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1920s
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From left, clockwise: Third Tipperary Brigade Flying Column No. 2 under Seán Hogan during the Irish War of Independence; Prohibition agents destroying barrels of alcohol in accordance to the 18th amendment, which made alcoholic beverages illegal throughout the entire decade; In 1927, Charles Lindbergh embarks on the first solo nonstop flight from New York to Paris on the Spirit of St. Louis; A crowd gathering on Wall Street after the 1929 stock market crash, which led to the Great Depression; Benito Mussolini and Fascist Blackshirts during the March on Rome in 1922; the People's Liberation Army attacking government defensive positions in Shandong, during the Chinese Civil War; The Women's suffrage campaign leads to the ratification of the 19th amendment in the United States and numerous countries granting women the right to vote and be elected; Babe Ruth becomes the most iconic baseball player of the time.
The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1920, and ended on December 31, 1929. In North America, it is frequently referred to as the "Roaring Twenties" or the "Jazz Age", while in Europe the period is sometimes referred to as the "Golden Age Twenties"[1] because of the economic boom following World War I. French speakers refer to the period as the "Années folles" (“Crazy Years”),[2] emphasizing the era's social, artistic, and cultural dynamism.
The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s (especially the United States) was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s. Each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, and the Cold War, respectively.
The 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the world's second largest oil producing nation.[3]
In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of radical political movements, especially in regions that were once part of empires. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks' victory in the Russian Civil War. Fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. Economic problems contributed to the emergence of dictators in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, to include Józef Piłsudski in the Second Polish Republic, and Peter and Alexander Karađorđević in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America and Europe.
Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
19th century
20th century
21st century
Decades:
1900s
1910s
1920s
1930s
1940s
Years:
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
Categories:
Births
Deaths
By country
By topic
Establishments
Disestablishments
Contents
[hide]
1 Social history
2 War, peace and politics
2.1 Wars
2.2 Internal conflicts
2.3 Major political changes
2.4 Decolonization and independence
3 International issues
3.1 United States
3.2 Europe
3.3 Asia
3.4 Africa
4 Economics
5 Technology
6 Popular culture
6.1 Film
6.2 Music
6.3 Radio
6.4 Arts
6.5 Literature
6.6 Architecture
6.7 Fashion
6.8 Sports highlights
6.8.1 1920
6.8.2 1921
6.8.3 1923
6.8.4 1924
6.8.5 1925
6.8.6 1926
6.8.7 1927
6.8.8 1928
6.8.9 1929
6.9 Miscellaneous trends
7 People
7.1 World leaders
7.2 Politics
7.3 Science
7.4 Literature
7.5 Entertainers
7.5.1 Musicians
7.6 Film makers
7.7 Artists
7.8 Architects
7.9 Sports figures
8 See also
8.1 Timeline
9 References
10 Bibliography
Social history
Main articles: Roaring Twenties and Social issues of the 1920s in the United States
The Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin and London. “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave. The women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers.[4]
The era saw the large-scale adoption of automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, radio and household electricity, as well as unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie stars. Large baseball stadiums were built in major U.S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas.
Most independent countries passed women's suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for women's support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths and hardships.
War, peace and politics
Wars
Turkish War of Independence
Greco–Turkish War (May 1919 – October 1922)
Turkish–Armenian War (September 24 to December 2, 1920)
Franco-Turkish War (May 1920 – October 1921)
Unification of Saudi Arabia
Rashidi-Saudi War (1903 – 1921)
Kuwait-Saudi War (1919 – 1920)
Hejaz-Saudi War (1919 – 1925)
Transjordan-Saudi War (1922 – 1924)
Polish–Soviet War (February 1919 – March 1922)
Irish War of Independence (January 1919 – July 1921)
Internal conflicts
Irish Civil War (June 28, 1922 – May 24, 1923)
Chinese Civil War (first phase 1927-1936)
Castellammarese War (1929 – September 10, 1931)
Major political changes
Rise of radical political movements such as communism and fascism, amid the economic and political turmoil after World War I and after the stock market crash
Decolonization and independence
Irish Free State gains independence from the United Kingdom in 1922.
Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it still remains under the military and political influence of the British Empire.
International issues
Kellogg–Briand Pact to end war
Women's suffrage movement continues to make gains as women obtain full voting rights in New Zealand (1893), the Grand Duchy of Finland (1906), Denmark (1915), the United Kingdom in 1918 (women over 30) and in 1928 (full enfranchisement), and in the United States in 1920
Women begin to enter the workplace in larger numbers
United States
Prohibition agents emptying barrels of alcohol.
Prohibition of alcohol occurs in the United States. Prohibition in the United States began January 16, 1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S.Constitution, effective as of January 17, 1920, and it continued throughout the 1920s. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933. Organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit.
The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration. National quotas curbed most Eastern and Southern European nationalities, further enforced the ban on immigration of East Asians, Indians and Africans, and put mild regulations on nationalities from the Western Hemisphere (Latin Americans).
The major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth.
The Lost Generation (which characterized disillusionment), was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. Famous members of the Lost Generation include Cole Porter, Gerald Murphy, Patrick Henry Bruce, Waldo Peirce, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Zelda Fitzgerald, Ezra Pound, John Dos Passos, and Sherwood Anderson.
A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members (after its reemergence in 1915), followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930.[5]
The Scopes Trial (1925), which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, creating tension between the competing theories of creationism and evolutionism.
Europe
Benito Mussolini and Fascist Blackshirts during the March on Rome in 1922.
This Cruzcampo Beer Truck was photographed in the 1920s in Spain (left side of the photograph).
Polish–Soviet War (1920–21).
Major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence (1919–1921) resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War (1922–23).
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union) is created in 1922.
