusions
Value — Shading used to emphasize form
Form — 3-D length, width, or depth
Space — the space taken up by (positive) or in between (negative) objects

Line and shape[edit]
Lines are optical phenomena that allow the artist to direct the eye of the viewer. The optical illusion of lines do exist in nature and visual arts elements can be arranged to create this illusion. The viewer unconsciously reads near continuous arrangement of different elements and subjects at varying distances. Such elements can be of dramatic use in the composition of the image. These could be literal lines such as telephone and power cables or rigging on boats. Lines can derive also from the borders of areas of differing color or contrast, or sequences of discrete elements. Movement is also a source of line, and blur can also create a reaction.[citation needed]
Subject lines contribute to both mood and linear perspective, giving the viewer the illusion of depth. Oblique lines convey a sense of movement and angular lines generally convey a sense of dynamism and possibly tension. Lines can also direct attention towards the main subject of picture, or contribute to organization by dividing it into compartments. The artist may exaggerate or create lines perhaps as part of their message to the viewer. Many lines without a clear subject point suggest chaos in the image and may conflict with the mood the artist is trying to evoke.[citation needed]
Straight left lines create different moods and add affection to visual arts. A line's angle and its relationship to the size of the frame influence the mood of the image. Horizontal lines, commonly found in landscape photography, can give the impression of calm, tranquility, and space. An image filled with strong vertical lines tends to have the impression of height and grandeur. Tightly angled convergent lines give a dynamic, lively, and active effect to the image. Strongly angled, almost diagonal lines produce tension in the image. The viewpoint of visual art is very important because every different perspective views different angled lines. This change of perspective elicits a different response to the image. By changing the perspective only by some degrees or some centimetres lines in images can change tremendously and a totally different feeling can be transported. Straight lines are also strongly influenced by tone, color, and repetition in relation to the rest of the image.
Compared to straight lines, curves provide a greater dynamic influence in a picture. They are also generally more aesthetically pleasing, as the viewer associates them with softness. In photography, curved lines can give graduated shadows when paired with soft-directional lighting, which usually results in a very harmonious line structure within the image.
Color[edit]
Color is characterized by attributes such as hue, brightness, and saturation. Color symbolism assigns additional associations, dependent on culture. For example, white has long suggested purity, but it can also take slightly different meanings such as peace, or innocence. However, in some places (for instance, Japan and China) it signifies death.
Principles of organization[edit]
Main article: Principles of art
The artist determines what the center of interest (focus in photography) of the art work will be, and composes the elements accordingly. The gaze of the viewer will then tend to linger over these points of interest, elements are arranged with consideration of several factors (known variously as the principles of organization, principles of art, or principles of design) into a harmonious whole which works together to produce the desired statement – a phenomenon commonly referred to as unity. Such factors in composition should not be confused with the elements of art (or elements of design) themselves. For example, shape is an element; the usage of shape is characterized by various principles.
Some principles of organization affecting the composition of a picture are:
Shape and proportion
Positioning/orientation/balance/harmony among the elements
The area within the field of view used for the picture ("cropping")
The path or direction followed by the viewer's eye when they observe the image.
Negative space
Color
Contrast: the value, or degree of lightness and darkness, used within the picture.
Arrangement: for example, use of the golden mean or the rule of thirds
Lines
Rhythm
Illumination or lighting
Repetition (sometimes building into pattern; rhythm also comes into play, as does geometry)
Perspective
Breaking the rules can create tension or unease, yet it can add interest to the picture if used carefully
Viewpoint (leading with the eye)[edit]
The position of the viewer can strongly influence the aesthetics of an image, even if the subject is entirely imaginary and viewed "within the mind's eye". Not only does it influence the elements within the picture, but it also influences the viewer's interpretation of the subject.
For example, if a boy is photographed from above, perhaps from the eye level of an adult, he is diminished in stature. A photograph taken at the child's level would treat him as an equal, and one taken from below could result in an impression of dominance. Therefore, the photographer is choosing the viewer's positioning.
A subject can be rendered more dramatic when it fills the frame. There exists a tendency to perceive things as larger than they actually are, and filling the frame full fills this psychological mechanism. This can be used to eliminate distractions from the background.
In photography, altering the position of the camera can change the image so that the subject has fewer or more distractions with which to compete. This may be achieved by getting closer, moving laterally, tilting, panning, or moving the camera vertically.
Compositional techniques[edit]
There are numerous approaches or "compositional techniques" to achieve a sense of unity within an artwork, depending on the goals of the artist. For example, a work of art is said to be aesthetically pleasing to the eye if the elements within the work are arranged in a balanced compositional way.[1] However, there are artists such as Salvador Dalí who aim to disrupt traditional composition and challenge the viewer to rethink balance and design elements within art works.
Conventional composition can be achieved with a number of techniques:
Rule of thirds[edit]
Main article: Rule of thirds
The rule of thirds is a composition guide that states that arranging the important features of an image on or near the horizontal and vertical lines that would divide the image into thirds horizontally and vertically is visually pleasing. The objective is to stop the subject(s) and areas of interest (such as the horizon) from bisecting the image, by placing them near one of the lines that would divide the image into three equal columns and rows, ideally near the intersection of those lines.
Rule of thirds: Note how the horizon falls close to the bottom grid line, and how the dark areas are in the left third, the overexposed in the right third.
The rule of thirds is thought to be a simplification of the golden ratio. The golden ratio is thought to have been used by artists throughout history as a composition guide, but there is little evidence to support this claim.
Rule of odds[edit]
The "rule of odds" states that by framing the object of interest with an even number of surrounding objects, it becomes more comforting to the eye, thus creates a feeling of ease and pleasure. It is based on the assumption that humans tend to find visual images that reflect their own preferences/wishes in life more pleasing and attractive.
The "rule of odds" suggests that an odd number of subjects in an image is more interesting than an even number. Thus if you have more than one subject in your picture, the suggestion is to choose an arrangement with at least three subjects. An even number of subjects produces symmetries in the image, which can appear less natural for a naturalistic, informal composition.
An image of a person surrounded/framed by two other persons, for instance, where the person in the center is the object of interest in that image/artwork, is more likely to be perceived as friendly and comforting by the viewer, than an image of a single person with no significant surroundings.
Rule of space[edit]
Main article: Lead room
The rule of space applies to artwork (photography, advertising, illustration) picturing object(s) to which the artist wants to apply the illusion of movement, or which is supposed to create a contextual bubble in the viewer's mind.
This can be achieved, for instance, by leaving white space in the direction the eyes of a portrayed person are looking, or, when picturing a runner, adding white space in front of him rather than behind him to indicate movement.
Simplification[edit]
Images with clutter can distract from the main elements within the picture and make it difficult to identify the subject. By decreasing the extraneous content, the viewer is more likely to focus on the primary objects. Clutter can also be reduced through the use of lighting, as the brighter areas of the image tend to draw the eye, as do lines, squares and colour. In painting, the artist may use less detailed and defined brushwork towards the edges of the picture.Removing the elements to the focus of the object, taking only the needed components.
Shallow Depth of Field[edit]
In photography, and also (via software simulation of real lens limitations) in 3D graphics, one approach to achieving simplification is to use a wide aperture when shooting to limit the depth of field. When used properly in the right setting, this technique can place everything that is not the subject of the photograph out of focus.
The blurred background focuses the eye on the flowers.
At a smaller aperture, the background competes for the viewer’s attention.
A similar approach, given the right equipment, is to take advantage of the Scheimpflug principle to change the plane of focus.
Geometry and symmetry[edit]
A simple composition with cloud and rooftop that creates asymmetry.
Related to the rule of odds is the observation that triangles are an aesthetically pleasing implied shape within an image. In a canonically attractive face, the mouth and eyes fall within the corners of the area of an equilateral triangle. Paul Cézanne successfully used triangles in his compositions of still lifes. A triangular format creates a sense of stability and strength.
