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The Great Dictator
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The Great Dictator
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Charlie Chaplin
Produced by
Charlie Chaplin
Written by
Charlie Chaplin
Starring
Charlie Chaplin
Paulette Goddard
Jack Oakie
Music by
Charlie Chaplin
Meredith Willson
Cinematography
Karl Struss
Roland Totheroh
Edited by
Willard Nico
Harold Rice
Production
company
Charles Chaplin Film Corporation
Distributed by
United Artists
Release date
October 15, 1940 (1940-10-15) (New York)
March 7, 1941 (1941-03-07) (London)
Running time
124 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$2 million (US$34,435,407 in 2016 dollars[2])
Box office
$5 million (US$85,475,059 in 2016 dollars[2])[3]
The Great Dictator is a 1940 American political satire comedy-drama film written, directed, produced, scored by and starring British comedian Charlie Chaplin, following the tradition of many of his other films. Having been the only Hollywood film-maker to continue to make silent films well into the period of sound films, this was Chaplin's first true sound film.
Chaplin's film advanced a stirring, controversial[4] condemnation of Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, fascism, antisemitism and the Nazis. At the time of its first release, the United States was still formally at peace with Nazi Germany. Chaplin plays both leading roles: a ruthless fascist dictator and a persecuted Jewish barber.
The Great Dictator was popular with audiences, becoming Chaplin's most commercially successful film.[5] Modern critics have also praised it as a historically significant film and an important work of satire. The Great Dictator was nominated for five Academy Awards – Outstanding Production, Best Actor, Best Writing (Original Screenplay), Best Supporting Actor for Jack Oakie, and Best Music (Original Score).
In his 1964 autobiography, Chaplin stated that he would not have made the film if he had known about the true extent of the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps at the time.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 People of the ghetto
2.2 People of the palace
2.3 Other cast
3 Production
4 Score
5 Reception
5.1 Chaplin's Tramp character and the Jewish barber
5.2 Awards
6 Plagiarism lawsuit
7 Honors since 1997
8 Home media
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Plot[edit]
The action starts in 1918, with the defeat of the Tomainian[7] army. A Jewish barber saves the life of a wounded pilot, Schultz (Reginald Gardiner), but loses his own memory through concussion.
Chaplin as Adenoid Hynkel
Twenty years later, still suffering from amnesia and not having aged a single day, the barber escapes from his care-home to return to the ghetto. The ghetto is now governed by Schultz, who has been promoted in the Tomainian regime under the ruthless dictator Adenoid Hynkel, who looks like an identical twin of the barber (both played by Chaplin).
The barber falls in love with a neighbor, Hannah (Paulette Goddard), and together they try to resist persecution by storm troopers. The storm troopers capture the barber and are about to hang him, but Schultz remembers that the barber had saved his life during the war, and restrains them.
Hynkel tries to finance his military forces by borrowing money from a Jewish banker called Hermann Epstein, but the banker obviously refuses to lend him the money. Furious, Hynkel orders a purge of the Jews. Schultz protests this inhumane policy, and is removed from office and sent to a concentration camp. He escapes and hides in the ghetto with the barber. Schultz tries to persuade the Jewish family to mount an assassination attempt against Hynkel, but they decline to participate in his plan. Storm troopers search the ghetto, arresting Schultz and the barber. They are sent to a concentration camp. Hannah and her family flee to freedom in the neighboring country of Osterlich. Hynkel has a dispute with the dictator of the nation of Bacteria, a man named Napaloni (a spoof of Mussolini played by Jack Oakie), over which country should invade Osterlich. After signing a treaty with Napaloni, Hynkel invades Osterlich. The Jewish family is trapped by the invading force.
Escaping from the camp in stolen uniforms, Schultz and the barber, dressed as Hynkel, arrive at the Osterlich frontier, where a huge victory-parade is waiting to be addressed by Hynkel. The real Hynkel is mistaken for the barber while out duck-shooting in civilian clothes, is knocked out and is taken to a concentration camp. Schultz tells the barber to go up to the platform and impersonate Hynkel, as the only way to save their lives once they reach Osterlich's capital. The barber has never given a public speech in his life, but he has no other choice.
Chaplin with Jack Oakie as Benzino Napaloni
The terrified barber mounts the steps, but is inspired to seize the initiative. Announcing that he (apparently Hynkel) has had a change of heart, he makes an impassioned plea for brotherhood and goodwill.
You, the people, have the power to make this life free and beautiful, to make this life a wonderful adventure.
Then – in the name of democracy – let us use that power – let us all unite. Let us fight for a new world – a decent world that will give men a chance to work – that will give youth a future and old age a security. By the promise of these things, brutes have risen to power. But they lie! They do not fulfill that promise. They never will!
Dictators free themselves but they enslave the people! Now let us fight to fulfill that promise! Let us fight to free the world – to do away with national barriers – to do away with greed, with hate and intolerance. Let us fight for a world of reason, a world where science and progress will lead to all men’s happiness. Soldiers! in the name of democracy, let us all unite!
Finally, he addresses a message of hope to Hannah, in case she can hear him.
Look up, Hannah. The soul of man has been given wings, and at last he is beginning to fly. He is flying into the rainbow — into the light of hope, into the future, the glorious future that belongs to you, to me, and to all of us.[8]
Hannah hears the barber's voice on the radio. She turns her face, radiant with joy and hope, toward the sunlight, and says to her fellows, "Listen."
Cast[edit]
People of the ghetto[edit]
Charlie Chaplin as a Jewish barber in the ghetto, the protagonist. The Barber was a soldier during World War I and loses his memory for about 20 years. After having rescued Schultz during the war, he meets his friend again under radically changed circumstances.
Paulette Goddard as Hannah, the Barber's neighbour. She lives in the ghetto next to the barber shop. She supports the Barber against the Tomanian Storm troopers.
Maurice Moscovich as Mr. Jaeckel, an elderly Jew who befriends Hannah. Mr. Jaeckel is the renter of the barber salon.
Emma Dunn as Mrs. Jaeckel
Bernard Gorcey as Mr. Mann
Paul Weigel as Mr. Agar
Chester Conklin as Barber's customer
People of the palace[edit]
Charlie Chaplin as Adenoid Hynkel, the main antagonist. Hynkel is the Dictator of Tomania (a parody of Germany and Adolf Hitler)[9] and attacks the Jews with his storm troopers. He has Schultz arrested and has his storm troopers hunt down the Jewish Barber. Hynkel is later arrested by his own soldiers, who mistake him for the Jewish Barber.