Benito Mussolini leader of the National Fascist Party became Prime Minister of Italy, shortly thereafter creating the world's first fascist government. The Fascist regime establishes a totalitarian state led by Mussolini as a dictator. The Fascist regime restores good relations between the Roman Catholic Church and Italy with the Lateran Treaty, which creates Vatican City. The Fascist regime pursues an aggressive expansionist agenda in Europe such as by raiding the Greek island of Corfu in 1923, pressuring Albania to submit to becoming a de facto Italian protectorate in the mid-1920s, and holding territorial aims on the region of Dalmatia in Yugoslavia.
In Germany, the Weimar Republic suffers from economic crisis in the early 1920s and hyperinflation of currency in 1923. From 1923 to 1925 the Occupation of the Ruhr takes place. The Ruhr was an industrial region of Germany taken over by the military forces of the French Third Republic and Belgium, in response to the failure of the Weimar Republic under Chancellor Wilhelm Cuno to keep paying the World War I reparations. The recently formed fringe National Socialist German Workers’ Party (a.k.a. Nazi Party) led by Adolf Hitler attempts a coup against the Bavarian and German governments in the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, which fails, resulting in Hitler being briefly imprisoned for one year in prison where he writes Mein Kampf.
Turkish War of Independence (1919–23).
The United Kingdom general strike (1926).
Asia
The Qajar dynasty ended under Ahmad Shah Qajar as Reza Shah Pahlavi founds the Pahlavi Dynasty, which later became the last monarchy of Iran.
The Chinese Civil War begins (1927–37).
Africa
Pan-Africanist supporters of Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL) are repressed by colonial powers in Africa. Garvey's UNIA-ACL supported the creation of a state led by black people in Africa including African Americans.[6]
Economics
Crowd gathering after the Wall Street Crash of 1929
Economic boom ended by “Black Tuesday" (October 29, 1929); the stock market crashes, leading to the Great Depression. The market actually began to drop on Thursday October 24, 1929, and the fall continued until the huge crash on Tuesday October 29, 1929.
The New Economic Policy is created by the Bolsheviks in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, to be replaced by the first five-year plan in 1928.
The Dawes Plan, which lasted from 1924 to 1928.
Average annual inflation for the decade was virtually zero but individual years ranged from a high of 3.47% in 1925 to a deflationary -11% in 1921.[7]
Dow Jones Industrial, 1928–1930
Technology
Robert Goddard and his rocket, 1926
John Logie Baird invents the first working mechanical television system (1925). In 1928 he invents and demonstrates the first color television.
Warner Brothers produces the first movie with a soundtrack Don Juan in 1926, followed by the first Part-Talkie The Jazz Singer in 1927, the first All-Talking movie Lights of New York in 1928 and the first All-Color All-Talking movie On with the Show, 1929. Silent films start giving way to sound films. By 1936, the transition phase arguably ends, with Modern Times being the last notable silent film.
Charles Lindbergh becomes the first person to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean (May 20–21, 1927), nonstop from New York to Paris.
Karl Ferdinand Braun invents the modern electronic cathode ray tube in 1897. The CRT became a commercial product in 1922.
Record companies (such as Victor, Brunswick and Columbia) introduce an electrical recording process on their phonograph records in 1925 (that had been developed by Western Electric), resulting in a more lifelike sound.
Robert Goddard makes the first flight of a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926.
The first electric razor is patented in 1928 by the American manufacturer Col. Jacob Schick.
The first selective Jukeboxes being introduced in 1927 by the Automated Musical Instrument Company.
Harold Stephen Black revolutionizes the field of applied electronics by inventing the negative feedback amplifier in 1927.
Clarence Birdseye invents a process for frozen food in 1925.
Popular culture
Film
Main article: 1920s in film
Oscar winners: Wings (1927–1928), The Broadway Melody (1928–1929), All Quiet on the Western Front (1929–1930)
First feature-length motion picture with a soundtrack (Don Juan) is released in 1926. First part-talkie (The Jazz Singer) released in 1927, first all-talking feature (Lights of New York) released in 1928 and first all-color all-talking feature (On with the Show) released in 1929.
Music
“The Jazz Age”—jazz and jazz-influenced dance music became widely popular throughout the decade.
George Gershwin wrote Rhapsody in Blue and An American in Paris.
Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti were the first musicians to incorporate the guitar and violin into jazz.
Radio
First commercial radio stations in the U.S., 8MK (WWJ) in Detroit and (KDKA 1020 AM) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, go on the air on August 27, 1920.
Both stations broadcast the election results between Harding and Cox in early November. The first station to receive a commercial license is WBZ, then in Springfield MA, in mid-September 1921. While there are only a few radio stations in 1920–21, by 1922 the radio craze is sweeping the country.
1922: The BBC begins radio broadcasting in the United Kingdom as the British BroadcastingCompany, a consortium between radio manufacturers and newspapers. It became a public broadcaster in 1926.
On August 27, 1920, regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in Argentina for the first time,[8] by a Buenos Aires group including Enrique Telémaco Susini. The station is soon called Radio Argentina. (See Radio in Argentina.)
Arts
Beginning of surrealist movement.
Art Deco becomes fashionable.
The Group of Seven (artists).
Pablo Picasso paints Three Musicians in 1921.
René Magritte paints The Treachery of Images.
Albert Gleizes paints Woman with Black Glove, 1920
Marcel Duchamp completes The Bride Stripped Bare By Her Bachelors, Even (The Large Glass).
The Museum of Modern Art opens in Manhattan, November 7, 1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash.
Literature
See also: List of years in literature § 1920s
First edition of Erich Maria Remarque’s book All Quiet on the Western Front, January 1929
First edition of Adolf Hitler’s book Mein Kampf, July 1925
F. Scott Fitzgerald publishes some of the most enduring novels characterizing the Jazz Age. This Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, and The Great Gatsby, as well as three short story collections, were all published in these years.