Creating movement[edit]
It is generally thought to be more pleasing to the viewer if the image encourages the eye to move around the image, rather than immediately fixating on a single place or no place in particular. Artists will often strive to avoid creating compositions that feel "static" or "flat" by incorporating movement into the image. In image A the 2 mountains are equally sized and positioned beside each other creating a very static and uninteresting image. In image B the mountains are differently sized and one is placed closer to the horizon, guiding the eye to move from one mountain to the other creating a more interesting and pleasing image. This also feels more natural because in nature objects are rarely the same size and evenly spaced.
ImageA
ImageB
Other techniques[edit]
There should be a center of interest or focus in the work, to prevent it becoming a pattern in itself;
The direction followed by the viewer's eye should lead the viewer's gaze around all elements in the work before leading out of the picture;
The subject should not be facing out of the image;
Exact bisections of the picture space should be avoided;
Small, high contrast, elements have as much impact as larger, duller elements;
The prominent subject should be off-centre, unless a symmetrical or formal composition is desired, and can be balanced by smaller satellite elements
the horizon line should not divide the art work in two equal parts but be positioned to emphasize either the sky or ground; showing more sky if painting is of clouds, sun rise/set, and more ground if a landscape
Use of detailed areas and 'rest' areas can help to aid the eye in where to look. Creating a contrast between detail and lack of detail is important
These principles can be means of a good composition yet they cannot be applied separately but should act together to form a good composition.
Also, in your work no spaces between the objects should be the same. They should vary in shape and size. That creates a much more interesting image.
Example[edit]
These paintings all show the same subject, the Raising of Lazarus, and essentially the same figures, but have very different compositions:
Duccio, 1310–11
Geertgen tot Sint Jans, 1480s
Guercino, c. 1619
Rembrandt, c. 1630
See also[edit]
Miksang (contemplative photography)
New Epoch Notation Painting (a notation system for painting)
Page layout (graphic design)
CLACL (a computer language for composition)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dunstan, Bernard. (1979). Composing Your Paintings. London, Studio Vista.
Further reading[edit]
Arnheim, Rudolf (1974). Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02613-1.
Downer, Marion (1947). Discovering Design. Lothrop Lee & Shepard. ISBN 0-688-41266-1.
Graham, Peter (2004). An Introduction to Painting Still Life. Chartwell Books Inc. ISBN 0-7858-1750-6.
Grill, Tom; Scanlon, Mark (1990). Photographic Composition. Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 0-8174-5427-6.
Peterson, Bryan (1988). Learning to See Creatively. Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 0-8174-4177-8.
Langford, Michael (1982). The Master Guide to Photography. New York: Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 0-394-50873-4.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Composition.
Percy Principles of Art and Composition, Goshen College Art Department
Using Detail and why it is important
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Land Rover Defender
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Land Rover Defender
2015 Land Rover Defender 90 (Australia)
Overview
Manufacturer
Land Rover (1983–2012)
Jaguar Land Rover (2013–2016)
Also called
Land Rover 90, Ninety, 110, One Ten, 127 (1983–90) & 130
Production
1983–2016
Assembly
Solihull plant, Solihull, United Kingdom
Kulim, Kedah, Malaysia
Body and chassis
Class
Off-road vehicle
Layout
Front engine, four-wheel drive
Chronology
Predecessor
Land Rover Series III
Successor
Defender (L663)
The Land Rover Defender (initially called the Land Rover Ninety and Land Rover One Ten) is a British four-wheel drive off-road vehicle developed in the 1980s from the original Land Rover Series which was launched at the Amsterdam Motor Show in April 1948. After a continuous run of 67 years [1] production finally ended on 29 January 2016 when the last Land Rover Defender, with the number plate H166 HUE, rolled off the production line.[2] A special edition Defender Works V8, with 400bhp, was announced in January 2018.[3] The next-generation model, codenamed L663, will be completely redesigned and come in two wheelbase sizes.[4][5]
Contents
1 Name and badge distinctions
2 Land Rover 90 and 110
2.1 The 127 (and 130)
2.2 Engine development
2.3 Sales turnaround
3 Defender
3.1 BMW M52 engine
3.2 Td5 engine
3.3 2007 model
3.4 2012 updates
4 Export and foreign-built versions
4.1 Defender in the US
4.2 Land Rover 110 in Australia
4.3 Defender licensees and clones
5 Special editions
5.1 Land Rover 90SV
5.2 Limited Edition (LE)
5.3 Defender 50th
5.4 Heritage
5.5 Tomb Raider
5.6 G4 Edition
5.7 Defender Black
5.8 Defender Silver
5.9 X-Tech
5.10 Defender SVX
5.11 Bespoke Paul Smith Defender
5.12 2018 Defender Works V8 70th Anniversary Edition
5.13 Other special editions
6 Military Defenders
6.1 British and other armies
6.2 Australian Army
7 Police and government vehicles
8 Land Rover DC100
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Name and badge distinctions[edit]
The coil sprung Land Rover was introduced in 1983 as "Land Rover One Ten", and in 1984 the "Land Rover Ninety" was added – the numbers representing the respective wheelbases in inches. (In fact the Ninety was nearer 93 inches at 92.9".) The number was spelled in full in advertising and in handbooks and manuals, and the vehicles also carried badges above the radiator grille which read "Land Rover 90" or "Land Rover 110", with the number rendered numerically. The Ninety and One Ten replaced the earlier Land Rover Series, and at the time of launch, the only other Land Rover model in production was the Range Rover.
In 1989, a third model was brought out by Land Rover to be produced in parallel with the other two: the Land Rover Discovery. To avoid possible confusion, the 1991 model year Ninety and the One Ten were renamed the "Defender 90" and "Defender 110". These carried front badges that said "Defender", with a badge on the rear of the vehicle saying "Defender 90" or "Defender 110". The most recent model, from 2007–2016, still featured the space above the radiator for the badge but was blank. Instead it had "Land Rover" spelled across the leading edge of the bonnet in raised individual letters, in keeping with the Discovery and Freelander. At the rear was a new style of '"Defender" badge with an underlining "swoosh". On these last models there are no badges defining the wheelbase model of the vehicle.
The 127-inch (3,226 mm) wheelbase Land Rover 127, available from 1985, was always marketed with the name rendered numerically. Following the adoption of the Defender name, it became the "Defender 130", although the wheelbase remained unchanged.
The North American Specification (NAS) Defender 110 sold for the 1993 model year carried a badge above the radiator grille which read "Defender", whereas the NAS Defender 90 sold for the 1994 to 1997 model years had "Land Rover" spelled across the top of the radiator grille in individual letter decals. NAS Defenders also carried a cast plaque on the rear tub in the original style of the Series Station wagons with "Defender 110" or "Defender 90" below the Land Rover lozenge and the vehicle's unique limited edition production run number.