Jack Oakie as Benzino Napaloni, Dictator of Bacteria, a parody of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.[9]
Reginald Gardiner as Commander Schultz, a Tomanian who fought in World War I, who commands soldiers in the 1930s. He has his troops abstain from attacking Jews, but is arrested by Hynkel, after which he becomes a loyal ally to the Barber. He later leads the invasion of Osterlich and helps the Barber to become Fuhrer.
Henry Daniell as Garbitsch, a parody of Joseph Goebbels,[9] and Hynkel's loyal Secretary of the Interior and Minister of Propaganda.
Billy Gilbert as Herring, a parody of Hermann Göring,[9] and Hynkel's Minister of War. He supervises demonstrations of newly developed weapons, which tend to fail and annoy Hynkel.
Grace Hayle as Madame Napaloni, the wife of Benzino who later dances with Hynkel.
Carter De Haven as Bacterian ambassador
Other cast[edit]
Stanley "Tiny" Sandford as a comrade soldier in 1918
Joe Bordeaux as ghetto extra
Hank Mann as storm trooper stealing fruit
Also featuring Chester Conklin, Esther Michelson, Florence Wright, Eddie Gribbon, Robert O. Davis, Eddie Dunn , Nita Pike and Peter Lynn.
Production[edit]
According to Jürgen Trimborn's biography of Nazi propaganda film-maker Leni Riefenstahl, both Chaplin and French film-maker René Clair viewed Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will together at a showing at the New York Museum of Modern Art. Film maker Luis Buñuel reports that Clair was horrified by the power of the film, crying out that this should never be shown or the West was lost. Chaplin, on the other hand, laughed uproariously at the film. He used it to inspire many elements of The Great Dictator, and by repeatedly viewing this film, Chaplin could closely mimic Hitler's mannerisms.
Trimborn suggests that Chaplin decided to proceed with making The Great Dictator after viewing Riefenstahl's film.[10] Hynkel's rally speech near the beginning of the film, delivered in German-sounding gibberish, is a caricature of Hitler's oratory style, which Chaplin also studied carefully in newsreels.[11]
The film was directed by Chaplin (with his half-brother Wheeler Dryden as assistant director), and written and produced by Chaplin. The film was shot largely at the Charlie Chaplin Studios and other locations around Los Angeles. The elaborate World War I scenes were filmed in Laurel Canyon. Chaplin and Meredith Willson composed the music. Filming began in September 1939 (coincidentally soon after Germany invaded Poland, triggering World War II) and finished six months later.
Chaplin wanted to address the escalating violence and repression of Jews by the Nazis throughout the late 1930s, the magnitude of which was conveyed to him personally by his European Jewish friends and fellow artists. The Third Reich's repressive nature and militarist tendencies were well-known at the time. Ernst Lubitsch's 1942 To Be or Not To Be dealt with similar themes, and also used a mistaken-identity Hitler figure. But Chaplin later said that he would not have made the film had he known of the true extent of the Nazis' crimes.[5] After the horror of the Holocaust became known, filmmakers struggled for nearly 20 years to find the right angle and tone to satirize the era.[12]
In the period when Hitler and his Nazi Party rose to prominence, Chaplin was becoming internationally popular. He was mobbed by fans on a 1931 trip to Berlin, which annoyed the Nazis. Resenting his style of comedy, they published a book titled The Jews Are Looking at You (1934), describing the comedian as "a disgusting Jewish acrobat" (although Chaplin was not Jewish). Ivor Montagu, a close friend of Chaplin, relates that he sent the comedian a copy of the book and always believed that Chaplin decided to retaliate with making Dictator.[13]
In the 1930s cartoonists and comedians often built on Hitler and Chaplin having similar mustaches. Chaplin also capitalized on this resemblance in order to give his Little Tramp character a "reprieve".[14]
In his memoir My Father, Charlie Chaplin, Chaplin's son Charlie Jr. described his father as being haunted by the similarities in background between him and Hitler; they were born four days apart in April 1889, and both had risen to their present heights from poverty. He wrote:
Their destinies were poles apart. One was to make millions weep, while the other was to set the whole world laughing. Dad could never think of Hitler without a shudder, half of horror, half of fascination. "Just think", he would say uneasily, "he's the madman, I’m the comic. But it could have been the other way around."[15]
Chaplin prepared the story throughout 1938 and 1939, and began filming in September 1939, one week after the beginning of World War II. He finished filming almost six months later. The 2002 TV documentary on the making of the film, The Tramp and the Dictator,[16] presented newly discovered footage of the film production (shot by Chaplin's elder half-brother Sydney) which showed Chaplin's initial attempts at the film's ending, filmed before the fall of France.[5]
According to The Tramp and the Dictator, Chaplin arranged to send the film to Hitler, and an eyewitness confirmed he saw it.[5] Hitler's architect and friend Albert Speer denied that the leader had ever seen it.[17] Hitler's response to the film is not recorded, but another account tells that he viewed the film twice.[18]
Some of the signs in the shop windows of the ghetto in the film are written in Esperanto, a language which Hitler condemned as a Jewish plot to internationalize and destroy German culture, perhaps because its founder was a Polish Jew.[19]
The film was Chaplin's first true talking picture and helped shake off criticism of Luddism following his previous release, the mostly dialogue-free Modern Times (1936), after the silent era had all but ended in the late 1920s. The Great Dictator does feature several scenes without dialogue more in keeping with Chaplin's earlier films.
Score[edit]
The score was written and directed by Meredith Willson, later known as composer and librettist of the 1957 musical comedy The Music Man:
I've seen [Chaplin] take a sound track and cut it all up and paste it back together and come up with some of the dangdest effects you ever heard—effects a composer would never think of. Don't kid yourself about that one. He would have been great at anything — music, law, ballet dancing, or painting — house, sign, or portrait. I got the screen credit for The Great Dictator music score, but the best parts of it were all Chaplin's ideas, like using the Lohengrin "Prelude" in the famous balloon-dance scene.[20]
According to Willson, the scene in which Chaplin shaves a customer to Brahms' Hungarian Dance No. 5 had been filmed before he arrived, using a phonograph record for timing. Willson's task was to re-record it with the full studio orchestra, fitting the music to the action. They had planned to do it painstakingly, recording eight measures or less at a time, after running through the whole scene to get the overall idea. Chaplin decided to record the run-through in case anything was usable. Willson later wrote, "by dumb luck we had managed to catch every movement, and that was the first and only 'take' made of the scene, the one used in the finished picture".[20]
Chaplin in the globe scene
James L. Neibaur has noted that among the many parallels that Chaplin noted between his own life and Hitler's was an affinity for Wagner's music.[21] Chaplin's appreciation for Wagner has been noted in studies of the director's use of film music.[22] Many commentators have noted Chaplin's use of Wagner's Lohengrin prelude when Hynckel dances with the globe-balloon.[21][23][24] Chaplin repeated use of the Lohengrin prelude near the conclusion, when the exiled Hannah listens to the Jewish barber's speech celebrating democracy and freedom.[25] The music is interrupted during the dictator's dance but it is heard to complete and climax in the barber's pro-democracy speech.