Hermann Hesse publishes Siddhartha
A. A. Milne publishes Winnie-the-Pooh
Ernest Hemingway publishes The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms
Thornton Wilder publishes The Bridge of San Luis Rey
Alexey Tolstoy publishes Aelita
Kahlil Gibran publishes The Prophet
George Bernard Shaw publishes Back to Methuselah
Eugene O'Neill awarded Pulitzer Prizes for Beyond the Horizon in 1920, Anna Christie in 1922, and Strange Interlude in 1928.
Sinclair Lewis publishes Main Street, Babbitt, Dodsworth, Arrowsmith, and Elmer Gantry
André Breton publishes the Surrealist Manifesto
D.H. Lawrence publishes Women in Love, and Lady Chatterley's Lover
Virginia Woolf publishes Jacob's Room, Mrs. Dalloway, To the Lighthouse, A Room of One's Own and Orlando
Aldous Huxley publishes his inaugural novel Crome Yellow
Sylvia Townsend Warner publishes Lolly Willowes in 1926
James Joyce publishes Ulysses
Franz Kafka publishes The Trial
T. S. Eliot publishes The Waste Land
Robert Lee Frost publishes New Hampshire 1923 and West-Running Brook in 1928
Wallace Stevens publishes his first book of poetry, Harmonium
Erich Maria Remarque publishes All Quiet on the Western Front
Hugh MacDiarmid publishes A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle
Margaret Sanger publishes Woman and the New Race and The Pivot of Civilization
Margaret Mead publishes Coming of Age in Samoa in 1928
Architecture
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2010)
Bauhaus College in Dessau
Walter Gropius builds the Bauhaus in Dessau
Le Corbusier published the book Toward an Architecture serving as the manifesto for a generation of architects.
Fashion
Main article: 1920s in Western fashion
Sports highlights
1920
January 24: Grand Prix de Paris switches its name to Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe (horse race)
February 13: Negro National League created (baseball)
April: Babe Ruth began playing for the New York Yankees
April – September: Summer Olympics held in Antwerp.
August 17: Ray Chapman from the Cleveland Indians is killed by Carl Mays' pitch (baseball)
August 20: National Football League founded
Kenesaw Mountain Landis is named the first Commissioner of Baseball.
1921
March 26: Schooner Bluenose launched
1923
May 26: the 24 hours of Le Mans conducts their first sports car race
October: The New York Yankees win the 1923 World Series, the first title for the team.
1924
January – February: First Winter Olympic Games takes place in Chamonix France.
May – July: Summer Olympics held in Paris France.
July 10–13: Paavo Nurmi wins five gold medals in Summer Olympics (track and field)
1925
May 28: French Open invites non-French tennis athletes for the first time
Germany and Belgium in first handball international tournament.
1926
August 6: Gertrude Ederle swims English Channel and is first woman to do so.
September 23: Gene Tunney wins Jack Dempsey's world heavyweight boxing title.
1927
May 23: Warwickshire end Yorkshire's 71-match unbeaten sequence in the County Championship – the longest unbeaten sequence in that competition.
June 3: First Ryder Cup golf tournaments are held in Massachusetts
1928
February: Winter Olympics held in St. Moritz Switzerland.
May – August: Women's Olympics takes place for first time, in 1928 Summer Olympics held in Amsterdam.
William Ralph "Dixie" Dean wins the Football League, scores 60 goals in 39 matches for Everton F.C. (English Football)
1929
The English team led by Wally Hammond defeats Australia in The Ashes series (Test Cricket)
Miscellaneous trends
Youth culture of The Lost Generation; flappers, the Charleston, and the bob cut haircut.
Fads such as marathon dancing, mah-jong, crossword puzzles and pole-sitting are popular.
The height of the clip joint.
The Harlem Renaissance centered in a thriving African American community of Harlem, New York City.
Since the 1920s scholars have methodically dug into the layers of history that lie buried at thousands of sites across China.
The tomb of Tutankhamun is discovered intact by Howard Carter (1922). This begins a second revival of Egyptomania.
Twiglets are invented in December 1929 by Frenchman Rondalin Zwadoodie, and sold by Peek Freans.
People
World leaders
Prime Minister James Scullin (Australia)
Prime Minister Stanley Bruce (Australia)
Prime Minister William Hughes (Australia)
Prime Minister Mackenzie King (Canada)
Prime Minister Arthur Meighen (Canada)
President Sun Yat-sen (Republic of China)
President Chiang Kai-shek (Republic of China)
President Thomas Garrigue Masaryk (Czechoslovakia)
President Alexandre Millerand (France)
President Gaston Doumergue (France)
President Friedrich Ebert (Germany)
President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany)
Regent Miklós Horthy (Hungary)
Ahmad Shah Qajar of the Qajar Dynasty (Persia)
Reza Shah Pahlavi of the Pahlavi Dynasty (Persia)
President Éamon de Valera (Ireland)
President W. T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
President Álvaro Obregón (Mexico)
President Plutarco Elías Calles (Mexico)
President Emilio Portes Gil (Mexico)
Józef Piłsudski (Poland)
King Alfonso XIII (Spain)
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Turkey)
Vladimir Lenin, 1921
Premier Vladimir Lenin (Russia) later (Soviet Union)
General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
King George V (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister David Lloyd George (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Bonar Law (United Kingdom)
Benito Mussolini during his first years in power
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
President Woodrow Wilson (United States)
President Warren G. Harding (United States)
President Calvin Coolidge (United States)
President Herbert Hoover (United States)
King of Ras Tafari (Ethiopia)