Land Rover 90 and 110[edit]
Land Rover 90 Turbo Diesel
Ninety (90), One-Ten (110) and 127
Overview
Production
1983–1990
Body and chassis
Body style
3-door 4x4
5-door 4x4
2-door pickup
3-door van
Related
Land Rover Wolf
Santana PS-10
Powertrain
Engine
2.25 L 11H petrol I4 (1983–1985)
2.25 L 10J diesel I4 (1983)
2.5 L 11J/12J diesel I4 (1984–1993)
2.5 L 17H petrol I4 (1985–1993)
2.5 L Diesel Turbo turbodiesel I4 (1986–1990)
3.5 L Rover V8 petrol V8 (1983–1986)
3.5 L Rover V8 petrol V8 (1986–1993)
Transmission
4-speed LT95 manual
5-speed LT77 manual
5-speed LT85 manual
Dimensions
Wheelbase
92.9 in (2,360 mm) (90)
110 in (2,794 mm) (110)
127 in (3,226 mm) (127)
Length
160.5 in (4,077 mm) (90)
181.1 in (4,600 mm) (110)
Width
70.5 in (1,791 mm)
Height
80.2 in (2,037 mm) (90)
84 in (2,134 mm) (110)
Production of the model now known as the Defender began in 1983 as the Land Rover 110, a name which reflected the 110-inch (2,800 mm) length of the wheelbase. The Land Rover 90, with 93-inch (2,362 mm) wheelbase, and Land Rover 127, with 127-inch (3,226 mm) wheelbase, soon followed.[6]
Superficially there is little to distinguish the post-1983 vehicles from the Series III Land Rover. A full-length bonnet, revised grille, plus the fitting of wheel arch extensions to cover wider-track axles are the most noticeable changes. Initially the conservative engineering department insisted that the Land Rover was also available with a part-time 4WD system familiar to derivatives produced since 1949. However the part-time system failed to sell and was quickly dropped from the options list by 1984. While the engine and other body panels carried over from the Series III, mechanically the 90 and 110 were modernized, including:
Coil springs, offering a more comfortable ride and improved axle articulation
A permanent four-wheel-drive system derived from the Range Rover, featuring a two-speed transfer gearbox with a lockable centre differential
A modernised interior
A taller one-piece windscreen
A new series of progressively more powerful and modern engines
The 110 was launched in 1983, and the 90 followed in 1984. From 1984, wind-up windows were fitted (Series models and very early 110s had sliding panels), and a 2.5-litre (153 cu in), 68 horsepower (51 kW) diesel engine was introduced. This was based on the earlier 2.3-litre (140 cu in) engine, but had a more modern fuel-injection system as well as increased capacity. A low compression version of the 3.5-litre (214 cu in) V8 Range Rover engine transformed performance. It was initially available in the 110 with a Range Rover LT95 four-speed transmission with integral transfer case and vacuum operated differential lock, then later in conjunction with a high strength "Santana" five-speed transmission.[7]
This period saw Land Rover market the utility Land Rover as a private recreational vehicle. While the basic pick-up, 4x4 and van versions were still working vehicles, the County 4x4s were sold as multi-purpose family vehicles, featuring improved interior trim and more comfortable seats. This change was reflected in Land Rover starting what had long been common practice in the car industry — detail changes and improvements to the County model from year to year in order to attract new buyers and to encourage existing owners to trade in for a new vehicle. These changes included different exterior styling graphics and colour options, and the introduction of new options, such as radio-cassette players, Rostyle wheels, headlamp wash and wipe systems, as well as accessories such as surfboard carriers and bike racks. The switch from leaf spring to coil spring suspension was a key part of the new model's success. It offered improved off-road ability, load capacity, handling, and ride comfort.
The 127 (and 130)[edit]
Fully equipped Land Rover Defender 130 Td4
127" chassis with double cab and bimobil camper module
From 1983, Land Rover introduced a third wheelbase to its utility line-up, a 127-inch (3,226 mm) wheelbase vehicle designed to accommodate larger, heavier loads than the 110. Called the "Land Rover 127", it was designed specifically with use by utility and electrical companies in mind, as well as military usage.[6] In its standard form, it is a four-door six-seater consisting of the front half of a 110 4x4, and the rear of a 110 high-capacity pick up (HCPU). Logic was that this allowed a workcrew and their equipment to be carried in one vehicle at the same time. The 127 could carry up to a 1.4 tonnes (1.4 long tons; 1.5 short tons) payload, compared to the 1.03 tonnes (1.01 long tons; 1.14 short tons) payload of the 110 and the 0.6 tonnes (0.59 long tons; 0.66 short tons) of the 90.
Land Rover 127s were built on a special production line, and all started life as 110 4x4 chassis (the model was initially marketed as the 110 crew cab, before the more logical 127 name was adopted). These were then cut in two and the 17 inches (432 mm) of extra chassis length welded on before the two original halves were reunited. These models did not receive their own dedicated badging like the other two models, instead they used the same metal grille badges as used on the Series III 109 V8 models, that simply said "Land-Rover". Although the standard body-style was popular, the 127 was a common basis for conversion to specialist uses, such as mobile workshops, ambulances, fire engines and flatbed transports. In South Africa, the Land Rover assembly plant offered a 127 4x4 with seating for 15. Land Rover also offered the 127 as a bare chassis, with just front bodywork and bulkhead, for easy conversion.
Defender 130CC / Project Rhino
Initially held back by the low power of the Land Rover engines (other than the thirsty petrol V8 engine), the 127 benefited from the improvements to the line-up, and by 1990 was only available with the two highest power engines, the 134 hp (100 kW) 3.5-litre V8 petrol, and the 85 hp (63 kW) 2.5-litre turbo diesel .
Engine development[edit]
The original 110 of 1983 was available with the same engine line-up as the Series III vehicles it replaced, namely 2.25-litre (137 cu in) petrol and diesel engines, and a 3.5-litre (210 cu in) V8 petrol unit, although a small number of 3.2-litre (200 cu in) V8s were produced. In 1981 the 2.25 l engines were upgraded from three- to five-crankshaft bearings in preparation for the planned increases in capacity and power.
The 2.5-litre version of the diesel engine, displacing 2,495 cubic centimetres (152.3 cu in) and producing 68 hp (51 kW), was introduced in both the 110 and the newly arrived 90. This was a long-stroke version of the venerable 2.25-litre unit, fitted with updated fuel injection equipment and a revised cylinder head for quieter, smoother and more efficient running. A timing belt also replaced the older engine's chain.
In 1985 the petrol units were upgraded. An enlarged four-cylinder engine was introduced. This 83 hp (62 kW) engine shared the same block and cooling system (as well as other ancillary components) as the diesel unit. Unlike the diesel engine, this new 2.5-litre petrol engine retained the chain-driven camshaft of its 2.25-litre predecessor. At the same time, the 114 hp (85 kW) V8 was also made available in the 90- the first time a production short-wheelbase Land Rover had been given V8 power. The V8 on both models was now mated to an all-new five-speed LT85 manual gearbox.
The year 1986 saw improvements in engines to match the more advanced offerings by Japanese competitors. The "Diesel Turbo" engine was introduced in September, a lightly turbocharged version of the existing 2.5-litre diesel, with several changes to suit the higher power output, including a re-designed crankshaft, teflon-coated pistons and nimonic steel exhaust valves to cope with the higher internal temperatures.[6][8] Similarly, an eight-bladed cooling fan was fitted, together with an oil cooler. The changes for the turbo diesel were kept as slight as possible, in the aim of making the car saleable in Land Rover's traditional export markets across the globe.[9]
The 2.5 diesel, 2.5 petrol and Diesel Turbo engines all shared the same block castings and other components such as valve-gear and cooling system parts, allowing them to be built on the same production line. The Diesel Turbo produced 85 hp (63 kW), a 13% increase over the naturally aspirated unit, and a 31.5% increase in torque to 150 lb⋅ft (203 N⋅m) at 1800 rpm. Externally, turbo-diesel vehicles differed from other models only by having an air intake grille in the left-hand wing to supply cool air to the turbo. The engine was adopted as the standard engine for UK and European markets. Early turbo-diesel engines gained a reputation for poor reliability, with major failures to the bottom-end and cracked pistons. A revised block and improved big end bearings were introduced in 1988, and a re-designed breather system in 1989. These largely solved the engine's problems, but it remained (like many early turbo-diesels) prone to failure if maintenance was neglected.
At the same time that the Diesel Turbo was introduced the V8 engine was upgraded. Power was increased to 134 hp (100 kW), and SU carburettors replaced the Zenith models used on earlier V8s.
Sales turnaround[edit]
The new vehicles with their more modern engines, transmissions, and interiors reversed the huge decline in sales that took place in the 1980s (a 21% fall in a single year, 1980–1981). This growth was mainly in the domestic UK market and Europe. African, Australian and Middle-Eastern sales failed to recover significantly – Land Rover had not been immune to the poor reputation caused by poor build quality and unreliability which had afflicted the rest of British Leyland, of which Land Rover was still part. In these markets Japanese vehicles such as the Toyota Landcruiser and Nissan Patrol gradually took over what had been a lucrative export market for Land Rover for decades. Meanwhile, the company itself adopted more modern practices, such as using marketing campaigns to attract new buyers who would not previously have been expected to buy a Land Rover. The operation was streamlined, with most of the satellite factories in the West Midlands that built parts for the Land Rover being closed and production brought into the Solihull factory, which was expanded.
