text:
Grasshopper
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Common name for a group of insects
For other uses, see Grasshopper (disambiguation).
Grasshopper
Informal grouping of insects in Caelifera
American grasshopper (Schistocerca americana)
including
Tetrigoidea
Eumastacoidea
Pneumoroidea
Pyrgomorphoidea
Acridoidea
Tanaoceroidea
Trigonopterygoidea
Grasshoppers are an informal group of insects in the suborder Caelifera. They are among what is probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which enable them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. They are hemimetabolous insects (they do not undergo complete metamorphosis) which hatch from an egg into a nymph or "hopper" which undergoes five moults, becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage. At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change colour and behaviour and form swarms. Under these circumstances they are known as locusts.
Grasshoppers are plant-eaters, with a few species at times becoming serious pests of cereals, vegetables and pasture, especially when they swarm in their millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas. They protect themselves from predators by camouflage; when detected, many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly-coloured wing-flash while jumping and (if adult) launching themselves into the air, usually flying for only a short distance. Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators. Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases, and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults. The eggs are the subject of attack by parasitoids and predators.
Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts can have devastating effects and cause famine, and even in smaller numbers, the insects can be serious pests. They are used as food in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia. They feature in art, symbolism and literature.
Contents
1 Characteristics
2 Phylogeny
3 Biology
3.1 Diet and digestion
3.2 Sensory organs
3.3 Circulation and respiration
3.4 Jumping
3.5 Stridulation
3.6 Life cycle
3.7 Swarming
4 Predators, parasites and pathogens
4.1 Anti-predator defences
5 Relationship with humans
5.1 In art and media
5.2 Symbolism
5.3 As food
5.4 As pests
5.5 In literature
5.6 In mechanical engineering
6 Notes
7 References
8 Sources
9 External links
Characteristics[edit]
Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head, thorax and abdomen. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, with the mouth at the bottom. The head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws.[1]
The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin. The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The forewings, known as tegmina, are narrow and leathery while the hindwings are large and membranous, the veins providing strength. The legs are terminated by claws for gripping. The hind leg is particularly powerful; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end. The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the wings and legs.[1]
Ensifera, like this great green bush-cricket Tettigonia viridissima, somewhat resemble grasshoppers but have over 20 segments in their antennae and different ovipositors.
The abdomen has eleven segments, the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the tympanal organ and hearing system. Segments two to eight are ring-shaped and joined by flexible membranes. Segments nine to eleven are reduced in size; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven house the reproductive organs. Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males, with short ovipositors.[1] The name of the suborder "Caelifera" comes from the Latin and means chisel-bearing, referring to the shape of the ovipositor.[2]
Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind legs against the edges of the forewings (stridulation). These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females, though in some species the females also stridulate.[3]
Grasshoppers may be confused with Ensifera (crickets, etc.), but they differ in many aspects; these include the number of segments in their antennae and the structure of the ovipositor, as well as the location of the tympanal organ and the methods by which sound is produced.[4] Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20–24 segments, while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter, stouter antennae.[3]
Phylogeny[edit]
Grasshoppers belong to the suborder Caelifera. Although, "grasshopper" is sometimes used as a common name for the suborder in general[5][6][7], some sources restrict it to the more "advanced" groups.[8] They may be placed in the infraorder Acrididea[9] and have been referred-to as "short-horned grasshoppers" in older texts[10] to distinguish them from the also-obsolete term "long-horned grasshoppers" (now bush-crickets or katydids) with their much longer antennae. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera, Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic.[11][12]
Orthoptera
Ensifera (crickets)
[6 superfamilies]
Caelifera
Tridactyloidea
Tetrigoidea
Eumastacidae
Proscopiidae
Pneumoridae
Pyrgomorphidae
Acrididae + Pamphagidae
Fossil grasshoppers at the Royal Ontario Museum
In evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary;[13] the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic.[14][15] Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings.[16]
The Caelifera includes some 2,400 valid genera and about 11,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical wet forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones, but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide. They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects.[16]