Commenting on this, Lutz Peter Koepnick writes in 2002,
How can Wagner at once help emphasize a progressivist vision of human individualism and a fascist preview of absolute domination? How can the master's music simultaneously signify a desire for lost emotional integrity and for authoritative grandeur?
Chaplin's dual use of Lohengrin points towards unsettling conjunctions of Nazi culture and Hollywood entertainment. Like Adorno, Chaplin understands Wagner as a signifier of both: the birth of fascism out of the spirit of the total work of art, and the origin of mass culture out of the spirit of the most arduous aesthetic program of the 19th century. Unlike Adorno [who identifies American mass culture and fascist spectacle], Chaplin wants his audience to make crucial distinctions between competing Wagnerianisms...Both...rely on the driving force of utopian desires, on...the promise of self-transcendence and authentic collectivity, but they channel these mythic longings in fundamentally different directions. Although [Chaplin] exposes the puzzling modernity of Nazi politics, Chaplin is unwilling to write off either Wagner or industrial culture. [Chaplin suggests] Hollywood needs Wagner as never before in order to at once condemn the use of fantasy in fascism and warrant the utopian possibilities in industrial culture.[26]
Reception[edit]
Chaplin's film was released nine months after Hollywood's first parody of Hitler, the short subject You Nazty Spy! by the Three Stooges, which premiered in January 1940.[27] Chaplin had been planning his feature-length work for years. Hitler had been previously allegorically pilloried in the German film by Fritz Lang, The Testament of Dr. Mabuse.
The film was well received in the United States at the time of its release, and was popular with the American public. The film was also popular in the United Kingdom, drawing 9 million to the cinemas,[28] despite Chaplin's fears that wartime audiences would dislike a comedy about a dictator. It was the second-most popular movie in the US in 1941.[29]
The film was banned in several Latin American countries, where there were active movements of Nazi sympathizers.[30]
During the film's production, the British government had announced that it would prohibit its exhibition in the United Kingdom, in keeping with its appeasement policy concerning Nazi Germany.[31] But by the time the film was released, the UK was at war with Germany and the film was welcomed in part for its obvious propaganda value. In 1941, London's Prince of Wales Theatre screened its UK premiere. The film had been banned in many parts of Europe, and the theatre's owner, Alfred Esdaile, was apparently fined for showing it.[4]
When the film was released in France in 1945, it became the most popular film of the year, with admissions of 8,280,553.[32]
Chaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance concludes his lengthy examination of the film, in his book Chaplin: Genius of the Cinema, by asserting the film's importance among the great film satires. Vance writes, "Chaplin's The Great Dictator survives as a masterful integration of comedy, politics and satire. It stands as Chaplin's most self-consciously political work and the cinema's first important satire."[33]
Chaplin's Tramp character and the Jewish barber[edit]
Chaplin (as the barber) absentmindedly tries to shave Goddard (as Hannah) in this image from the film trailer.
There is no critical consensus on the relationship between Chaplin's earlier Tramp character and the film's Jewish barber, but the trend is to view the barber as a variation on the theme. French film director François Truffaut later noted that early in the production, Chaplin said he would not play The Tramp in a sound film, and he considers the barber an entirely different character.[34] Turner Classic Movies says that years later, Chaplin acknowledged a connection between The Tramp and the barber. Specifically, "There is some debate as to whether the unnamed Jewish barber is intended as the Tramp's final incarnation. Although his memoirs frequently refer to the barber as the Little Tramp, Chaplin said in 1937 that he would not play the Little Tramp in his sound pictures."[35] In My Life, Chaplin would write, "Of course! As Hitler I could harangue the crowds all I wished. And as the tramp, I could remain silent." In his review of the film years after its release, Roger Ebert says, "Chaplin was technically not playing the Tramp." He also writes, "He [Chaplin] put the Little Tramp and $1.5 million of his own money on the line to ridicule Hitler."[36]
Critics who view the barber as different include Stephen Weissman, whose book Chaplin: A Life speaks of Chaplin "abandoning traditional pantomime technique and his little tramp character".[37] DVD reviewer Mark Bourne asserts Chaplin's stated position: "Granted, the barber bears more than a passing resemblance to the Tramp, even affecting the familiar bowler hat and cane. But Chaplin was clear that the barber is not the Tramp and The Great Dictator is not a Tramp movie."[38] The Scarecrow Movie Guide also views the barber as different.[39]
Annette Insdorf, in her book Indelible Shadows: Film and the Holocaust (2003), writes that "There was something curiously appropriate about the little tramp impersonating the dictator, for by 1939 Hitler and Chaplin were perhaps the two most famous men in the world. The tyrant and the tramp reverse roles in The Great Dictator, permitting the eternal outsider to address the masses".[40] In The 50 Greatest Jewish Movies (1998), Kathryn Bernheimer writes, "What he chose to say in The Great Dictator, however, was just what one might expect from the Little Tramp. Film scholars have often noted that the Little Tramp resembles a Jewish stock figure, the ostracized outcast, an outsider."[41]
Several reviewers of the late 20th century describe the Little Tramp as developing into the Jewish barber. In Boom and Bust: American Cinema in the 1940s, Thomas Schatz writes of "Chaplin's Little Tramp transposed into a meek Jewish barber",[42] while, in Hollywood in Crisis: Cinema and American Society, 1929-1939, Colin Shindler writes, "The universal Little Tramp is transmuted into a specifically Jewish barber whose country is about to be absorbed into the totalitarian empire of Adenoid Hynkel."[43] Finally, in A Distant Technology: Science Fiction Film and the Machine Age, J. P. Telotte writes that "The little tramp figure is here reincarnated as the Jewish barber".[44]
A two-page discussion of the relationship between the barber and The Tramp appears in Eric L. Flom's book Chaplin in the Sound Era: An Analysis of the Seven Talkies. He concludes:
Perhaps the distinction between the two characters would be more clear if Chaplin hadn't relied on some element of confusion to attract audiences to the picture. With The Great Dictator's twist of mistaken identity, the similarity between the Barber and the Tramp allowed Chaplin break [sic] with his old persona in the sense of characterization, but to capitalize on him in a visual sense. The similar nature of the Tramp and Barber characterizations may have been an effort by Chaplin to maintain his popularity with filmgoers, many of whom by 1940 had never seen a silent picture during the silent era. Chaplin may have created a new character from the old, but he nonetheless counted on the Charlie person to bring audiences into the theaters for his first foray into sound, and his boldest political statement to date.[45]