To maximise sales in Europe, Land Rover set up the Special Vehicles Division, which handled conversions, adaptations and limited production volume versions. The bulk of the division's work was the construction of stretched-wheelbase mobile workshops and crew carriers for British and European utility companies, often including six-wheel-drive conversions, but more unusual projects were undertaken, such as the construction of an amphibious Land Rover 90 used by the company as part of its sponsorship of Cowes Week from 1987 to 1990. The Special Projects Division also handled specialised military contracts, such as the building of a fleet of 127-inch (3,226 mm) V8-powered Rapier missile launchers for the British Army. The Rapier system actually consisted of three Land Rovers: a 127 which carried the launching and aiming equipment, and two 110s which carried the crew and additional equipment.
Land Rover 110 pickup
Diesel Turbo engine in a 1990 Land Rover Ninety
The amphibious 90 built in 1989 for the Cowes Week sponsorship events. The base vehicle is a standard Diesel Turbo soft top.
Defender[edit]
Land Rover Defender
Overview
Production
1990–2016[10]
Body and chassis
Body style
3-door 4x4
5-door 4x4
2-door single cab pickup
4-door double cab pickup
2-door hardtop
Related
Land Rover Wolf
Santana PS-10
Iveco Massif
MDT David
Powertrain
Engine
2.8 L BMW M52B28 petrol I6
3.9 L Rover V8 petrol V8
5.0 L Jaguar AJ-V8 petrol V8
2.2 L Ford Duratorq turbodiesel I4
2.4 L Ford Duratorq turbodiesel I4
2.5 L 200 Tdi turbodiesel I4
2.5 L 300 Tdi turbodiesel I4
2.5 L Td5 turbodiesel I5
Transmission
5-speed LT77 manual
5-speed R380 manual
4-speed ZF 4HP22 automatic
6-speed GFT MT-82 manual
Dimensions
Wheelbase
92.9 in (2,360 mm) (90)
110 in (2,794 mm) (110)
127 in (3,226 mm) (130)
Length
144 in (3,658 mm) (90 pickup)
153 in (3,886 mm) (2000s 90)
172 in (4,369 mm) (110 Pickup)
182.3 in (4,630 mm) (2000s 110)
183 in (4,648 mm) (110 Hardtop)
174.7 in (4,437 mm)
157.1 in (3,990 mm) (1997-2000s 90)
160.5 in (4,077 mm) (1990–94 90)
181.1 in (4,600 mm) (1990s 110)
204 in (5,182 mm) (130)
Width
70.5 in (1,791 mm) (1990s)
70 in (1,778 mm) (2000s 90)
Height
80 in (2,032 mm) (2000s 90)
80.2 in (2,037 mm) (1990s 90)
80.0 in (2,032 mm) (110)
The biggest change to the Land Rover came in late 1990, when it became the Land Rover Defender, instead of the Land Rover 90 or 110. This was because in 1989 the company had introduced the Discovery model, requiring the original Land Rover to acquire a name.[6] The Discovery also had a new turbodiesel engine, the 200TDi. This was also loosely based on the existing 2.5-litre turbo unit, and was built on the same production line, but had a modern alloy cylinder head, improved turbocharging, intercooling and direct injection. It retained the block, crankshaft, main bearings, cambelt system, and other ancillaries as the Diesel Turbo. The breather system included an oil separator filter to remove oil from the air in the system, thus finally solving the Diesel Turbo's main weakness of re-breathing its own sump oil. The 200Tdi, produced 107 hp (80 kW) and 195 lb⋅ft (264 N⋅m) of torque, which was nearly a 25% improvement on the engine it replaced (although as installed in the Defender the engine was de-tuned slightly from its original Discovery 111 hp (83 kW) specification due to changes associated with the turbo position and exhaust routing).[6]
This engine finally allowed the Defender to cruise comfortably at high speeds, as well as tow heavy loads speedily on hills while still being economical. In theory it only replaced the older Diesel Turbo engine in the range, with the other four-cylinder engines (and the V8 petrol engine) still being available. However, the Tdi's combination of performance and economy meant that it took the vast majority of sales. Exceptions were the British Army and some commercial operators, who continued to buy vehicles with the 2.5-litre naturally aspirated diesel engine (in the army's case, this was because the Tdi was unable to be fitted with a 24 volt generator). Small numbers of V8-engined Defenders were sold to users in countries with low fuel costs or who required as much power as possible (such as in Defenders used as fire engines and ambulances).
Along with the 200Tdi engine, the 127's name was changed to the "Land Rover Defender 130". The wheelbase remained the same; the new figure was simply a tidying up exercise. More importantly, 130s were no longer built from "cut-and-shut" 110s, but had dedicated chassis built from scratch. The chassis retained the same basic structure as the 90 and 110 models, but with a longer wheelbase.
1994 saw another development of the Tdi engine, the 300Tdi. Although the 200Tdi had been a big step forward, it had been essentially a reworking of the old turbocharged diesel to accept a direct injection system. In contrast the 300Tdi was virtually new, despite the same capacity, and both the Defender and the Discovery had engines in the same state of tune, 111 bhp (83 kW), 195 lbf⋅ft (264 N⋅m).[6]
Throughout the 1990s the vehicle attempted to climb more and more upmarket, while remaining true to its working roots. This trend was epitomised by limited-edition vehicles, such as the SV90 in 1992 with roll-over protection cage, alloy wheels and metallic paint and the 50th anniversary 90 in 1998, equipped with automatic transmission, air conditioning and Range Rover 4.0-litre V8 engine.
A new variant was the Defender 110 double cab, featuring a 4x4-style seating area, with an open pick up back. Although prototypes had been built in the Series days, it was not until the late 1990s that this vehicle finally reached production.
BMW M52 engine[edit]
Land Rover South Africa offered a unique Defender during the period the group was owned by BMW. Between 1997 and 2001, the Defender 90 and 110 were offered with a BMW petrol engine alongside the normal Tdi engine.[11] The engine was the BMW M52 2793 cc, straight-six, 24-valve engine as found in the BMW 328i, 528i, 728i, and the Z3.[11] Power and torque output for this engine was 143 kW (192 hp) @ 5300 rpm and 280 N⋅m (207 lb⋅ft) @ 3950 rpm.[12] This option was offered due to a demand for a petrol-driven alternative to the diesel engine after production of the V8 Defender had ended. The vehicles were built at Rosslyn outside Pretoria.[13] Total production for the 2.8i was 1395, which included 656 Defender 90s and 739 Defender 110s.[14] This is an estimate based on sales figures from the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers of South Africa (NAAMSA). Early models were not speed-restricted, but later models were limited to 160 km/h.[11]
The South African Defender BMW-engined 2.8i (1997–2001)
According to Land Rover South Africa, "After the ground breaking amalgamation of the Rover Group with BMW internationally, the Defender 2.8i became the priority project of the two companies in February 1996 with the approval of both Land Rover UK and BMW AG. It is the first joint development since Land Rover South Africa was formed in January 1995."[13] Some of BMW's top engineers including Frank Isenberg, head of BMW Driver Training and the F87 M2 project, were part of the development team.[15] The project was initially top secret and in 2 to 3 weeks' time they had converted a Defender 110 that originally had a 3.5 litre V8 into the first 2.8i.[15]
To adapt the BMW M52 engine to the Defender chassis, the engineers were able to utilize some of the parts from the recently developed BMW M51 diesel powered Range Rover 2.5 DSE. They used the clutch housing, clutch, flywheel, and slave cylinder from that vehicle to connect the engine to the R380 gearbox, but they had to produce a new clutch housing adaptor (bell housing) for the petrol M52 engine in the Defender. The unique clutch housing adaptor was necessary because the petrol M52 engine is tilted 10 degrees compared to the diesel M51 engine and it needed to be longer to match the input shaft of the R380 gearbox borrowed from the 300Tdi Defender. Due to the large diameter gearbox input shaft, the standard BMW pilot bearing could not be fitted, so a unique pilot bushing made of Oilite bronze was developed. It had an inside diameter of 7/8 inch with an outside diameter of 32 mm. A mixture of non-metric and metric specifications are common on Land Rovers. Other unique parts that were developed for the 2.8i were the air intake ducts both before and after the Donaldson FPG RadialSeal™ air cleaner,[16] engine mounts, radiator cowl, cooling hoses, fuel lines, clutch lines, air conditioning system, engine wiring, tachometer gauge, exhaust system, and a specially tuned Siemens MS41.0 DME with a Lucas 10AS alarm in place of the Drive Away Protection system (EWS) used on BMWs.[17] Because the M52 generates the most power in the middle and upper ranges of its power band, engineers fitted the 2.8i with a 1.667:1 gear ratio LT230 transfer box. The readily available power made the vehicle particularly well suited for traversing a wide range of grueling terrain such as sand dunes.[18] The high gear ratio also helped the 2.8i sprint from 0–100 km/h in 9.3 seconds, making it the fastest production Defender ever made.[19]