Prime Minister James Barry Munnik Hertzog (Union of South Africa)
President Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa (Brazil)
President Hipólito Yrigoyen (Argentina)
Pope Pius XI (Vatican)
Politics
Hendrik G. Cannegieter, Chief of the Secretariat World Meteorological Organization
Oskar Dressler, Secretary International Criminal Police Organization
Sir James Eric Drummond, Secretary-general League of Nations
Christian Louis Lange, Secretary-general Inter-Parliamentary Union
Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen, League of Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Pierre Nolf, Chairman of the Standing Commission International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Ludwik J. Rajchman, Medical Director of the Health Section International Health Organization
Johann Schober, President International Criminal Police Organization
Albert Thomas, Director International Labour Organization
Harry Thuku helped to found the Young Kikuyu Association in Kenya
Zaccheus Richard Mahabane and Josiah Tshangana Gumede President of the African National Congress
Marcus Garvey
Science
Albert Einstein, 1921
Albert Einstein
Sigmund Freud
Alexander Fleming
Frederick Banting
Niels Bohr
Werner Heisenberg
Howard Carter
Georges Lemaître
Edwin Powell Hubble
Garrett Morgan
Literature
Bertolt Brecht
Countee Cullen
Nancy Cunard
T. S. Eliot
William Faulkner
F. Scott Fitzgerald
Zelda Fitzgerald
Ernest Hemingway
Langston Hughes
Zora Neale Hurston
James Weldon Johnson
Erich Kastner
Sinclair Lewis
Alain Locke
Thomas Mann
Claude McKay
Carl Sandburg
William Butler Yeats
Entertainers
Charlie Chaplin
Buster Keaton
Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle
Mary Astor
Josephine Baker
Tallulah Bankhead
Ethel Barrymore
John Barrymore
Lionel Barrymore
Clara Bow
Louise Brooks
Lon Chaney
Katharine Cornell
Joan Crawford
Bebe Daniels
Betty Bronson
Mary Brian
Marion Davies
Douglas Fairbanks
Eva Le Gallienne
Greta Garbo
Janet Gaynor
John Gilbert
Dorothy Gish
Lillian Gish
William Haines
William S. Hart
Harry Houdini
Emil Jannings
Al Jolson
Harold Lloyd
Charlie Chaplin during the 1920s
Tom Mix
Colleen Moore
Mae Murray
Pola Negri
Ramón Novarro
Will Rogers
Mary Pickford
Norma Shearer
Gloria Swanson
Chief Tahachee
Norma Talmadge
Rudolph Valentino
Anna May Wong
Musicians
George Gershwin
Al Jolson
Louis Armstrong
Richard Tauber
Irving Berlin
Eddie Cantor
Duke Ellington
Kelly Harrell
Jimmy Rodgers
Jelly Roll Morton
Cole Porter
Rudy Vallée
Paul Whiteman
Irving Berlin (left) and Al Jolson, c. 1927
Fats Waller
Fletcher Henderson
Eddie Lang
Joe Venuti
Bix Beiderbecke
Art Tatum
Béla Bartók
Lonnie Johnson
Joe "King" Oliver
Bessie Smith
Count Basie
King Oliver
Sidney Bechet
Film makers
Main article: 1920s in film
Harry Beaumont
Busby Berkeley
Frank Borzage
Charles Chaplin
Alan Crosland
Cecil B. DeMille
William C. DeMille
Sergei Eisenstein
Victor Fleming
John Ford
D. W. Griffith at a rolltop desk, c. 1925
D. W. Griffith
Alfred Hitchcock
Rex Ingram
Buster Keaton
Fritz Lang
Ernst Lubitsch
Lewis Milestone
Erich von Stroheim
King Vidor
Robert Wiene
Artists
Hans Arp
Max Beckmann
Georges Braque
André Breton
Patrick Henry Bruce
Alexander Calder
Carlo Carrà
Marc Chagall
Giorgio de Chirico
Salvador Dalí
Stuart Davis
Charles Demuth
Otto Dix
Theo van Doesburg
Arthur Dove
Marcel Duchamp
Max Ernst
Alberto Giacometti
Julio Gonzalez
Juan Gris
George Grosz
Marsden Hartley
Wassily Kandinsky
Paul Klee
Gaston Lachaise
Fernand Léger
Tamara de Lempicka
René Magritte
Georges Malkine
John Marin
André Masson
Henri Matisse
Joan Miró
Piet Mondrian
Henry Moore
Max Morise
Georgia O'Keeffe
Francis Picabia
Pablo Picasso
Man Ray
Morgan Russell
Kurt Schwitters
Charles Sheeler
Chaim Soutine
Yves Tanguy
Stanton Macdonald-Wright
Architects
See also: Bauhaus
Marcel Breuer
Le Corbusier
Walter Gropius
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Frank Lloyd Wright
Sports figures
See also: History of baseball in the United States § Babe Ruth and the end of the dead-ball era
Grover Cleveland Alexander (American baseball player)
Ty Cobb, (American baseball player)
Eddie Collins, (American baseball player)
Walter Johnson (American baseball player)
Rogers Hornsby (American baseball player)
Babe Ruth (American baseball player)
Tris Speaker, (American baseball player)
Lou Gehrig (American baseball player)
Kenesaw Mountain Landis (American Baseball Commissioner)
Gene Tunney (American boxer)
Jack Dempsey (American boxer)
Francisco Guilledo (Filipino boxer)
Warwick Armstrong (Australian cricket captain)
Wilfred Rhodes (Yorkshire and England cricketer)
Jack Hobbs (Surrey and England cricketer)
Herbert Sutcliffe (Yorkshire and England cricketer)
Maurice Tate (Sussex and England cricketer)
Jack Gregory, Australian cricketer
Bert Oldfield, Australian cricketer
Babe Ruth in 1920
Herbie Taylor, South African cricketer
Alex Grove (American bowler)
Red Grange (American football player)
Knute Rockne (American football player and coach)
Alex James (Arsenal and Scotland soccer player)
Gordon Coventry (Australian rules football player)
Walter Hagen (American golfer)
Bobby Jones (American golfer)
Paavo Nurmi (Finnish runner)
Fanny "Bobbie" Rosenfeld (Canadian athlete)
Earl Sande (jockey)
Gertrude Ederle (swimming)
Johnny Weissmuller (swimming)
Suzanne Lenglen (French tennis player)
Helen Wills Moody (American tennis player)
Bill Tilden (American tennis player)
See also
1920s portal
Interwar Britain
1920s in television
Table of years in radio
1920s in literature
Roaring Twenties
Timeline
The following articles contain brief timelines listing the most prominent events of the decade:
1920 • 1921 • 1922 • 1923 • 1924 • 1925 • 1926 • 1927 • 1928 • 1929
References
Jump up ^ Paul Sann, The Lawless Decade Retrieved 2009-09-03
Jump up ^ Andrew Lamb (2000). 150 Years of Popular Musical Theatre. Yale U.P. p. 195.