Awards[edit]
The film was nominated for five Academy Awards:
Outstanding Production – United Artists (Charlie Chaplin, Producer)
Best Actor – Charlie Chaplin
Best Writing (Original Screenplay) – Charlie Chaplin
Best Supporting Actor – Jack Oakie
Best Music (Original Score) – Meredith Willson
Plagiarism lawsuit[edit]
Chaplin's half-brother Sydney directed and starred in a 1921 film called King, Queen, Joker in which, like Chaplin, he played the dual role of a barber and ruler of a country which is about to be overthrown. More than twenty years later, in 1947, Charles Chaplin was sued over alleged plagiarism with The Great Dictator. Yet, apparently, neither the suing party nor Chaplin himself brought up his own brother's King, Queen, Joker of the silent era.[46] The case, Bercovici v. Chaplin, was settled, with Chaplin paying Konrad Bercovici $95,000.[47] Bercovici claimed that he had created ideas such as Chaplin playing a dictator and a dance with a globe, and that Chaplin had discussed his five-page outline for a screenplay with him for several hours.[31] But Chaplin insisted in his autobiography that he had been the sole writer of the movie's script. He agreed to a settlement, because of his "unpopularity in the States at that moment and being under such court pressure, [he] was terrified, not knowing what to expect next."[48]
The Margaret Herrick Library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, in Beverly Hills, California, has a copy of The Great Dictator script. The library permits viewers of the script to read it and take notes, but prohibits photocopying of it.[49]
Honors since 1997[edit]
In 1997, The Great Dictator was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant".[50]
In 2000, the American Film Institute ranked the film No. 37 in its "100 Years... 100 Laughs" list.[51]
The film holds a 92% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 37 reviews, three of which are negative.[52]
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #37[53]
2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated[54]
Home media[edit]
A digitally restored version of the film was released on DVD and Blu-ray by the Criterion Collection in May 2011. The extras feature color production footage shot by Chaplin's half-brother Sydney, deleted barbershop sequence from Chaplin's 1919 film Sunnyside, barbershop sequence from Sydney Chaplin's 1921 film King, Queen, Joker, a visual essay by Chaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance titled "The Clown Turns Prophet", and The Tramp and the Dictator (2001), Kevin Brownlow and Michael Kloft's documentary exploring the lives of Chaplin and Hitler, including interviews with author Ray Bradbury, director Sidney Lumet, screenwriter Budd Schulberg, and others. It has a booklet featuring an essay by film critic Michael Wood, Chaplin's 1940 New York Times defense of his movie, a reprint from critic Jean Narboni on the film's final speech, and Al Hirschfeld's original press book illustrations.[55]
See also[edit]
Hitler's Reign of Terror (1934), possibly the first American anti-Nazi film
You Nazty Spy! (January 19, 1940) and I'll Never Heil Again (July 11, 1941), two Three Stooges shorts with similar subject matter. The former was released nine months before The Great Dictator.
To Be or Not to Be (February 15, 1942), a dark comedy about living in Nazi-occupied Warsaw (also remade in 1983 by Mel Brooks)
Der Fuehrer's Face (January 1, 1943), a Donald Duck cartoon that spoofs the severity of the Nazi dictatorship and the effect it had on the people directly affected by it
Herr Meets Hare (1945), a Bugs Bunny cartoon satirizing Hitler and Hermann Göring
Dr. Strangelove (1964), Stanley Kubrick's satire about nuclear war between the US and Russia, featuring a former Nazi (played by Peter Sellers) as an adviser to the Americans
The Producers, a 1968 comedy film by Mel Brooks about an effort to mount a sure-to-fail musical (for tax purposes) based on a failed play, titled Springtime for Hitler, by an ex-Nazi about the "glories" of Nazi Germany
Life Is Beautiful, Roberto Benigni's 1997 Italian film about a Jewish Italian, who uses his comical imagination to help his family during their internment in a Nazi concentration camp
Hotel Lux, Leander Haußmann's tragicomedy about a comedian escaping from Hitler's Germany to Stalin's Russia
Iron Sky, a 2012 Finnish film in which a colony of Nazis on the Moon have been educated with a revisionist history based on a shortened version of The Great Dictator, in which he is shown as a benevolent leader
The Dictator, a 2012 comedy film starring and co-written by British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen
One Wing, album by an American metalcore band, The Chariot, that features the final speech in their song "Cheek"
Tanz Mit Laibach, a piece of music performed by the Slovenian and former Yugoslav avant-garde music group Laibach, the lyrics of which refer to the characters Adenoid Hynkel and Benzino Napaloni
The Interview, a 2014 comedy film stars Seth Rogen and James Franco as journalists instructed to assassinate North Korean leader Kim Jong-un (played by Randall Park) after booking an interview with him
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Great Dictator (U)". British Board of Film Classification. December 9, 1940. Retrieved November 3, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Jones, Lon (March 4, 1944). "Which Cinema Films Have Earned the Most Money Since 1914?.". The Argus. Melbourne: National Library of Australia. p. 3 Supplement: The Argus Weekend magazine. Retrieved August 6, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Prince of Wales Theatre (2007). "Theatre Programme, Mama Mia!". London.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Branagh, Kenneth (Narrator). Chaplin and Hitler: The Tramp and the Dictator. BBC. 2002.
Jump up ^ Chaplin, Charlie (1964). My Autobiography. p. 392. Had I known of the actual horrors of the German concentration camps, I could not have made The Great Dictator, I could not have made fun of the homicidal insanity of the Nazis.
Jump up ^ The spelling of the country's name is derived from the numerous local newspapers flashed onscreen between 14 and 15 minutes into the film that indicate the end of World War I, such as The Tomainian Post, thus establishing the proper spelling.
Jump up ^ Eidenmuller, Michael E. "'The Great Dictator' (1940)". American Rhetoric. Retrieved April 1, 20 12.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Great Dictator". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Trimborn, Jürgen (2007). Leni Riefenstahl: A Life. Macmillan. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-0-374-18493-3.
