text:
Skin appendage
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Skin appendages
Details
System
Integumentary system
Identifiers
Latin
adnexa cutis
TH
H3.12.00.3.00001
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Skin appendages (or adnexa) are skin-associated structures that serve a particular function including sensation, contractility, lubrication and heat loss. In humans, some of the more common skin appendages are hairs (sensation, heat loss, filter for breathing, protection), arrector pilli (smooth muscles that pull hairs straight), sebaceous glands (secrete sebum onto hair follicle, which oils the hair), sweat glands (can be sweat secreted with strong odour (apocrine) or with a faint odour (eccrine)) and nails (protection).
Skin appendages are derived from the skin, and are usually adjacent to it.[1]
Types of Appendages include hair, glands, and nails.
Glands[edit]
Sweat Glands are distributed all over the body except nipples and outer genitals. Although the nipples do have the mammary glands, these are known as modified sweat glands. Sebaceous Glands are typically found in the opening shaft of hair. They are not on the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet. These glands secrete an antibacterial moisture known as sebum fluid. The sebum also softens the hands. The secretion activity is related to hormonal release. If acne is occurring, it is because these gland ducts are blocked.
Eccrine (merocrine) glands are most common. The secretions are very watery that contain some electrolytes
Apocrine glands. This system produces a fatty secretion thus giving away an odorous smell. This is located in the inguinal and axillary regions of the body. It includes the mammary glands as well as the creaminess variants.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "European Hair Research Society - Abstract". Retrieved 2007-11-14.
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Skin and related structures
Skin
Epidermis
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale
Basement membrane
Basal keratinocyte
Lamina lucida
Lamina densa
Dermis
Papillary
Dermal papillae
Reticular
Subcutaneous tissue
Panniculus/Pannus (Panniculus adiposus
Panniculus carnosus)
Membranous layer
Loose connective tissue
Superficial fascia
Adnexa
Skin glands
Sweat glands: Apocrine sweat gland
Eccrine sweat gland
Sebaceous
Hair
Root sheath
Outer root sheath
Inner root sheath
Henle's layer
Huxley's layer
Hair shaft
Cuticle
Cortex
Medulla
Bulb with matrix cells
Hair follicle
Muscle
Arrector pili muscle
Pilosebaceous unit
Hair sebaceous gland
Nail
Nail matrix
Nail plate
Lunula
Eponychium
Paronychium
Hyponychium
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text:
Second messenger system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell to trigger physiological changes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, survival, and apoptosis. Secondary messengers are therefore one of the initiating components of intracellular signal transduction cascades. Examples of second messenger molecules include cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, inositol trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and calcium. The cell releases second messenger molecules in response to exposure to extracellular signaling molecules—the first messengers. First messengers are extracellular factors, often hormones or neurotransmitters, such as epinephrine, growth hormone, and serotonin. Because peptide hormones and neurotransmitters typically are biochemically hydrophilic molecules, these first messengers may not physically cross the phospholipid bilayer to initiate changes within the cell directly—unlike steroid hormones, which usually do. This functional limitation necessitates the cell to devise signal transduction mechanisms to transduce first messenger into second messengers, so that the extracellular signal may be propagated intracellularly. An important feature of the second messenger signaling system is that second messengers may be coupled downstream to multi-cyclic kinase cascades to greatly amplify the strength of the original first messenger signal.[1][2] For example, RasGTP signals link with the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) cascade to amplify the allosteric activation of proliferative transcription factors such as Myc and CREB.
Earl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr., discovered second messengers, for which he won the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Sutherland saw that epinephrine would stimulate the liver to convert glycogen to glucose (sugar) in liver cells, but epinephrine alone would not convert glycogen to glucose. He found that epinephrine had to trigger a second messenger, cyclic AMP, for the liver to convert glycogen to glucose.[3] The mechanisms were worked out in detail[4][5] by Martin Rodbell and Alfred G. Gilman, who won the 1994 Nobel Prize.