Jump up ^ Wilkins, Mira (1974). "Multinational Oil Companies in South America in the 1920s: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru". The Business History Review. 48 (3): 414–446. doi:10.2307/3112955.
Jump up ^ Price, S (1999). "What made the twenties roar?". 131 (10): 3–18.
Jump up ^ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. Retrieved July 19, 2012. and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
Jump up ^ African History Timeline
Jump up ^ "Inflation and CPI Consumer Price Index 1920-1929". Inflation Data. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Altgelt, Carlos A. "EARLY HISTORY OF RADIO BROADCASTING IN ARGENTINA". The Broadcast Archive. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
Bibliography
Robert Sobel The Great Bull Market: Wall Street in the 1920s. (1968)
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Lists of 100 best books
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Many publishers have lists of 100 best books, defined by their own criteria. This article enumerates some lists of "100 best" books for which there are fuller articles.
Among them, Science Fiction: The 100 Best Novels (Xanadu, 1985) and Modern Fantasy: The 100 Best Novels (Grafton, 1988) are collections of 100 short essays by a single author, David Pringle, with moderately long critical introductory chapters also by Pringle. For publisher Xanadu, Science Fiction was the first of four "100 Best" books published from 1985 to 1988. The sequels covered crime & mystery, horror, and fantasy.
Lists[edit]
Publisher
Name
Published
Crime Writers' Association The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time 1990
Grafton Books
by David Pringle Modern Fantasy: The 100 Best Novels 1988
Larry McCaffery 20th Century's Greatest Hits: 100 English-Language Books of Fiction 1999
Le Monde Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century 1999
Modern Library Modern Library 100 Best Nonfiction 1998
Modern Library Modern Library 100 Best Novels 1998
Mystery Writers of America The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time 1995
New York Times Book Review New York Times 100 Notable Books annually
Norwegian Book Club Bokklubben World Library since 2002
Nimbus Publishing Atlantic Canada's 100 Greatest Books 2008
Tidningen Boken Världsbiblioteket 1991
Time Time's List of the 100 Best Novels 2005
The Guardian The Guardian 100 best novels 2015
Shūkan Bunshun Tozai Mystery Best 100 1985
Xanadu
by David Pringle Science Fiction: The 100 Best Novels 1985
See also[edit]
Category:Top book lists
Western canon#Examples, a broader list of lists
List of best-selling books
List of literary awards
References[edit]
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lists_of_100_best_books&oldid=838568236"
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Literary realism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Literary realism is part of the realist art movement beginning with mid nineteenth-century French literature (Stendhal), and Russian literature (Alexander Pushkin) and extending to the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.[1] Literary realism attempts to represent familiar things as they are. Realist authors chose to depict everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of using a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Social realism
1.2 Socialist realism
1.3 Naturalism
2 The novel
2.1 Australia
2.2 United Kingdom
2.3 American realism
2.4 Europe
3 The theatre
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Background[edit]
Broadly defined as "the representation of reality",[2] realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, as well as implausible, exotic and supernatural elements.
Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the accurate depiction of lifeforms, perspective, and the details of light and colour. Realist works of art may emphasize the ugly or sordid, such as works of social realism, regionalism, or Kitchen sink realism.
There have been various realism movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism and Italian neorealist cinema. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, after the 1848 Revolution.[3] The realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century.
Realism as a movement in literature was a post-1848 phenomenon, according to its first theorist Jules-Français Champfleury. It aims to reproduce "objective reality", and focused on showing everyday, quotidian activities and life, primarily among the middle or lower class society, without romantic idealization or dramatization.[4] It may be regarded as the general attempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation and "in accordance with secular, empirical rules."[5] As such, the approach inherently implies a belief that such reality is ontologically independent of man's conceptual schemes, linguistic practices and beliefs, and thus can be known (or knowable) to the artist, who can in turn represent this 'reality' faithfully. As literary critic Ian Watt states in The Rise of the Novel, modern realism "begins from the position that truth can be discovered by the individual through the senses" and as such "it has its origins in Descartes and Locke, and received its first full formulation by Thomas Reid in the middle of the eighteenth century."[6]
In the late 18th-century Romanticism was a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the previous Age of Reason and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature found in the dominant philosophy of the 18th century,[7] as well as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution.[8] It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography,[9] education[10] and the natural sciences.[11]
19th-century realism was in its turn a reaction to Romanticism, and for this reason it is also commonly derogatorily referred as traditional or "bourgeois realism".[12] However, not all writers of Victorian literature produced works of realism.[13] The rigidities, conventions, and other limitations of Victorian realism, prompted in their turn the revolt of modernism. Starting around 1900, the driving motive of modernist literature was the criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and world view, which was countered with an antirationalist, antirealist and antibourgeois program.[12][14][15]
Social realism[edit]
See also: Social novel
Social Realism is an international art movement that includes the work of painters, printmakers, photographers and filmmakers who draw attention to the everyday conditions of the working classes and the poor, and who are critical of the social structures that maintain these conditions. While the movement's artistic styles vary from nation to nation, it almost always uses a form of descriptive or critical realism.[16]
Kitchen sink realism (or kitchen sink drama) is a term coined to describe a British cultural movement that developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s in theatre, art, novels, film and television plays, which used a style of social realism. Its protagonists usually could be described as angry young men, and it often depicted the domestic situations of working-class Britons living in cramped rented accommodation and spending their off-hours drinking in grimy pubs, to explore social issues and political controversies.