Jump up ^ R. Cole (2001), "Anglo-American Anti-fascist Film Propaganda in a Time of Neutrality: The Great Dictator, 1940". Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 21(2): 137-152. Quote: "[Chaplin sat] for hours watching newsreels of the German dictator, exclaiming: 'Oh, you bastard, you!'"
Jump up ^ "Hitler in the Movies". Searching for Hitler. schikelgruber.net. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Stratton, David (February 21, 2002). "The Tramp and the Dictator", Variety. Archived at HighBeam Research.
Jump up ^ Kamin, Dan; Scott Eyman (2011). The Comedy of Charlie Chaplin: Artistry in Motion. Scarecrow Press. pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-0-8108-7780-1.
Jump up ^ Singer, Jessica (September 14, 2007). "THE GREAT DICTATOR". Brattle Theatre Film Notes.
Jump up ^ Internationally co-produced by 4 production companies including BBC, Turner Classic Movies, and Germany's Spiegel TV
Jump up ^ Charlie Chaplins Hitler-Parodie: Führer befiehl, wir lachen! (in German)
Jump up ^ Wallace, Irving; Wallace, David; Wallace, Amy; Wallace, Sylvia (February 1980). The Book of Lists 2. p. 200.
Jump up ^ Hoffmann, Frank W.; William G. Bailey (1992). Mind & Society Fads. Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-178-0. , p. 116, Quote: "Between world wars, Esperanto fared worse and, sadly, became embroiled in political power moves. Adolf Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that the spread of Esperanto throughout Europe was a Jewish plot to break down national differences so that Jews could assume positions of authority.... After the Nazis' successful Blitzkrieg of Poland, the Warsaw Gestapo received orders to 'take care' of the Zamenhof family.... Zamenhof's son was shot... his two daughters were put in Treblinka death camp."
^ Jump up to: a b Meredith WIllson (1948). And There I Stood With My Piccolo. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc.
^ Jump up to: a b James L. Neibaur (2011). "The Great Dictator (Web Exclusive)". Cineaste,Vol.XXXVI No.4 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Bill (). "Charles Spencer Chaplin". ragpiano.com. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Charlie Chaplin in The Dictator: The Globe Scene using the Prelude to Lohengrin, Act 1". WagnerOpera.net. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ten Films that Used Wagner's Music". Los Angeles Times. June 17, 2010
Jump up ^ Peter Conrad. Modern Times, Modern Places How Life and Art Were Transformed in a Century of Revolution, Innovation and Radical Change. Thames & Hudson. 1999, p. 427
Jump up ^ Koepnick, Lutz Peter (2002). The Dark Mirror: German Cinema between Hitler and Hollywood. University of California Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-520-23311-9.
Jump up ^ Waller, J. Michael. Fighting the War of Ideas Like a Real War. Lulu.com. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-615-14463-4.
Jump up ^ Ryan Gilbey (2005). The Ultimate Film: The UK's 100 most popular films. London: BFI. p. 240.
Jump up ^ "FILM MONEY-MAKERS SELECTED BY VARIETY: 'Sergeant York' Top Picture, Gary Cooper Leading Star", New York Times (1923-Current file) [New York] December 31, 1941: 21.
Jump up ^ Charles Higham (biographer)|Charles Higham, The Films of Orson Welles], University of California Press, 1971. ISBN 0-520-02048-0, ISBN 978-0-520-02048-1. p. 85
^ Jump up to: a b Friedrich, Otto (1997). City of Nets: A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940's (reprint ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0520209494.
Jump up ^ French box office in 1945 at Box office story
Jump up ^ Vance, Jeffrey (2003). Chaplin: Genius of the Cinema. New York: Harry N. Abrams, p. 250. ISBN 0-8109-4532-0.
Jump up ^ Truffaut, François (1994). The Films in My Life. Da Capo Press,. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-306-80599-8.
Jump up ^ "The Great Dictator:The Essentials". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
Jump up ^ Roger Ebert (September 27, 2007). "The Great Dictator (1940) [review]". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
Jump up ^ Weissman, Stephen (2008). Chaplin: A Life. Arcade. ISBN 978-1-55970-892-0.
Jump up ^ Mark Bourne. "The Great Dictator:The Chaplin Collection". DVD Journal. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
Jump up ^ The Scarecrow Video Movie Guide. Sasquatch Books. 2004. p. 808. ISBN 978-1-57061-415-6.
Jump up ^ Insdorf, Annette (2003). Indelible shadows: film and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. p. 410. ISBN 978-0-521-01630-8.
Jump up ^ Bernheimer, Kathryn (1998). The 50 greatest Jewish movies: a critic's ranking of the very best. Carol Publishing. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-55972-457-9.
Jump up ^ Schatz, Thomas (1999). Boom and Bust: American Cinema in the 1940s. University of California Press. p. 571. ISBN 978-0-520-22130-7.
Jump up ^ Shindler, Colin (1996). Hollywood in crisis: cinema and American society, 1929–1939. Psychology Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-415-10313-8.
Jump up ^ Telotte, J.P. (1999). A distant technology: science fiction film and the machine age. Wesleyan University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-8195-6346-0.
Jump up ^ Flom, Eric (1997). Chaplin in the sound era: an analysis of the seven talkies. McFarland. p. 322. ISBN 978-0-7864-0325-7.
Jump up ^ Garza, Janiss. "King, Queen, Joker: Synopsis". AllMovie. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bercovici v. Chaplin: 1947 – "the Little Tramp" Plays To A Full House, Plaintiff Claims Oral Agreement, Suggestions For Further Reading". Law Library – American Law and Legal Information. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Chaplin, My Autobiography, 1964
Jump up ^ "Great Dictator Script". Charlie Chaplin Club. 2010. Retrieved 2017-01-10. As with all of their script collection, it is available for perusal and note taking, but cannot be photocopied.
Jump up ^ "Films Selected to The National Film Registry, 1989–2010". Library of Congress. Retrieved February 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ America's Funniest Movies. AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs. Retrieved February 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ The Great Dictator at Rotten Tomatoes
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs" (PDF). American Film Institute. Retrieved 2016-08-06.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies Nominees (10th Anniversary Edition)" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-06.
Jump up ^ "The Great Dictator". The Criterion Collection. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
References[edit]
Chaplin and American Culture: The Evolution of a Star Image. Charles J. Maland. Princeton, 1989.
National Film Theatre/British Film Institute notes on The Great Dictator.
The Tramp and the Dictator, directed by Kevin Brownlow, Michael Kloft 2002, 88 mn.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Great Dictator
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Great Dictator (film).