To make the vehicle ready for production, prototypes were subjected to extensive testing.[15] According to Land Rover South Africa, "The development of the Defender 2.8 i engine included high speed testing, off roading, wading, high impact durability, trailer towing, hot and cold climate testing, high altitude and sea level tests as well as intensive component testing, both in South Africa and in the United Kingdom. No less than six vehicles underwent more than 500 000 kms [sic] of on and off road testing.”[13] The new BMW M52 Defender performed better than the V8 Defender it replaced in nearly every test.[20]
At least three of the original six 2.8i prototype vehicles were an NAS 1995 Defender 90 soft top that had been built right hand drive and received the BMW M52 engine in place of the 3.9-litre V8.[20] One of those prototypes, the very first 90 2.8i which was painted Coniston Green and nicknamed "Green Mamba" by BMW engineers,[15] was sold to a private individual in South Africa, while the other two were sent back to the UK for additional tests.[20]
There were some major changes made to the 2.8i for the 2000 model year. It received a variety of updates including new instrumentation with new gauges with improved illumination and switches, an updated chassis, and new electrical systems similar to the Td5. It also received an updated cooling system with an aluminum radiator to help solve overheating issues experienced with the older brass radiator[21], and an updated fuel system consisting of nylon fuel lines in favour of steel lines that have a tendency to rust, as well as a new fuel tank, pump, and filter with quick-connect fittings.[17]
Land Rover South Africa also built 26 50th Anniversary edition 90s featuring the BMW M52 engine. The vehicles were painted Santorini Blue with special decal graphics on the sides. They also featured "colour-coded wheel arch mouldings, spot lamps, spare wheel carrier, free style alloy wheels, stainless steel A-frame Bullbar, two-tone solid paint, Willards welding and side runners" as well as "leather seats, radio and CD player, leather steering wheel and gear lever as well as a cooler box." Each were randomly numbered between 1 and 50, as 24 50th Anniversary edition 110s were also built, but with a diesel engine. The special 110 was called "Safari" and was painted in a limestone green colour. It featured everything included on the 50th Anniversary 90 with addition of "a roof rack and step ladder, as well as a wrap-around Bullbar in place of the A-frame" and "special cloth seats are used in favour of the leather ones. It is also fitted with a GPS (Pathfinder system)."[22][23]
Td5 engine[edit]
In 1998, the Defender was fitted with an all-new 2.5-litre, five-cylinder in-line turbodiesel engine, badged the Td5. The Tdi could not meet upcoming Euro III emissions regulations so the Td5 replaced the Tdi as the only available power unit. The engine used electronic control systems and produced 122 hp (91 kW) @ 4850 rpm, 11 hp (8 kW) more than the Tdi, with improved refinement. Traditionalists were critical of the electronic systems deployed throughout the vehicle, but concerns that these would fail when used in extreme conditions proved unfounded.[6]
For the 2002 model year, further refinements were made to the Td5 engine to help it achieve ever-more stringent emission regulations. The "XS" 4x4 was introduced in 2002 as a top-specification level and the "County" package could be applied to every model in the line-up. XS models come with many "luxury" features, such as heated windscreen, heated seats, air conditioning, ABS and traction control and part-leather seats. At the same time other detail improvements were made including a dash centre console, improved instrument illumination and the availability of front electric windows for the first time on a Defender. The design faults of the two-piece rear 4x4 door were finally eradicated with a one-piece door featuring a rubber weather sealing strip for the rear window.
2007 model[edit]
2009 Defender 110 pickup
From Spring 2007 a series of changes were made to the Defender, most of which were implemented to meet emissions and safety legislation. The biggest change was to the drivetrain. The Td5 engine was replaced by an engine from Ford's DuraTorq line (AKA the Puma engine), built in their factory in Dagenham, making the Td5 the last Land Rover engine to be built in-house at Solihull. The engine chosen was from the ZSD family, being a version of the 2.4-litre four-cylinder unit also used in the highly successful Ford Transit. The engine's lubrication and sealing system was adapted for use in wet, dusty conditions and to maintain lubrication at extreme angles in off-road use. The power level remains the same at 122 hp (91 kW), but with a lower power peak speed for towing and better acceleration. Torque output rose from 221 lb⋅ft (300 N⋅m) to 265 lb⋅ft (359 N⋅m) due to the fitting of a variable-geometry turbocharger. This produces a wider spread of torque than the Td5, from 1500 rpm to 2000 rpm. The engine is mated to a new six-speed gearbox. First gear is lower than the previous gearbox for better low-speed control, whilst the higher sixth gear is intended to reduce noise and fuel consumption at high speeds.
The other major changes were to the interior. The dashboard layout of the original 110 from 1983 (which was in turn very similar to that used on the Series III from 1971) was replaced with a full-width fascia and different instrumentation. Instruments came from the Discovery 3, and some of the centre panels come from the Ford Transit. Whilst some interior fittings from the British Leyland parts bin – some of which dated back to the 1970s – were finally dropped, the steering column switchgear (sourced from the Mk.1 Austin Metro) and the ignition switch (from the Morris Marina) was carried over from the previous interior. A new heater and ventilation system improved de-misting and heater performance.
Other interior changes were to the seating layout. Legislation from the European Union outlaws the inward-facing seats used in the rear of previous Land Rover 4x4s. The 2007 Defender replaced the four inward-facing seats with two forward-facing seats. This made the Defender 90 4x4 a four-seater vehicle (reduced from six or seven), and the Defender 110 4x4 a seven-seater (reduced from nine). This brought the Defender in line with its competitors which have generally used this layout for many years. A new bodystyle was introduced on the 110 4x4 chassis- the "utility". This was a five-door 4x4 body but with the rearmost seats removed and the rear side panels left without windows, producing a five-seater vehicle with a secure, weatherproof load space.
The only external design alterations were minor detail changes. The bonnet was reshaped with a pressed bulge to allow the new, taller engine to fit in the engine bay whilst meeting pedestrian safety rules. This also avoided the need to re-design the engine sump to clear the axle. The new dashboard and ventilation system necessitated the removal of the distinctive air vent flaps underneath the windscreen which had been a feature of previous Land Rover utility models since the 1950s. While the flaps were deleted, the bulkhead pressing remained the same, so the outlines of where the flaps would be are still present. Passenger and Rear Loading doors were re-engineered to reduce corrosion and galvanic reaction. All other panels retained the same shape and styling that is viewed by enthusiasts as "iconic".[24]
At the other extreme, basic models are available for commercial users, such as emergency services. The models are sold in over 140 countries. A range of special conversions are available that include hydraulic platforms, fire engines, mobile workshops, ambulances, and breakdown recovery trucks. The 130 remains available with the five-seater HCPU bodystyle as standard.
2012 updates[edit]
2016 Defender 110 Station wagon
In August 2011, Land Rover announced an update of the Defender for the 2012 model year. By this time, Land Rover publicly acknowledged that it was working on a project to produce an all-new replacement for the Defender. This would lead to the unveiling of the first DC100 concept vehicle in September that year. While emissions and safety regulations have threatened the Defender since the early 2000s, these had either been avoided or Land Rover had found ways to modify the vehicle to economically meet the new requirements. However, safety regulations due for introduction in 2015 requiring minimum pedestrian safety standards and the fitment of airbags to commercial vehicles cannot be met without a wholesale redesign of the Defender.