The films, plays and novels employing this style are set frequently in poorer industrial areas in the North of England, and use the rough-hewn speaking accents and slang heard in those regions. The film It Always Rains on Sunday (1947) is a precursor of the genre, and the John Osborne play Look Back in Anger (1956) is thought of as the first of the genre. The gritty love-triangle of Look Back in Anger, for example, takes place in a cramped, one-room flat in the English Midlands. The conventions of the genre have continued into the 2000s, finding expression in such television shows as Coronation Street and EastEnders.[17]
In art, "Kitchen Sink School" was a term used by critic David Sylvester to describe painters who depicted social realist–type scenes of domestic life.[18]
Socialist realism[edit]
See also: Proletarian literature
Socialist realism is the official Soviet art form that was institutionalized by Joseph Stalin in 1934 and was later adopted by allied Communist parties worldwide.[16] This form of realism held that successful art depicts and glorifies the proletariat's struggle toward socialist progress. The Statute of the Union of Soviet Writers in 1934 stated that socialist realism
is the basic method of Soviet literature and literary criticism. It demands of the artist the truthful, historically concrete representation of reality in its revolutionary development. Moreover, the truthfulness and historical concreteness of the artistic representation of reality must be linked with the task of ideological transformation and education of workers in the spirit of socialism.[19]
Naturalism[edit]
See also: Naturalism in 19th-century French literature
Naturalism was a literary movement or tendency from the 1880s to 1930s that used detailed realism to suggest that social conditions, heredity, and environment had inescapable force in shaping human character. It was a mainly unorganized literary movement that sought to depict believable everyday reality, as opposed to such movements as Romanticism or Surrealism, in which subjects may receive highly symbolic, idealistic or even supernatural treatment.
Naturalism was an outgrowth of literary realism, a prominent literary movement in mid-19th-century France and elsewhere. Naturalistic writers were influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.[20] Whereas realism seeks only to describe subjects as they really are, naturalism also attempts to determine "scientifically" the underlying forces (e.g., the environment or heredity) influencing the actions of its subjects.[citation needed] Naturalistic works often include supposed sordid subject matter, for example, Émile Zola's frank treatment of sexuality, as well as a pervasive pessimism. Naturalistic works tend to focus on the darker aspects of life, including poverty, racism, violence, prejudice, disease, corruption, prostitution, and filth. As a result, naturalistic writers were frequently criticized for focusing too much on human vice and misery.[citation needed]
The novel[edit]
Australia[edit]
In the early nineteenth century, there was growing impetus to establish an Australian culture that was seperate from its English Colonial beginnings.[21] Common artistic motifs and characters that were represented in Australian realism were the Australian Outback, known simply as "the bush", in its harsh and volatile beauty, the British settlers, the Indigenous Australian, the squatter and the digger–although some of these bordered into a more mythic territory in much of Australia's art scene. A significant portion of Australia's early realism was a rejection of, according to what the Sydney Bulletin called in 1881 a "romantic identity" of the country.[22]
Most of the earliest writing in the colony was not literature in the most recent international sense, but rather journals and documentations of expeditions and environments, although literary style and preconceptions entered into the journal writing. Oftentimes in early Australian literature, romanticism and realism co-existed,[22] as exemplified by Joseph Furphy's Such Is Life (1897)–a fictional account of the life of rural dwellers, including bullock drivers, squatters and itinerant travellers, in southern New South Wales and Victoria, during the 1880s. Catherine Helen Spence's Clara Morison (1854), which detailed a Scottish woman's immigration to Adelaide, South Australia, in a time when many people were leaving the freely settled state of South Australia to claim fortunes in the gold rushes of Victoria and New South Wales.
The burgeoning literary concept that Australia was an extension of another, more distant country, was beginning to infiltrate into writing: "[those] who have at last understood the significance of Australian history as a transplanting of stocks and the sending down of roots in a new soil". Henry Handel Richardson, author of post-Federation novels such as Maurice Guest (1908) and The Getting of Wisdom (1910), was said to have been heavily influenced by French and Scandinavian realism. In the twentieth century, as the working-class community of Sydney proliferated, the focus was shifted from the bush archetype to a more urban, inner-city setting: William Lane's The Working Man's Paradise (1892), Christina Stead's Seven Poor Men of Sydney (1934) and Ruth Park's The Harp in the South (1948) all depicted the harsh, gritty reality of working class Sydney.[23] Patrick White's novels Tree of Man (1955) and Voss (1957) fared particularly well and in 1973 White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.[24][25]
A new kind of literary realism emerged in the late twentieth century, helmed by Helen Garner's Monkey Grip (1977) which revolutionised contemporary fiction in Australia, though it has since emerged that the novel was diaristic and based on Garner's own experiences. Monkey Grip concerns itself with a single-mother living in a succession of Melbourne share-houses, as she navigates her increasingly obsessive relationship with a drug addict who drifts in and out of her life. A sub-set of realism emerged in Australia's literary scene known as "dirty realism", typically written by "new, young authors"[26] who examined "gritty, dirty, real existences",[26] of lower-income young people, whose lives revolve around a nihilistic pursuit of casual sex, recreational drug use and alcohol, which are used to escape boredom. Examples of dirty-realism include Andrew McGahan's Praise (1992), Christos Tsiolkas's Loaded (1995), Justine Ettler's The River Ophelia (1995) and Brendan Cowell's How It Feels (2010), although many of these, including their predecessor Monkey Grip, are now labelled with a genre coined in 1995 as "grunge lit".[27]
United Kingdom[edit]
Ian Watt in The Rise of the Novel (1957) saw the novel as originating in the early 18th-century and he argued that the novel's 'novelty' was its 'formal realism': the idea 'that the novel is a full and authentic report of human experience'.[28] His examples are novelists Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding. Watt argued that the novel's concern with realistically described relations between ordinary individuals, ran parallel to the more general development of philosophical realism, middle-class economic individualism and Puritan individualism. He also claims that the form addressed the interests and capacities of the new middle-class reading public and the new book trade evolving in response to them. As tradesmen themselves, Defoe and Richardson had only to 'consult their own standards' to know that their work would appeal to a large audience.[29]
Later in the 19th-century George Eliot's (1819–1880) Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life (1871–72), described by novelists Martin Amis and Julian Barnes as the greatest novel in the English language, is a work of realism.[30] [31] Through the voices and opinions of different characters the reader becomes aware of important issues of the day, including the Reform Bill of 1832, the beginnings of the railways, and the state of contemporary medical science. Middlemarch also shows the deeply reactionary mindset within a settled community facing the prospect of what to many is unwelcome social, political and technological change.