The most diverse superfamily is the Acridoidea, with around 8,000 species. The two main families in this are the Acrididae (grasshoppers and locusts) with a worldwide distribution, and the Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), found chiefly in the New World. The Ommexechidae and Tristiridae are South American, and the Lentulidae, Lithidiidae and Pamphagidae are mainly African. The Pauliniids are nocturnal and can swim or skate on water, and the Lentulids are wingless.[14] Pneumoridae are native to Africa, particularly southern Africa, and are distinguished by the inflated abdomens of the males.[17]
Biology[edit]
Diet and digestion[edit]
Structure of mouthparts
Further information: Digestive system of insects
Most grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating vegetation from multiple plant sources,[18] but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops.[19] The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes.[20]
Sensory organs[edit]
Frontal view of Egyptian locust (Anacridium aegyptium) showing the compound eyes, tiny ocelli and numerous setae
Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive set of external sense organs. On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement, shape, colour and distance. There are also three simple eyes (ocelli) on the forehead which can detect light intensity, a pair of antennae containing olfactory (smell) and touch receptors, and mouthparts containing gustatory (taste) receptors.[21] At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception. There are numerous fine hairs (setae) covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors (touch and wind sensors), and these are most dense on the antennae, the palps (part of the mouth), and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen.[22] There are special receptors (campaniform sensillae) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion.[23] There are internal "chordotonal" sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton. The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons, and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself.[22]
Circulation and respiration[edit]
Further information: Insect morphology § Circulatory system, and Respiratory system of insects
Like other insects, grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph. A heart-like structure in the upper part of the abdomen pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen. This system circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut. Other functions of the haemolymph include wound healing, heat transfer and the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange.[24] Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system.[25]
Jumping[edit]
A large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (twenty body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g.[26] Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air.[27] They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. However, a fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with both high force and high velocity at the same time. Grasshoppers overcome this apparent contradiction by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles.[28]
The jump is a three-stage process.[29] First, the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg (tibia) against the upper part (femur) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle (the back legs of the grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position). Second, there is a period of co-contraction in which force builds up in the large, pennate extensor tibiae muscle, but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle. The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle, but the latter is aided by specializations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed.[30] Co-contraction can last for up to half a second, and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg.[31] The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow (almost isometric), which allows it to develop high force (up to 14 N in the desert locust), but because it is slow only low power is needed. The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle, which releases the tibia from the flexed position. The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures, rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle. In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult, or the bow of a bow-and-arrow. Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction, and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures.[32][33]
Stridulation[edit]
Grasshopper stridulation
Several unidentified grasshoppers stridulating
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Male grasshoppers spend much of the day stridulating, singing more actively under optimal conditions and being more subdued when conditions are adverse; females also stridulate, but their efforts are insignificant when compared to the males. Late-stage male nymphs can sometimes be seen making stridulatory movements, although they lack the equipment to make sounds, demonstrating the importance of this behavioural trait. The songs are a means of communication; the male stridulation seems to express reproductive maturity, the desire for social cohesion and individual well-being. Social cohesion becomes necessary among grasshoppers because of their ability to jump or fly large distances, and the song can serve to limit dispersal and guide others to favourable habitat. The generalised song can vary in phraseology and intensity, and is modified in the presence of a rival male, and changes again to a courtship song when a female is nearby.[34] In male grasshoppers of the family Pneumoridae, the enlarged abdomen amplifies stridulation.[17]
Life cycle[edit]
Six stages (instars) of development, from newly hatched nymph to fully winged adult
Romalea guttata grasshoppers: female (larger) is laying eggs, with male in attendance.