Secondary messenger systems can be synthesized and activated by enzymes, for example, the cyclases that synthesize cyclic nucleotides, or by opening of ion channels to allow influx of metal ions, for example Ca2+ signaling. These small molecules bind and activate protein kinases, ion channels, and other proteins, thus continuing the signaling cascade.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of second messenger molecules
2 Common mechanisms of second messenger systems
3 Examples
4 References
5 External links
Types of second messenger molecules[edit]
There are three basic types of secondary messenger molecules:
Hydrophobic molecules: water-insoluble molecules such as diacylglycerol, and phosphatidylinositols, which are membrane-associated and diffuse from the plasma membrane into the intermembrane space where they can reach and regulate membrane-associated effector proteins
Hydrophilic molecules: water-soluble molecules, such as cAMP, cGMP, IP3, and Ca2+, that are located within the cytosol
Gases: nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which can diffuse both through cytosol and across cellular membranes.
These intracellular messengers have some properties in common:
They can be synthesized/released and broken down again in specific reactions by enzymes or ion channels.
Some (such as Ca2+) can be stored in special organelles and quickly released when needed.
Their production/release and destruction can be localized, enabling the cell to limit space and time of signal activity.
Common mechanisms of second messenger systems[edit]
General Schematic of Second Messenger Mechanism
There are several different secondary messenger systems (cAMP system, phosphoinositol system, and arachidonic acid system), but they all are quite similar in overall mechanism, although the substances involved and overall effects can vary.
In most cases, a ligand binds to a membrane-spanning receptor protein molecule. The binding of a ligand to the receptor causes a conformation change in the receptor. This conformation change can affect the activity of the receptor and result in the production of active second messages.
In the case of G protein-coupled receptors, the conformation change exposes a binding site for a G-protein. The G-protein (named for the GDP and GTP molecules that bind to it) is bound to the inner membrane of the cell and consists of three subunits: alpha, beta and gamma. The G-protein is known as the "transducer."
When the G-protein binds with the receptor, it becomes able to exchange a GDP (guanosine diphosphate) molecule on its alpha subunit for a GTP (guanosine triphosphate) molecule. Once this exchange takes place, the alpha subunit of the G-protein transducer breaks free from the beta and gamma subunits, all parts remaining membrane-bound. The alpha subunit, now free to move along the inner membrane, eventually contacts another membrane-bound protein - the "primary effector."
The primary effector then has an action, which creates a signal that can diffuse within the cell. This signal is called the "second (or secondary) messenger." The secondary messenger may then activate a "secondary effector" whose effects depend on the particular secondary messenger system.
Calcium ions are one type of second messengers and are responsible for many important physiological functions including muscle contraction, fertilization and neurotransmitter release. The ions are normally bound or stored in intracellular components (such as the endoplasmic reticulum) and can be released during signal transduction. The enzyme phospholipase C produces diacylglycerol and inositol trisphosphate, which increases calcium ion permeability into the membrane. Active G-protein open up calcium channels to let calcium ions enter the plasma membrane. The other product of phospholipase C, diacylglycerol, activates protein kinase C, which assists in the activation of cAMP (another second messenger).
Examples[edit]
cAMP System Phosphoinositol system Arachidonic acid system cGMP System Tyrosine kinase system
First Messenger:
Neurotransmitters
(Receptor) Epinephrine (α2, β1, β2)
Acetylcholine (M2) Epinephrine (α1)
Acetylcholine (M1, M3) Histamine (Histamine receptor) - -
First Messenger:
Hormones ACTH, ANP, CRH, CT, FSH, Glucagon, hCG, LH, MSH, PTH, TSH AGT, GnRH, GHRH, Oxytocin, TRH - ANP, Nitric oxide INS, IGF, PDGF
Signal Transducer GPCR/Gs (β1, β2), Gi (α2, M2) GPCR/Gq Unknown G-protein - RTK
Primary effector Adenylyl cyclase Phospholipase C Phospholipase A guanylate cyclase RasGEF (Grb2-Sos)
Second messenger cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) IP3; DAG; Ca2+ Arachidonic acid cGMP Ras.GTP (Small G Protein)
Secondary effector protein kinase A PKC; CaM 5-Lipoxygenase, 12-Lipoxygenase, cycloxygenase protein kinase G MAP3K (c-Raf)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kimball, J. "Second messengers".
Jump up ^ Second Messenger Systems at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ Reece, Jane; Campbell, Neil (2002). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
Jump up ^ The Discovery of G Proteins
Jump up ^ Signal Transduction in Cells, Nobelprize.org
External links[edit]
Kimball, J. "Second messengers". Retrieved February 10, 2006.