While George Gissing (1857–1903), author of New Grub Street (1891), amongst many other works, has traditionally been viewed as a naturalist, mainly influenced by Émile Zola,[32] Jacob Korg has suggested that George Eliot was a greater influence.[33]
Other novelists, such as Arnold Bennett (1867–1931) and Anglo-Irishman George Moore (1852–1933) consciously imitated the French realists.[34] Bennett's most famous works are the Clayhanger trilogy (1910–18) and The Old Wives' Tale (1908). These books draw on his experience of life in the Staffordshire Potteries, an industrial area encompassing the six towns that now make up Stoke-on-Trent in Staffordshire, England. George Moore, whose most famous work is Esther Waters (1894), was also influenced by the naturalism of Zola.[35]
American realism[edit]
William Dean Howells (1837–1920) was the first American author to bring a realist aesthetic to the literature of the United States.[citation needed] His stories of middle and upper class life set in the 1880s and 1890s are highly regarded among scholars of American fiction.[citation needed] His most popular novel, The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), depicts a man who, ironically, falls from materialistic fortune by his own mistakes. Other early American realists include Samuel Clemens (1835–1910), better known by his pen name of Mark Twain, author of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884),[36][37] Stephen Crane (1871–1900), and Horatio Alger, Jr. (1832–1899).
Twain's style, based on vigorous, realistic, colloquial American speech, gave American writers a new appreciation of their national voice. Twain was the first major author to come from the interior of the country, and he captured its distinctive, humorous slang and iconoclasm. For Twain and other American writers of the late 19th century, realism was not merely a literary technique: It was a way of speaking truth and exploding worn-out conventions. Crane was primarily a journalist who also wrote fiction, essays, poetry, and plays. Crane saw life at its rawest, in slums and on battlefields. His haunting Civil War novel, The Red Badge of Courage, was published to great acclaim in 1895, but he barely had time to bask in the attention before he died, at 28, having neglected his health. He has enjoyed continued success ever since—as a champion of the common man, a realist, and a symbolist. Crane's Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), is one of the best, if not the earliest, naturalistic American novel. It is the harrowing story of a poor, sensitive young girl whose uneducated, alcoholic parents utterly fail her. In love, and eager to escape her violent home life, she allows herself to be seduced into living with a young man, who soon deserts her. When her self-righteous mother rejects her, Maggie becomes a prostitute to survive, but soon commits suicide out of despair. Crane's earthy subject matter and his objective, scientific style, devoid of moralizing, earmark Maggie as a naturalist work.[38] Horatio Alger, Jr. was a prolific 19th-century American author whose principal output was formulaic rags-to-riches juvenile novels that followed the adventures of bootblacks, newsboys, peddlers, buskers, and other impoverished children in their rise from humble backgrounds to lives of respectable middle-class security and comfort. His novels, of which Ragged Dick is a typical example, were hugely popular in their day.
Other later American realists are: John Steinbeck, Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, Upton Sinclair, Jack London, Edith Wharton and Henry James.
Europe[edit]
Benito Pérez Galdós, Spanish writer
Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850) is the most prominent representative of 19th-century realism in fiction through the inclusion of specific detail and recurring characters.[39][40][41] His La Comédie humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a complete contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism is also an important aspect of the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils (1824–1895).
Many of the novels in this period, including Balzac's, were published in newspapers in serial form, and the immensely popular realist "roman feuilleton" tended to specialize in portraying the hidden side of urban life (crime, police spies, criminal slang), as in the novels of Eugène Sue. Similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century.
Gustave Flaubert's (1821–1880) acclaimed novels Madame Bovary (1857), which reveals the tragic consequences of romanticism on the wife of a provincial doctor, and Sentimental Education (1869) represent perhaps the highest stages in the development of French realism. Flaubert also wrote other works in an entirely different style and his romanticism is apparent in the fantastic The Temptation of Saint Anthony (final version published 1874) and the baroque and exotic scenes of ancient Carthage in Salammbô (1862).
In German literature, 19th-century realism developed under the name of "Poetic Realism" or "Bourgeois Realism," and major figures include Theodor Fontane, Gustav Freytag, Gottfried Keller, Wilhelm Raabe, Adalbert Stifter, and Theodor Storm.[42]
Later realist writers included Leo Tolstoy, Benito Pérez Galdós, Guy de Maupassant, Anton Chekhov, José Maria de Eça de Queiroz, Machado de Assis, Bolesław Prus and, in a sense, Émile Zola, whose naturalism is often regarded as an offshoot of realism.[citation needed]
The theatre[edit]
Theatrical realism was a general movement in 19th-century theatre from the time period of 1870–1960 that developed a set of dramatic and theatrical conventions with the aim of bringing a greater fidelity of real life to texts and performances. Part of a broader artistic movement, it shared many stylistic choices with naturalism, including a focus on everyday (middle-class) drama, ordinary speech, and dull settings. Realism and naturalism diverge chiefly on the degree of choice that characters have: while naturalism believes in the overall strength of external forces over internal decisions, realism asserts the power of the individual to choose (see A Doll's House).