The Great Dictator on IMDb
The Great Dictator at AllMovie
The Great Dictator at Rotten Tomatoes
'Look up, Hannah' Speech at End of Movie in Text, Audio and Video from AmericanRhetoric.com
Michael Wood. "Criterion Collection Essay". criterion.com. The Criterion Collection.
Photos from the set of The Great Dictator
The Great Dictator (1940) THE SCREEN IN REVIEW, Bosley Crowther Wallace, The New York Times, October 16, 1940
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Navigation Acts
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The Navigation Acts were a series of English laws that restricted colonial trade to England. They were first enacted in 1651 and throughout that time until 1663,[1] and were repealed in 1849. They reflected the policy of mercantilism, which sought to keep all the benefits of trade inside the Empire, and to minimize the loss of gold and silver to foreigners. They prohibited the colonies from trading directly with the Netherlands, Spain, France, and their colonies. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the Restoration by Acts of 1660, 1663, 1670, and 1673, with subsequent minor amendments. The Acts formed the basis for English overseas trade for nearly 200 years. Additionally the Acts restricted the employment of non-English sailors to a quarter of the crew on returning East India Company ships.
The major impetuses for the Navigation Acts were the ruinous deterioration of English trade in the aftermath of the Eighty Years' War, and the concomitant lifting of the Spanish embargoes on trade between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic. The end of the embargoes in 1647 unleashed the full power of the Amsterdam Entrepôt and other Dutch competitive advantages in world trade. Within a few years, English merchants had practically been overwhelmed in the trade in the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean and the Levant. Even the trade with English colonies (partly still in the hands of the royalists, as the English Civil War was in its final stages and the Commonwealth of England had not yet imposed its authority throughout the English colonies) was "engrossed" by Dutch merchants. English direct trade was crowded out by a sudden influx of commodities from the Levant, Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and the West Indies via the Dutch Entrepôt, carried in Dutch ships and for Dutch account.[2]
The obvious solution seemed to be to seal off the English and Scottish markets to these unwanted imports. A precedent was the Act the Greenland Company had obtained from Parliament in 1645 prohibiting the import of whale products into England, except in ships owned by that company. This principle was now generalised. In 1648 the Levant Company petitioned Parliament for the prohibition of imports of Turkish goods "...from Holland and other places but directly from the places of their growth."[3] Baltic traders added their voices to this chorus. In 1650 the Standing Council for Trade and the Council of State of the Commonwealth prepared a general policy designed to impede the flow of Mediterranean and colonial commodities via Holland and Zeeland into England.[4]
On the whole, the Acts of Trade and Navigation were obeyed, except for the Molasses Act of 1733, which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1750s. Stricter enforcement under the Sugar Act of 1764 became one source of resentment of Great Britain by merchants in the American colonies. This in turn helped push the colonies to start the American Revolution in the late 18th century, even though the consensus view among modern economic historians and economists is that the "costs imposed on [American] colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small."[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical precedents
2 Navigation Act 1651
3 The Navigation Acts
3.1 Molasses Act 1733
3.2 Repeal
4 Effects on Britain
5 Effects on American colonies
6 Notes
7 References
7.1 Econometric studies
8 External links
Historical precedents[edit]
Some principles of English mercantile legislation pre-date both the passage of the 1651 navigation act and the settlement of its early foreign possessions. A 1381 act passed under King Richard II provided "that, to increase the navy of England, no goods or merchandises shall be either exported or imported, but only in ships belonging to the King's subjects." The letters patent granted to the Cabots by Henry VII in 1498, stipulated that the commerce resulting from their discoveries must be with England, (specifically Bristol).[6] Henry VIII established a second principle by statute, that such a vessel must be English-built and a majority of the crew must be English-born. Legislation during the reign of Elizabeth I also dealt with these questions and resulted in a large increase for English merchant shipping.[7] Soon after actual settlements had been made in America, these early requirements illustrate the English theory then-held regarding the governmental control of maritime commerce.[8]
With the establishment of overseas colonies a distinct colonial policy began to develop, and the principles embodied in the early Navigation and Trade Acts also had some more immediate precedents in the provisions of the charters granted to the London and Plymouth Company, in the various royal patents later bestowed by Charles I and Charles II, as well as in the early regulations concerning the tobacco trade, the first profitable colonial export. An order in council of October 24, 1621 prohibited the Virginia colony to export tobacco and other commodities to foreign countries.[9] The London Company lost its charter in 1624; the same year a proclamation, followed by orders in council, prohibited the use of foreign ships for the Virginia tobacco trade.[7] These early companies held the monopoly on trade with their plantation; this meant that the developed commerce was to be England's. The Crown's purpose was to restrict for England the future commerce with America; it is well shown in the patent granted by Charles I to William Berkeley in 1639, by which the patentee was "to oblige the masters of vessels, freighted with productions of the colony, to give bond before their departure to bring same into England ... and to forbid all trade with foreign vessels, except upon necessity."[8]
As early as 1641 some English merchants urged that these rules be embodied in an act of Parliament, and during the Long Parliament, movement began in that direction. The Ordinance for Free Trade with the plantations in New England was passed in November 1644. In 1645, to both conciliate the colonies and encourage English shipping, the Long Parliament prohibited the shipment of whalebone, except in English-built ships;[10] they later prohibited the importation of French wine, wool, and silk from France;[11] More generally and significantly on 23 January 1647, they passed the Ordinance granting privileges for the encouragement of Adventurers to plantations in Virginia, Bermudas, Barbados, and other places of America; it enacted that for three years no export duty be levied on goods intended for the colonies, provided they were forwarded in English vessels.[7] Adam Anderson notes this law also included "security being given here, and certificates from thence, that the said goods be really exported thither. and for the only use of the said plantations;" He concludes: "Hereby the foundation was laid for the navigation acts afterward, which may be justly termed the Commercial Palladium of Britain."[12]
The English were well aware of their inferior competitive trading position. Three acts of the Rump parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the historical development of England's commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650, to advance and regulate national trade.[13] The instructions to the named commissioners included consideration of both domestic and foreign trade, the trading companies, manufactures, free ports, customs, excise, statistics, coinage and exchange, and fisheries, but also the plantations and the best means of promoting their welfare and rendering them useful to England. This act's statesmanlike and comprehensive instructions, was followed by the October act prohibiting trade with pro-royalist colonies and the first Navigation Act of the following October. These acts formed the first definitive expression of England's commercial policy. They represent the first attempt to establish a legitimate control of commercial and colonial affairs, and the instructions indicate the beginnings of a policy which had the prosperity and wealth of England exclusively at heart.[14] The 1650 act prohibiting trade with royalist colonies was more encompassing however, because it included that all foreign ships were prohibited from trading with any English Plantations, without license, and it was made lawful to seize and make prizes of any ships violating the act. While this act, sometimes referred to as the Navigation Act of 1650, was hastily passed as a war measure during the English Civil Wars, it would be followed by a carefully conceived act in the following year.[8]
Navigation Act 1651[edit]
For more details on this topic, see First Anglo-Dutch War.