Animation: Second Messenger: cAMP
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Cell signaling / Signal transduction
Signaling pathways
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Transcription preinitiation complex
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Intracrine action
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text:
Second Continental Congress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Second Continental Congress
Thirteen Colonies
United States
Type
Type
Unicameral
History
Established
May 10, 1775
Disbanded
March 1, 1781
Preceded by
First Continental Congress
Succeeded by
1st Confederation Congress
Leadership
President of Congress
Peyton Randolph (first)
Samuel Huntington (last)
Secretary
Charles Thomson
Structure
Seats
Variable; ~60
Authority
President of the Continental Congress
Meeting place
mainly at Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
from December 1776 to July 1778 various locations,
see below
Footnotes
There were about 50 members of the Congress at any given time, but it was the colonies themselves that had voting privileges so there were effectively only 13 seats.
The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting in the spring of 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774. The Second Congress managed the Colonial war effort and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States by raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties such as the Olive Branch Petition.[1]
The Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775, effectively reconvening the First Continental Congress. Many of the 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the same president (Peyton Randolph) and secretary (Charles Thomson).[2] Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses; he was replaced in the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. Henry Middleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined. Hancock was elected president on May 24.[3]
Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the Second Continental Congress convened. Georgia had not participated in the First Continental Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second. On May 13, 1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John's in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself.[4] On July 4, 1775, revolutionary Georgians held a Provincial Congress to decide how to respond to the American Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. They arrived on July 20.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Dates and places of sessions
3 See also
4 References
4.1 Bibliography
5 Further reading
6 External links
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is part of a series on the
United States
Continental Congress
Predecessors
Albany Congress 1754
Stamp Act Congress 1765
1st Continental Congress
Declaration and Resolves
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2nd Continental Congress
Olive Branch Petition
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The First Continental Congress had sent entreaties to King George III to stop the Coercive Acts; they had also created the Continental Association to establish a coordinated protest of those acts, putting a boycott on British goods. The Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775 to plan further responses if the British government had not repealed or modified the acts; however, the American Revolutionary War had already started by that time with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and the Congress was called upon to take charge of the war effort.
For the first few months of the war, the Patriots carried on their struggle in an ad-hoc and uncoordinated manner. They had seized arsenals, driven out royal officials, and besieged the British army in the city of Boston. On June 14, 1775, the Congress voted to create the Continental Army out of the militia units around Boston and appointed George Washington of Virginia as commanding general.[6] On July 6, 1775, Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale and necessity for taking up arms in the Thirteen Colonies."[7] On July 8, they extended the Olive Branch Petition to the British Crown as a final attempt at reconciliation; however, it was received too late to do any good. Silas Deane was sent to France as a minister (ambassador) of the Congress, and American ports were reopened in defiance of the British Navigation Acts.
The Continental Congress had no explicit legal authority to govern,[8] but it assumed all the functions of a national government, such as appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, issuing paper money (called "Continentals"), and disbursing funds. The Congress had no authority to levy taxes and was required to request money, supplies, and troops from the states to support the war effort. Individual states frequently ignored these requests.
Congress was moving towards declaring independence from the British Empire in 1776, but many delegates lacked the authority from their home governments to take such a drastic action. Advocates of independence moved to have reluctant colonial governments revise instructions to their delegations, or even replace those governments which would not authorize independence. On May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony with a government that was not inclined toward independence should form one that was. On May 15, they adopted a more radical preamble to this resolution, drafted by John Adams, which advised throwing off oaths of allegiance and suppressing the authority of the Crown in any colonial government that still derived its authority from the Crown. That same day, the Virginia Convention instructed its delegation in Philadelphia to propose a resolution that called for a declaration of independence, the formation of foreign alliances, and a confederation of the states. The resolution of independence was delayed for several weeks, as advocates of independence consolidated support in their home governments.
The Assembly Room in Philadelphia's Independence Hall where the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence
On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee offered a resolution before the Congress declaring the colonies independent. He also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states.[9] Lee argued that independence was the only way to ensure a foreign alliance, since no European monarchs would deal with America if they remained Britain's colonies. American leaders had rejected the divine right of kings in the New World, but recognized the necessity of proving their credibility in the Old World.[10] Congress formally adopted the resolution of independence, but only after creating three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states. These three things together constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for conducting vital domestic and foreign affairs.[9]
City Tavern in Philadelphia, the delegates' favorite place to eat and meet informally[11][12]
Congress finally approved the resolution of independence on July 2, 1776. They next turned their attention to a formal explanation of this decision, the United States Declaration of Independence which was approved on July 4 and published soon thereafter.