Russia's first professional playwright, Aleksey Pisemsky, and Leo Tolstoy (The Power of Darkness (1886)), began a tradition of psychological realism in Russia which culminated with the establishment of the Moscow Art Theatre by Constantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko.[43] Their ground-breaking productions of the plays of Anton Chekhov in turn influenced Maxim Gorky and Mikhail Bulgakov. Stanislavski went on to develop his 'system', a form of actor training that is particularly suited to psychological realism.
19th-century realism is closely connected to the development of modern drama, which, as Martin Harrison explains, "is usually said to have begun in the early 1870s" with the "middle-period" work of the Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen. Ibsen's realistic drama in prose has been "enormously influential."[44]
In opera, verismo refers to a post-Romantic Italian tradition that sought to incorporate the naturalism of Émile Zola and Henrik Ibsen. It included realistic – sometimes sordid or violent – depictions of contemporary everyday life, especially the life of the lower classes.
In France in addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the "well-made" bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche and the moral dramas of Émile Augier.
See also[edit]
Chanson réaliste (realist song), a style of music which was directly influenced by realist literary movement in France
History of modern literature
Verismo, an application of the tenets of realism to (especially late-romantic Italian) opera.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Champfleury, Jule-Français (1857). Le Realisme. Paris: Michel Lévy. p. 2.
Jump up ^ Donna M. Campbell. "Realism in American Literature". Wsu.edu. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". Metmuseum.org. 2014-06-02. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia". Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ in so far as such subjects are "explicable in terms of natural causation without resort to supernatural or divine intervention" Morris, 2003. p. 5
Jump up ^ Watt, 1957, p.12
Jump up ^ Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). ""Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism". Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Archived from the original on May 13, 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-14. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "''Romanticism''. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
Jump up ^ David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967)
Jump up ^ Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational experience (1987) ch. 12 on Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
Jump up ^ Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2005 149(3): 304–315
^ Jump up to: a b John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book' '(1984).
Jump up ^ "Victorian Literature". The Literature Network. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Gerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307-37; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.
Jump up ^ Gerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383-417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed., (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw, Poland, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter Freese, eds., (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag, 1984), 58-81.
^ Jump up to: a b Todd, James G. (2009). "Social Realism". Art Terms. Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Heilpern, John. John Osborne: The Many Lives of the Angry Young Man, New York: Knopf, 2007.
Jump up ^ Walker, John. (1992) "Kitchen Sink School". Glossary of Art, Architecture & Design since 1945, 3rd. ed. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ On Socialist Realism" by Andrei Sinyavsky writing as Abram Tertz ISBN 0-520-04677-3, p.148.
Jump up ^ Williams, Raymond. 1976. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. London: Fontana, 1988, p. 217. ISBN 0-00-686150-4.
Jump up ^ Rickard, John (2017). Australia: A Cultural History. Monash University Publishing. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-921867-60-6.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cultural Transmission and Australian Literature: 1788-1998". openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au: 45. 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Maunder, Patricia (17 December 2010). "Novelist shone a light on slums". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Australian Nobel Prize Winners". Whitehat.com.au. 2 December 2006. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Australian authors shortlisted for lost Man Booker Prize". The Sydney Morning Herald. 26 March 2010. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Leishman, Kirsty, 'Australian Grunge Literature and the Conflict between Literary Generations', Journal of Australian Studies, 23.63 (1999), pp. 94–102
Jump up ^ "A Case for Literature" (PDF). Australian Council for the Arts. May 2010. p. 56. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Watt, I. (1963). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding, Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 32.
Jump up ^ Watt, I. (1963). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding, Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Long, Camilla. Martin Amis and the sex war, The Times, 24 January 2010, p. 4: "They've [women] produced the greatest writer in the English language ever, George Eliot, and arguably the third greatest, Jane Austen, and certainly the greatest novel, Middlemarch."
Jump up ^ Guppy, Shusha. "Interviews: Julian Barnes, The Art of Fiction No. 165". The Paris Review (Winter 2000). Retrieved 26 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Keary, C. F. (1904). "George Gissing," The Athenaeum, Vol. XVI, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Bader, A.L. (1963). "New Looks at Gissing". The Antioch Review. 23 (3): 392–400. JSTOR 4610542.
Jump up ^ The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret Drabble. Oxford: Oxford University Press, (1985)1996, p.824
Jump up ^ Moran, Maureen, (2006), Victorian Literature And Culture p. 145. ISBN 0-8264-8883-8
Jump up ^ http://matthewasprey.wordpress.com/2007/12/03/reading-notes-green-hills-of-africa-by-ernest-hemingway/
Jump up ^ Hemingway, Ernest (1935). Green Hills of Africa. New York: Scribners. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Holton, Milne. Cylinder of Fiction. - The Fiction and Journalistic Writing of Stephen Crane. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1972. 37.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Samuel (1953). Balzac & The Novel. New York: Octagon Books. LCCN 75-76005.
Jump up ^ Stowe, William W (983). Balzac, James, and the Realistic Novel. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06567-5.
Jump up ^ C. P. Snow (1968). The Realists: Portraits of Eight Novelists. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-24438-9.
Jump up ^ Becker, Sabine (2003). Bürgerlicher Realismus; Literatur und Kultur im bürgerlichen Zeitalter 1848–1900 (in German). Tübingen: Francke. ; McInnes, Edward; Plumpe, Gerhard, eds. (1996). Bürgerlicher Realismus und Gründerzeit 1848–1890 (in German). Munich: Carl Hanser.
Jump up ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 370, 372) and Benedetti (2005, 100) and (1999, 14-17).
Jump up ^ Harrison (1998, 160).
Bibliography[edit]
Baron, Christine; Manfred Engel, eds. (2010). Realism/Anti-Realism in 20th-Century Literature. NL: Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-3115-9.
External links[edit]
Realism in American literature at the Literary Movements site
"Victorian Realism – how real?" on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring Philip Davis, A.N. Wilson and Dinah Birch
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