The Navigation Act was passed on 9 October 1651[15] by the Rump Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell. It authorised the Commonwealth to regulate trade within the colonies.[16] It reinforced a long-standing principle of government policy that English trade should be carried in English vessels. It was a reaction to the failure of the English diplomatic mission (led by Oliver St John and Walter Strickland) to The Hague seeking a political union of the Commonwealth with the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after the States of Holland had made some cautious overtures to Cromwell to counter the monarchical aspirations of stadtholder William II of Orange.[17] The stadtholder had suddenly died, however, and the States were now embarrassed by Cromwell taking the idea too seriously. The English proposed the joint conquest of all remaining Spanish and Portuguese possessions. England would take America and the Dutch would take Africa and Asia. But the Dutch had just ended their war with Spain and already taken over most Portuguese colonies in Asia, so they saw little advantage in this grandiose scheme and proposed a free trade agreement as an alternative to a full political union. This again was unacceptable to the British, who would be unable to compete on such a level playing field, and was seen by them as a deliberate affront.
The Act banned foreign ships from transporting goods from outside Europe to England or its colonies, and banned third-party countries' ships from transporting goods from a country elsewhere in Europe to England. These rules specifically targeted the Dutch, who controlled much of Europe's international trade and even much of England's coastal shipping. It excluded the Dutch from essentially all trade with England, as the Dutch economy was competitive with, not complementary to the English, and the two countries therefore exchanged few commodities. This Anglo-Dutch trade, however, constituted only a small fraction of total Dutch trade flows. The Act is often mentioned as a major cause of the First Anglo-Dutch War, though it was only part of a larger British policy to engage in war after the negotiations had failed. The English naval victories in 1653 (the Battles of Portland, the Gabbard and the Scheveningen) showed the supremacy of the Commonwealth navy in home waters. However, farther afield the Dutch predominated and were able to close down English commerce in the Baltic and the Mediterranean. Both countries held each other in a stifling embrace.[18]
The Treaty of Westminster (1654) ended the impasse. The Dutch failed to have the Act repealed or amended, but it seems to have had relatively little influence on their trade. The Act offered England only limited solace. It could not limit the deterioration of England's overseas trading position, except in the cases where England herself was the principal consumer, such as the Canaries wine trade and the trade in Puglian olive oil. In the trade with the West Indies, the Dutch kept up a flourishing "smuggling" trade, thanks to the preference of English planters for Dutch import goods and the better deal the Dutch offered in the sugar trade. The Dutch colony of New Netherlands offered a loophole (through intercolonial trade) wide enough to drive a shipload of Virginian tobacco through.[19]
The Navigation Acts[edit]
The 1651 Act (like other laws of the Commonwealth period) was declared void on the Restoration of Charles II, having been passed by 'usurping powers'. Parliament therefore passed new legislation. This is generally referred to as the "Navigation Acts", and (with some amendments) remained in force for nearly two centuries.
The Navigation Act 1660 (passed on 13 September) added a twist to Oliver Cromwell's Act: ships' crews had to be three-quarters English, and "enumerated" products not produced by the mother country, such as tobacco, cotton, and sugar were to be shipped from the colonies only to England or other English colonies. Ship captains were required to post a bond to ensure compliance and could recoup the funds upon arrival.[20]
The Navigation Act 1663 (also called the Act for the Encouragement of Trade, passed on 27 July) required all European goods bound for America (or other colonies) to be shipped through England first.[20] In England, the goods would be unloaded, inspected, paid duties, approved, and finally reloaded. The trade had to be carried in English vessels ("bottoms"), which included those of its colonies. Furthermore, imports of 'enumerated commodities' (such as sugar, rice, and tobacco) had to be landed and pay tax before going on to other countries. This increased the cost to the colonies, and increased the shipping time. "England" here includes Wales, though it was little involved in trade to distant parts. After the Act of Union 1707, Scotland enjoyed the same privileges.
This Act entitled colonial shipping and seamen to enjoy the full benefits of the exclusive provisions. There was no bar put in the way of colonists who might wish to trade in their own shipping with foreign plantations or European countries other than England, provided they did not violate the enumerated commodity clause.[21] "English bottoms" included vessels built in English plantations (i.e. colonies), for example in America. Further Navigation Acts were passed in 1673 to close a loophole and in 1696 to strengthen enforcement.[20]
The Acts were in full force for a short time only. After the Second Anglo-Dutch War, which ended disastrously for England, the Dutch obtained the right to ship commodities produced in their German hinterland to England as if these were Dutch goods. Even more importantly, England conceded the principle of "free ship, free good" which provided freedom from molestation by the Royal Navy of Dutch shipping on the high seas in wars in which the Dutch Republic was neutral. This more or less gave the Dutch freedom to conduct their "smuggling" unhindered as long as they were not caught red-handed in territorial waters controlled by England. These provisions were reconfirmed in the Treaty of Westminster (1674) after the Third Anglo-Dutch War.[22]
Molasses Act 1733[edit]
The 1733 Molasses Act levied heavy duties on the trade of sugar from the French West Indies to the American colonies, forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive sugar from the British West Indies instead. The law was widely flouted, but efforts by the British to prevent smuggling created hostility and contributed to the American Revolution. The Molasses Act was the first of the Sugar Acts. The Act was set to expire in 1763, but in 1764 it was renewed as the Sugar Act, which caused further unrest among the colonists.
Repeal[edit]
The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849 under the influence of a free trade philosophy. The Navigation Acts were passed under the economic theory of mercantilism, under which wealth was to be increased by restricting colonial trade to the mother country rather than through free trade. By 1849 "a central part of British import strategy was to reduce the cost of food through cheap foreign imports and in this way to reduce the cost of maintaining labour power" (van Houten). Repealing the Navigation Acts along with the Corn Laws eventually served this purpose (towards the end of the century), but also led to the end of the formal empire[clarification needed] in favour of an informal empire, in which private enterprises under the British banner extended trading relations and opened new markets. The East India trading company is an excellent example of this, gaining full provincial control over Bengal and its sub-regions with the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, while being governed privately rather than directly by the British government.