The main change for the 2012 models was the installation of a different engine from the Ford Duratorq engine range. Ford decided, due to cost reasons, not to modify the 2.4-litre engine introduced in 2007 to meet the upcoming Euro V emissions standards and so the engine was replaced with the ZSD-422 engine, essentially a 2.2-litre variant of the same engine. Although smaller than the existing unit the power and torque outputs remained unchanged and the same six-speed gearbox was used as well.[25] The engine included a diesel particulate filter for the first time on a Defender. The only other change was the reintroduction of the soft top body style to the general market. This had been a popular option for the Land Rover Series but by the introduction of the Defender had been relegated to special order and military buyers only. Land Rover stated that the option was being brought back due to customer feedback.[25] The last Defender, a soft-top "90" rolled off the Solihull production line at 9:22 on Friday 29 January 2016. The BBC reports that the Defender's replacement is due to be launched in 2018/2019.[26]
Export and foreign-built versions[edit]
Defender in the US[edit]
1993 NAS Defender 110
In 1993 Land Rover launched the Defender in the North American (i.e. the United States and Canada) market. Although the Range Rover had been sold there since 1987, this was the first time utility Land Rovers had been sold since 1974. To comply with the strict United States Department of Transportation regulations, ranging from crash safety to lighting, as well as the very different requirements of American buyers, the North American Specification (NAS) Defenders were extensively modified. The initial export batch was 525 Defender 110 County 4x4s: 500 to the United States and 25 to Canada. They were fitted with the 3.9-litre V8 petrol engine, LT-77 five-speed manual transmission and LT230 transfer case. All of the vehicles were "Alpine" white (except one specifically painted black for Ralph Lauren). They sported full external roll-cages and larger side-indicator and tail-lights. All were equipped with the factory-fitted air conditioning system.
NAS Defender 90 soft-top
For the 1994 and 1995 model year Land Rover only offered the Defender 90, fitted with a 3.9-litre V8 engine and the R-380 manual transmission which was clearly intended as an upmarket alternative to the Jeep Wrangler. Initially, the Defender 90 was only available as a soft-top with structural roll cage, but later version was offered with a unique, removable, fibre-glass roof panel or regular 4x4 hard-top designated as the station wagon model.
In 1997, the final year of US Defender 90 production, the engine was improved, designated 4.0 and mated to a four-speed automatic transmission. In 1998, regulations changed to require the fitting of airbags for both front seat passengers in all vehicles, as well as side door impact requirements. The Defender could not be fitted with these without major modifications, which given the small numbers of NAS vehicles sold in relation to Land Rover's global sales, were not economically viable. Land Rover retired its North American Specification utility vehicles at the end of 1997 to focus on its more profitable, popular and upmarket Discovery and Range Rover models, as well as the then newly launched Freelander. The next Defender may be sold in the US and Canadian markets in 2019.
Land Rover 110 in Australia[edit]
Continuing on from production of the Australian SIII Stage 1 Isuzu 4BD1 diesel variant, Jaguar Rover Australia (JRA) developed an Isuzu 4BD1 (See List of Isuzu engines ) diesel powered 110 for sale as an Australia Only consumer product.
Between 1981 and 1990, the Isuzu 4BD1 engine was the only diesel option available for Land Rover in Australia. All 110 cab chassis Defenders sold in Australia during this time had a wheelbase of 120 inches in order to accommodate an 8 ft x 6 ft tray. A small number of 6x6 cab chassis Defenders were also made by JRA during this time. While the Land Rover has been in use in the Australian military from 1959, as a consumer product from the 1970s, it fell out of favour as a 4x4 work vehicle while offerings from Toyota and Nissan increased in popularity. Mid-2009, Land Rover expanded the model range to include 110 and 130 cab-chassis, panel van and HCPU versions, and late in the year announced the re-introduction of the 90 4x4 model for sale from early 2010.
Defender licensees and clones[edit]
Defenders, derivatives and clones have been built by a number of manufacturers including Santana Motors in Spain (modified Land Rover clones made from 1958 until the licence expired in 1983; Land Rover derivatives were then developed from 1984–1995), Morattab in Iran (using parts and moulds bought from Santana, Manufactures it as Pazhan using Mitsubishi/Hyundai V6 engine), Otokar in Turkey (beginning in 1987 and continued until the original production ended), and Karmann in Brazil (from 1999–2006, using Land Rover CKD kits).[27]
Assembly also occurs in Pakistan, Malaysia and South Africa.
Special editions[edit]
Land Rover 90SV[edit]
In 1992 the first special edition Land Rover Defender was produced. Called the 90SV (SV stands for "special vehicles", as all the vehicles were produced by Land Rover's Special Vehicle Operations department), they were painted turquoise and were fitted with a black canvas soft top with standard door tops. Alloy wheels were also fitted, together with rear disc brakes (a first for a Land Rover). Despite the vehicle's sporty looks, it used the standard 200Tdi turbodiesel engine. Only 90 were made for the UK market.
Limited Edition (LE)[edit]
In 1997, the last year that Defender 90’s were made available in the US, Land Rover created 300 Special Edition Station Wagons. Known as the Limited Edition (LE) these Land Rover Defender 90’s were painted with a unique one year color known as Willow Green with a contrasting white accented roof; they were also fitted with body protection in the form of 5 large diamond plated sheets and an external safety cage with a full roof rack. The 1997 Land Rover Defender 90 LE also came with the following options as standard equipment: Air conditioning, rear ladder, rear step, twin tube running boards with diamond plate trim, front A bar and a limited edition placard which was affixed to the rear of the car that denoted its build number out of 300.
Defender 50th[edit]
50th anniversary Defender
For Land Rover's 50th anniversary in 1998 two special editions were built. The first was the Defender 50th which was essentially a NAS (North American spec) Defender 90. It was powered by a 190 hp (140 kW) 4.0-litre V8 petrol engine and was the first Land Rover outside North America to be fitted with an automatic transmission. Air conditioning made them very comfortable vehicles. For the UK and Europe they were painted Atlantis blue, a dark green-blue flip-flop colour, and had a safety devices roll-over protection cage for the front seat occupants. In total 1071 50th anniversary Defenders were built; 385 for the UK home market, the rest for Japan, Europe and the Middle East.
Heritage[edit]
The second 1998 special edition was the "Heritage", intended to hark back to the early days of Land Rover in the 1940s. Available in 90 or 110 variants, the Heritage was only available in the two original colours offered by the company — the dark bronze green and the light pastel Atlantic green. A metal mesh-effect front grille, body-coloured alloy wheels and wing mirrors and silver-painted door and windscreen hinges were all employed to make the Heritage look similar to the original Series I of 1948. Inside, special instruments were used, with black-on-beige displays. The powertrain was the standard Td5 diesel engine and 5 speed manual transmission.
Tomb Raider[edit]
Tomb Raider 90 special edition
Possibly the best known special edition was the "Tomb Raider" of 2000, built to commemorate Land Rover's role in the first film of that franchise. The Tomb Raider was designed to look like an off-road expedition vehicle. Painted dark metallic grey with special badging and details, the Tomb Raider came equipped with a roof rack and roof rack support system (looking similar to a roll-cage), additional spot lights, winch, bull-bar and raised air-intake. They were available either as a 90 or a 110 double cab, with standard Td5 engines. The Defender actually used in the film (now on display at the Motor Heritage Centre, Gaydon) was a highly modified 110 HCPU with a specially fitted and tuned V8 petrol engine and a non-standard interior.
G4 Edition[edit]
Following the first Land Rover G4 Challenge in 2003, G4-Edition Defenders became available. As well as the distinctive Tangiers orange colour of the competition vehicles, yellow and black versions were also produced. Defender 90 and 110 4x4 versions were available, with front A-bar, roll-cage, side-steps and front spotlights as standard, as well as G4 badging.
Defender Black[edit]
Since then, Land Rover have produced less extravagant special editions. The Defender Black was a 90 or 110 County 4x4 with metallic black paint, leather seats, air con, roll cage and dark-tinted rear windows.