The Congress moved from Philadelphia to Baltimore in the winter of 1776 to avoid capture by British forces who were advancing on Philadelphia. Henry Fite's tavern was the largest building in Baltimore Town at the time and provided a comfortable location of sufficient size for Congress to meet. Its site at the western edge of town was beyond easy reach of the British Royal Navy's ships should they try to sail up the harbor and the Patapsco River to shell the town. Congress was again forced to flee Philadelphia at the end of September 1777, as British troops occupied the city; they moved to York, Pennsylvania and continued their work.
Congress passed the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, after more than a year of debate, and sent them to the states for ratification. Jefferson's proposal for a Senate to represent the states and a House to represent the people was rejected, but a similar proposal was adopted later in the United States Constitution. One issue of debate was large states wanting a larger say, nullified by small states who feared tyranny. The small states won and each state had one vote.[13] Congress urged the individual states to pass the Articles as quickly as possible, but it took three and a half years for all the states to ratify them. The State Legislature of Virginia was the first of the Thirteen States to ratify the Articles on December 16, 1777, and the State Legislature of Maryland was the last on February 2, 1781.
Dates and places of sessions[edit]
May 10, 1775 – December 12, 1776, Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
December 20, 1776 – February 27, 1777, Henry Fite House, Baltimore, Maryland
March 5, 1777 – September 18, 1777, Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia
September 27, 1777 (one day only), Court House, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
September 30, 1777 – June 27, 1778, Court House, York, Pennsylvania
July 2, 1778 – July 20, 1778, College Hall, Philadelphia
July 23, 1778 – March 1, 1781, Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia
See also[edit]
History of the United States (1776–89)
Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760–1789)
List of delegates to the Continental Congress
Presidents of the Continental Congress
References[edit]
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 1763–1815, p. 113
Jump up ^ Burnett, Continental Congress, pp. 64–67
Jump up ^ Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, p. 189
Jump up ^ Worthington C. Ford; et al., eds. (1904–1939). Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. Washington, DC. pp. 2:44–48. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ ibid. pp. 2:192–93.
Jump up ^ Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 1763–1815, p. 59
Jump up ^ Find Documents: Results[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Bancroft, Ch. 34, p. 353 (online)
^ Jump up to: a b The Declaration of Independence in World Context, Organization of American Historians, Magazine of History, Volume18, Issue 3, pp. 61–66 (2004)
Jump up ^ Howard Jones, Crucible of power: a history of American foreign relations to 1913
Jump up ^ Staib, Walter. City Tavern Cookbook: 200 Years of Classic Recipes from America's First Gourmet Restaurant, pp. 5, 11–15, Running Press, Philadelphia, London, 1999. ISBN 0-7624-0529-5.
Jump up ^ Staib, Walter. City Tavern Baking & Dessert Cookbook: 200 Years of Authentic American Recipes from Martha Washington's Chocolate Mousse Cake to Thomas Jefferson's Sweet Potato Biscuits, pp. 8–10, 14–15, Running Press, Philadelphia, London, 2003. ISBN 0-7624-1554-1.
Jump up ^ Miller (1948) ch. 22
Bibliography[edit]
Burnett, Edward Cody (1941). The Continental Congress. New York: Norton.
Fowler, William M., Jr. (1980). The Baron of Beacon Hill: A Biography of John Hancock. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-27619-5.
Further reading[edit]
Adams, Willi Paul. The First American Constitutions: Republican Ideology and the Making of the State Constitutions in the Revolutionary Era. U. of North Carolina Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7425-2069-2
Francis D. Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 1763-1815: A Political History. London: 2000. ISBN 0-415-18057-0
Worthington C. Ford, et al. ed. Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. (34 vol., 1904–1937) online edition
Henderson, H. James (2002) [1974]. Party Politics in the Continental Congress. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8191-6525-5.
Peter Force, ed. American Archives 9 vol 1837-1853, major compilation of documents 1774-1776. online edition
Kruman, Marc W. Between Authority and Liberty: State Constitution Making in Revolutionary America. U. of North Carolina Pr., 1997. ISBN 0-8078-4797-6
Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (1998)
Miller, John C. Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783 (1948) ISBN 0-313-20779-8
Montross, Lynn (1970) [1950]. The Reluctant Rebels; the Story of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-389-03973-X.
Rakove, Jack N. The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress. Knopf, 1979. ISBN 0-8018-2864-3
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