Effects on Britain[edit]
The Acts caused Britain's shipping industry to develop in isolation. However, it had the advantage to English shippers of severely limiting the ability of Dutch ships to participate in the carrying trade to England. By reserving British colonial trade to British shipping, the Acts may have significantly assisted in the growth of London as a major entrepôt for American colonial wares at the expense of Dutch cities. The maintenance of a certain level of merchant shipping and of trade generally also facilitated a rapid increase in the size and quality of the Royal Navy, which eventually (after the Anglo-Dutch Alliance of 1689 limited the Dutch navy to three-fifths of the size of the English one) led to Britain becoming a global superpower, which it remained until the mid-20th century. That naval might, however, never limited Dutch trading power — because the Dutch enjoyed enough leverage over overseas markets and shipping resources (combined with a financial power that was only overtaken by Britain during the 18th century) to enable them to put enough pressure on the English to prevent them from sustaining naval campaigns long enough to wrest maritime concessions from the Dutch.[23]
Effects on American colonies[edit]
The Navigation Acts, while enriching Britain, caused resentment in the colonies and contributed to the American Revolution. The Navigation Acts required all of a colony's imports to be either bought from England or resold by English merchants in England, no matter what price could be obtained elsewhere.
Historian Robert Thomas (1965) argues that the impact of the Acts on the economies of the 13 American colonies was minimal; the cost was about ₤4 per ₤1000 of income per year. The average personal income was about ₤100 per year.[24] However Ransom (1968) says that the net burden imposed by the Acts was small in size, yet their overall impact on the shape[clarification needed] and growth rate of the economy was significant. That was because the Acts differentially affected different groups, helping some and hurting others.[25] Walton concludes that the political friction caused by the Acts was more serious than the negative economic impact, especially since the merchants most affected were politically most active.[26] Sawers (1992) points out that the political issue is what would have been the future impact of the Acts after 1776[clarification needed] as the colonial economy matured and was blocked by the Acts from serious competition with British manufacturers.[27] In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association found that 89 percent of economists and historians would generally agree that the "costs imposed on [American] colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small."[28]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ V Bevan, The Development of British Immigration Law (1986) 91
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 305–309
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), p. 309
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 309–310
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 140. JSTOR 2123771. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ 1498 - The letters patent of King Henry the Seventh Granted unto Iohn Cabot and his Three Sonnes, Lewis, Sebastian and Sancius for the Discouerie of New and Unknowen Lands; March 5
^ Jump up to: a b c Charles McLean Andrews, Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689, p.10 (1904)
^ Jump up to: a b c Chapter III - The Commercial Policy of England Toward the American Colonies: the Acts of Trade, in Emory R. Johnson, T. W. Van Metre, G. G. Huebner, D. S. Hanchett, History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States - Vol. 1, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915. – via Questia (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Charles M. Andrews, British Committees, Commissions and Councils of Trade and Plantations 1622-1675, 1908
Jump up ^ 6 May 1645 Ordinance to prevent the importation by foreigners of whale oil, fins or gills, commonly called whalebone.
Jump up ^ 28 August 1649 Act prohibiting the importation of any Wines of the Growth of France, and all manufactures of wool and silk made in France.
Jump up ^ Adam Anderson, An historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce: from the earliest accounts. ..., Vol. 2, p.404. Published 1787
Jump up ^ August 1650: An Act for the Advancing and Regulating of the Trade of this Commonwealth.
Jump up ^ Charles M. Andrews, British Committees, Commissions and Councils of Trade and Plantations 1622-1675, Chapter II, Control of Trade and Plantations During the Interregnum, p.24 (1908)
Jump up ^ Blair Worden (1977). The Rump Parliament 1648-53. Cambridge UP. p. 299.
Jump up ^ Pestana, Carla Gardina (2004). The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution: 1640-1661. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press. p. 120.
Jump up ^ Godwin, William (1827). History of the Commonwealth of England Vol. 3. H. Colburn. pps.372-382.
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), p. 316
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), p.310-311
^ Jump up to: a b c Purvis, Thomas L. (23 April 1997). A dictionary of American history. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-57718-099-9. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Craven, p. 35
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 316–317
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 317–318
Jump up ^ Thomas, Robert P. (1964). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings". Journal of Economic History. 25 (4): 615–638. JSTOR 2116133.
Jump up ^ Ransom, Roger L. (1968). "British Policy and Colonial Growth: Some Implications of the Burden from the Navigation Acts". Journal of Economic History. 28 (3): 427–35. JSTOR 2116467.
Jump up ^ Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts". Economic History Review. 24 (4): 533–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x.
Jump up ^ Sawers, Larry (1992). "The Navigation Acts revisited". Economic History Review. 45 (2): 262–284. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1992.tb01301.x.
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 140. JSTOR 2123771. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
References[edit]
Craven, Wesley Frank (1968). The Colonies in Transition. On North America
Clapham, J. H. (1910). "The last years of the Navigation Acts". English Historical Review. 25 (99): 480–501. JSTOR 549885. doi:10.1093/ehr/xxv.xcix.480.
Dickerson, Oliver Morton (1951). The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution.
Harper, Lawrence Averell (1959). The Effect of the Navigation Acts on the Thirteen Colonies.
Harper, Lawrence Averell (1939). The English Navigation Laws: A Seventeenth‐Century Experiment in Social Engineering.
Israel, J. I. (1997). "England's Mercantilist Response to Dutch World Trade Primacy, 1647–74". Conflicts of Empires. Spain, the Low Countries and the struggle for world supremacy 1585–1713. Hambledon Press. pp. 305–318. ISBN 1-85285-161-9.
Econometric studies[edit]
Loschky, David J. (1973). "Studies of the Navigation Acts: New Economic Non-History?". Economic History Review. 26 (4): 689–691. JSTOR 2593707. doi:10.2307/2593707.
Ransom, Roger L. (1968). "British Policy and Colonial Growth: Some Implications of the Burden from the Navigation Acts". Journal of Economic History. 28 (3): 427–35. JSTOR 2116467.
Sawers, Larry (1992). "The Navigation Acts revisited". Economic History Review. 45 (2): 262–284. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1992.tb01301.x.
Thomas, Robert P. (1964). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings". Journal of Economic History. 25 (4): 615–638. JSTOR 2116133.
Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts". Economic History Review. 24 (4): 533–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x.
External links[edit]
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