Defender Silver[edit]
One of the most exciting off-road vehicles ever produced, Defender Silver is equipped with stylish and purposeful extras, inside and out, and was available in three distinct versions – TD5, 90 and 110 Station Wagon and 110 Double Cab Pickup. Designed to be tough. Very tough. It was designed to cope with the roughest off-road terrain. That's why every Defender Silver was fitted with an A-frame protection bar which, while undoubtedly enhancing its rugged looks, offered additional protection to the front of the vehicle. Lamp guards were fitted front and rear, and a tow pack incorporating an electrics kit not only to power trailer lights, but also additional equipment. The underside was further shielded from harm by the sump guard and air-con and ABS/TC were available as options. The vehicles came of the production line and were then modified by SVO – Special Vehicle Operations. They are comparatively rare, especially the Double Cab Pick Up with its opinion splitting Fiberglass TruckMan Top.[28].
X-Tech[edit]
The 1999 X-Tech was aimed at the commercial market, being a metallic silver 90 hard top fitted with County-style seats, alloy wheels and Alpine window lights. The second model year edition in 2003 was better equipped with wing protector plates and air conditioning.
Defender SVX[edit]
Defender SVX
Defender SVX 110 with portal axles
2008 saw Land Rover's 60th anniversary, for which a new series of special edition Defenders were produced. Branded the "SVX", three models were built. All were painted black with "satin" effect body graphics on the vehicles sides and bonnet carrying the "60th" logo used throughout 2008 at various special events and on anniversary merchandise. Bespoke five-spoke alloy wheels were used and a new silver-coloured front grille design was used. This also incorporated a new design of headlamp with the sidelight lamp being integral with the main headlamp unit, allowing the space previously used for the separate sidelight to be used to fit a pair of high-intensity driving lamps. Inside the SVX models gained Recaro bucket seats in the front row, alloy gearlever knobs and a Garmin GPS navigation system. The drivetrain was the standard 2.4-litre diesel and six-speed manual permanent four-wheel-drive transmission. The SVX edition was available as a 110 (only available outside the UK), a 90 and a brand-new design of 90 soft top- the first time a soft top model had been available through showrooms in the UK since 1992. SVX soft tops had only the two front seats- the rear load bay being used to accommodate the spare wheel and a lockable storage box. A new design of hood was used, sloping down towards the rear over a jointed folding frame, unlike the standard square-framed hood used on other soft top Land Rovers.
Bespoke Paul Smith Defender[edit]
To mark the end of production, Land Rover asked British fashion designer Paul Smith to produce a one-off version of the Defender, which was launched in May 2015. The car's exterior featured 27 different colours on the exterior inspired by the Defender’s long life in service with the Army, Navy and Air Force as well as fire, coastguard and mountain rescue roles but also by the colours of the British countryside where Defenders have long since become part of the landscape.[29]
2018 Defender Works V8 70th Anniversary Edition[edit]
In January 2018 Land Rover unveiled the Defender Works V8 as part of the Defender's 70th Anniversary. The 150 examples feature a naturally-aspirated 5.0-litre Jaguar AJ-V8 engine producing 405 PS and 515 Nm, mated to an 8-speed ZF 8HP automatic gearbox. Land Rover additionally fitted new springs, dampers and anti-roll bars and uprated brakes along with 18" alloy wheels and all-terrain tyres.[30] The 70th Anniversary Defenders were "restomods" produced by Land Rover Classic division and not a new production model. They were late-model, pre-registered Defenders that were carefully selected based on age, mileage, and condition. They were built in both 90 and 110 wheelbases, with a starting price of £150,000.[30]
Other special editions[edit]
There have also been various special editions of the Defender created by the company's overseas operations for sale in their specific markets such as the "Sahara" edition and 55th anniversary Defender 90s sold in France – the former being a basic-spec model painted in a sand-like tan colour and supplied with special decals and the latter being a 4x4 fitted with numerous luxury options and special badges in the mould of the factory-built 50th editions. Sometimes individual Land Rover dealers have created limited editions of vehicles to suit their markets. A dealer in Scotland created the "Braemar" edition of 25 vehicles to appeal to local agricultural and forestry buyers, being a 90 hard top supplied ready fitted with a winch, off-road tyres, spotlamps and worklamps, underbody protection and chequer plate.
Military Defenders[edit]
British and other armies[edit]
Defender 110 patrol vehicles 'Wolf'
Remote-control "Panama" Defender with ground-penetrating radar to find IEDs for the British Army
Land Rover Defender vehicles have been used by many of the world's military forces, including the US in some limited capacity, following experience with the vehicle during the first Gulf War, where US forces found the British Army's vehicles to be more capable and better suited to operation in urban areas and for air-lifting than the Humvee. (See U.S. Army Ranger Special Operations Vehicle.) The British Army has used Land Rovers since the 1950s, as have many countries in the Commonwealth of Nations. The British Army replaced its Series III fleet with One Tens in 1985, with a smaller fleet of Nineties following in 1986. Both used the 2.5-litre naturally aspirated diesel engine. These older vehicles are reaching the end of their service lives, with many being sold onto the civilian market from the late 1990s.
In 1994 Land Rover created the Defender XD (XD= extra duty) to replace and complement these vehicles. Powered by 300Tdi engines, the XD has a much stronger chassis, with fibre webbing around the welded joints in the chassis and around stress points to massively increase load capacity. The XD was available both in Defender 90 and 110 forms and is known to the British Army as the Land Rover Wolf. Usually 110-inch (2,794 mm) soft or hard tops, they are used for patrol, communications and supply duties. 90XDs are less common, but are generally ordered as soft top or hard top vehicles for light liaison and communications. Short-wheelbase vehicles lack the load capacity needed by modern armies, and the increased power of heavy-lift helicopters has made the larger 110s easily air-transportable- a historic advantage of the smaller, lighter 90.
Land Rover offered its "core" military Defenders with the 300Tdi engine rather than the more powerful but more complicated Td5 engine offered in civilian vehicles. The 300 Tdi Defender went into service in the "Green Fleet" from 1998. Before the 300Tdi engine was introduced, military Land Rovers were offered with 2.5-litre petrol and diesel engines, as well as the 3.5-litre V8 petrol. Trials with the Td5 engine proved it to be reliable in battlefield conditions. However, initially it was decided that servicing and repairing its electronic control systems should they fail was too complicated and reliant on having diagnostic computers available. Land Rover were also unable to guarantee they could make the Td5 resistant to the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) generated by a nuclear weapon.
However, following successful trials by the Australian Defence Force of the TD5 Landrover, the British MOD purchased a small fleet of TD5 Landrover Defender 110s for its "Green Fleet" between 2000 and 2002. These were specially converted for the MOD by Landrover Specialist Vehicles. They were plated with UK military registration plates and painted IRR green. Most of these vehicles were deployed in the Falklands as troop carriers and communications vehicles for use by the Royal Marines and UK Special Forces. A small number of TD5 Defender 110s were also ordered for the Royal Navy. These were painted navy blue and deployed to the Falklands. Of these Royal Navy vehicles a few were later re-painted IRR green and reassigned to Royal Marines and SBS use. The more powerful TD5 engine, which was capable of being re-mapped up to around 200 Bhp was ideally suited to the rugged terrain of the Falklands and for towing trailers. The majority of these Falkland vehicles were sold off to Military Motors Ltd by the MOD in 2013. The troop carriers had eight passenger seats in the rear and two rear side windows each side for extra visibility. Visually, these UK military troop carrier TD5 Defenders looked similar to the ones used by the Australian Defence Force except that the UK ones were plain IRR green.
The Albanian Land Force also possesses a large fleet of Land Rover Defenders, a quantity of them were gifted by the Turkish and Italian armies and the rest of the fleet were bought.
With 300Tdi production stopping in 2006, Land Rover set up production of a military version of the four-cylinder Ford Duratorq engine that is also used as a replacement for the Td5 in civilian vehicles.
The British Army's Land Rovers have been the subject of criticism following recent operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The majority of British Service Land Rovers carry no armour-plating and the composite armoured SNATCH Land Rover (originally designed to withstand small arms fire and hand-launched projectiles as experienced in Northern Ireland) is not immune to the larger roadside bomb and rocket attacks. Some have called for British troops to be equipped with Humvees, or other such vehicles. However, similar criticisms have been levelled at the American vehicle. Other proposals include the South African made RG-31 or similar larger and more heavily armoured trucks or armoured vehicles that provide greater protection.
There have been many rumours about a replacement vehicle type. This is most likely the larger, higher-capacity 4x4 or 6x6 Pinzgauer forward-control vehicle similar to the now disused Land Rover 101 forward control, given that the current Land Rover design is also reaching its weight limits due to the increasing amounts of communications and weapons gear used by modern patrol forces. The OVIK Crossway CROSSWAY vehicle has also been mooted as a possible replacement with its 5.4 tonne capacity in 4x4 format and 7.5 tonne capacity in 6x6 format.
In 2012 the German company 4WARD4X4 started to develop monitoring shelters and transport flatbeds for the military Land Rover Defender 130 single cab.
Australian Army[edit]
Main article: Land Rover Perentie
1989 Ex-Australian Army Land Rover "Perentie" 110.
The Land Rover Perentie is the Land Rover 110 produced for the Australian Defence Force (ADF).
In the 1980s, using the Australia Only civilian 4BD1 powered 110 as a basis, Jaguar Rover Australia (JRA) developed a military version of the 4BD1 110 model for competitive trials against vehicles supplied by Chrysler JEEP, Mercedes and Toyota conducted by the Australian Army Testing Establishment. Land Rover was the successful candidate and the Australian Army ordered several thousand 110 Land Rovers in various configurations made to this specification, called the Land Rover Perentie, some of which were 6x6 drive. Six wheel drive Perenties were fitted with a turbocharged 3.9L Isuzu diesel engine (4BD1-T), while the 4x4 versions were powered by the naturally aspirated variant (4BD1). The Australian Army vehicles were assembled at the Jaguar Rover Australia (JRA) facility at Moorebank, NSW, from locally made components and other components from the UK and Japan.
Police and government vehicles[edit]
Sussex police Land Rover
The British police have used Land Rovers (including the Defender) in their service for many years, they are supplied with the entire range from Land Rover itself. Due to the ongoing terrorist threat and proliferation of public order disturbances, the Police Service of Northern Ireland has employed armoured and hardened versions of the Land Rover Defender for over 40 years in various guises. The current PSNI armoured public order vehicle is based upon a heavy duty Defender 110 chassis which starts life as a chassis cab and which is then stripped of the original body and fitted with upgraded suspension, brakes, and drive train. The bonnet, wings and roof are produced from armoured composite materials whilst the body is manufactured from a range of armoured steel and composite materials by OVIK Crossway[31] OVIK Special Vehicles Division and is known as the "Pangolin".[32]
In 2004 a fleet of 12 long wheelbase 110 Td5 Land Rovers were produced for the federal German government, varying between 110 vans, 110 HCPUs and 110 4x4s. The German government did not renew the supply contract after 2006, instead turning to Mercedes for their logistics fleet.
Vehicles produced for the German government order were produced in metallic grey with white roofs. The electrical installation on these vehicles was a special order and kept "luxury" fittings and fixtures to a bare minimum. Four FFR equipped vehicles were produced to facilitate the VHF radios in service at that time with the German government and police authorities. Following the change-over to the Mercedes contract, the federal German government sold their Td5 fleet.
Land Rover DC100[edit]
Main article: Land Rover DC100
Land Rover DC100
The need for total replacement of the Defender has been brought about by 2015's new European regulations regarding crash safety for pedestrians (Euro NCAP) that render the Defender's design obsolete[33] The Defender also did not meet U.S. safety requirements after 1997 and since then Land Rover offered U.S. buyers the more luxurious LR2 (Freelander) and LR4 (Discovery) and Range Rover instead.
Land Rover unveiled the DC100 and its topless counterpart, the DC100 Sport, at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show. The designs of the concept vehicles received some criticism in the press. The DC100 (Defender Concept 100") is a conventional three-door off-roader with a 2.0-litre turbo-charged diesel engine and the DC100 Sport is a two-passenger pick-up with a 2.0-litre petrol engine.[34] Unlike the current Defender with 93-inch, 110-inch and 130-inch wheelbases, the DC100 was presented in 100-inch wheelbase only.
The next-generation Land Rover Defender (L663) will bear little resemblance to the DC100.[35] It will built at the company's new plant at Nitra, Slovakia.[36]
See also[edit]
MDT David
Ranger Special Operations Vehicle
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Land Rover: The End of a Legend". The Daily Telegraph. 4 October 2013. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Land Rover UK PR [@LandRoverUKPR] (29 January 2016). "And here it is at 09.22 on 29th January, the last of the current Defenders comes off the production line @ Solihull" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover reveals 400bhp Defender Works V8". Top Gear.com. 17 January 2018. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Karr, Anthony (10 January 2018). "Cute Land Rover Test Mule Is Actually The New Defender". Motor1.com. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover's 2019 Defender: What to expect". December 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Dymock, Eric (2007). Land Rover File: All Models Since 1947. Dove. ISBN 0-9534142-8-0.
Jump up ^ Matthias, Pfannmuller; Schmidt, Boris (1998). Fifty Years of the Best 4x4xFar. Autovision. ISBN 3-9805832-0-1.
Jump up ^ Barden, Paul, ed. (December 1986). "Utility Test: Land Rover Turbo Diesel". Truck. London, UK: FF Publishing Ltd: 64.
Jump up ^ Truck, December 1986, p. 65
Jump up ^ Robinson, Jon (19 January 2018). "Limited edition Defender revealed to mark anniversary". Insider Media Limited. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Droppa, Denis (6 March 1997). "Landy lifted by BM boost". The Star.
Jump up ^ Land Rover South Africa. "2.8i Supplementary Hand Book". SA 4x4 Community. p. 10. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Land Rover Defender 2.8i takes the 4x4 market to a higher level". Land Rover South Africa. Archived from the original on 23 May 1998. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "More info on 2.8i Defender". SA 4x4 Community Forum. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Petrány, Máté; Isenberg, Frank (16 December 2016). "The BMW M2's Top Engineer Has this Amazing 'Red Mamba' Land Rover Defender". Road & Track. Hearst Communications, Inc. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "FPG & FPG Alexin™". Donaldson Filtration Solutions. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Land Rover / MG Rover Catalogue". Allbrit. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Cruywagen, Patrick (27 September 2016). "South African BMW 2.8 Defender". Land Rover Monthly. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover Defender 90 County 2.8i". Car. July 1998. pp. 95–98.
^ Jump up to: a b c "GreenLandy". GreenLandy. 25 January 2005. Archived from the original on 10 January 2008. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Defender 2.8 (wrong) cowling". SA 4x4 Community Forum. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
Jump up ^ "Limited Edition Defender Celebrates 50 Years of Success for Land Rover World-Wide". Land Rover South Africa. Archived from the original on 6 December 1998. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
Jump up ^ andyb (17 April 2008). "Diesel 50th". The Defender 50th Owners Club and Vehicle Register. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Updated: What Makes a Defender Iconic?". FunRover. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "New diesel engine powers the cleanest ever Defender for 2012". Land Rover. 12 August 2011. Archived from the original on 22 August 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover Defender production ends". BBC News. 3 June 2018. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Morattab and Otokar Landrovers". Guide to Land Rover. Archived from the original on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2009 – via Geocities.com.
Jump up ^ (c) Land Rover, 2005. Publication Number : LRML2198/05.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Michael (20 March 2015). "Dressing for retirement: Land Rover Defender's Paul Smith suit". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Land Rover revives the V8 Defender". Pistonheads. Haymarket. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Pangolin - Armoured Public Order Vehicle". Ovik Crossway. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Extreme Protection". Pangolin Armour. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Regulation (EC) No 78/2009". Official Journal of the European Union. 14 January 2009. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover DC100 Sport (2011) at Frankfurt motor show". Car. 13 September 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Razagui, Haitham (24 October 2012). "Next-gen Defender will not look like DC100 concept: Land Rover design boss". GoAuto. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Topham, Gwyn (11 June 2018). "Jaguar Land Rover to move UK production of Discovery to Slovakia". the Guardian.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Land Rover Defender.
Official US Defender website
Official MENA Defender website
Land Rover VIN codes on Wikibooks
Official Supplier German GOV. for Land Rover Defender accessories
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