In most grasshopper species, conflicts between males over females rarely escalate beyond ritualistic displays. Some exceptions include the chameleon grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), where males may fight on top of ovipositing females; engaging in leg grappling, biting, kicking and mounting.[35]
The newly emerged female grasshopper has a preoviposition period of a week or two while she increases in weight and her eggs mature. After mating, the female of most species digs a hole with her ovipositor and lays a batch of eggs in a pod in the ground near food plants, generally in the summer. After laying the eggs, she covers the hole with soil and litter.[1] Some, like the semi-aquatic Cornops aquaticum, deposit the pod directly into plant tissue.[36] The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species. After a few weeks of development, the eggs of most species in temperate climates go into diapause, and pass the winter in this state. Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature, with development resuming as soon as the ground warms above a certain threshold temperature. The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other. They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden. These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators.[37]
Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis: they repeatedly moult (undergo ecdysis), each instar becoming larger and more like an adult, with the wing-buds increasing in size at each stage. The number of instars varies between species but is often six. After the final moult, the wings are inflated and become fully functional. The migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, spends about 25 to 30 days as a nymph, depending on sex and temperature, and lives for about 51 days as an adult.[37]
Swarming[edit]
Main article: Locust
Millions of plague locusts on the move in Australia
Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin.[38] This causes the grasshopper to change colour, feed more and breed faster. The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period.[39]
Following this transformation, under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs known as "hoppers" can occur, producing pheromones which attract the insects to each other. With several generations in a year, the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues, devouring all the vegetation they encounter. The largest recorded locust swarm was one formed by the now-extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875; the swarm was 1,800 miles (2,900 km) long and 110 miles (180 km) wide,[40] and one estimate puts the number of locusts involved at 3.5 trillion.[41] An adult desert locust can eat about 2 g (0.1 oz) of plant material each day, so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive, stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and consuming stems, flowers, fruits, seeds and bark.[42]
Predators, parasites and pathogens[edit]
Cottontop tamarin monkey eating a grasshopper
Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their lives; eggs are eaten by bee-flies, ground beetles and blister beetles; hoppers and adults are taken by other insects such as ants, robber flies and sphecid wasps, by spiders, and by many birds and small mammals.[43]
The eggs and nymphs are under attack by parasitoids including blow flies, flesh flies, and tachinid flies. External parasites of adults and nymphs include mites.[43] Female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring than unaffected individuals.[44]
Grasshopper with parasitic mites
The grasshopper nematode (Mermis nigrescens) is a long slender worm that infects grasshoppers, living in the insect's hemocoel. Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host becomes infected when the foliage is eaten.[45] Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts. When the worms are sufficiently developed, the grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns, thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle, which takes place in water.[46][47]
Locusts killed by the naturally occurring fungus Metarhizium, an environmentally friendly means of biological control. CSIRO, 2005[48]
Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The bacteria Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers, as has the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world, but although it infects grasshoppers, the infection is not usually lethal because basking in the sun has the result of raising the insect's temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus.[49] The fungal pathogen Entomophaga grylli is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host, causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies. This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse.[50]
The fungal pathogen Metarhizium acridum is found in Africa, Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers. It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control.[49] The microsporidian fungus Nosema locustae, once considered to be a protozoan, can be lethal to grasshoppers. It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait-based commercial microbial pesticide. Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut.[49]
Anti-predator defences[edit]
Further information: Anti-predator adaptation
Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti-predator adaptations, enabling them to avoid detection, to escape if detected, and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured. Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight; some species can change their coloration to suit their surroundings.[51]
Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai (Eumastacoidea) are detailed mimics of leaves. Stick grasshoppers (Proscopiidae) mimic wooden sticks in form and colouration.[52] Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings, giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight.[53]
Some species are genuinely aposematic, having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators. Dictyophorus productus (Pyrgomorphidae) is a "heavy, bloated, sluggish insect" that makes no attempt to hide; it has a bright red abdomen. A Cercopithecus monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species.[54] Another species, the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona, Dactylotum bicolor (Acridoidea), has been shown by experiment with a natural predator, the little striped whiptail lizard, to be aposematic.[55]
Gaudy grasshopper, Atractomorpha lata, evades predators with camouflage.
Lubber grasshopper, Titanacris albipes, has deimatically coloured wings, used to startle predators.
Leaf grasshopper, Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai, mimics a green leaf.
Painted grasshopper, Dactylotum bicolor, deters predators with warning coloration.
Spotted grasshopper, Aularches miliaris, defends itself with toxic foam and warning colours.[56]
Relationship with humans[edit]
Detail of grasshopper on table in Rachel Ruysch's painting Flowers in a Vase, c. 1685. National Gallery, London
In art and media[edit]
Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks, such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast's still life oil painting, Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects, c. 1630, now in the National Gallery, London, though the insect may be a bush-cricket.[57]
Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch's still life Flowers in a Vase, c. 1685. The seemingly static scene is animated by a "grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring", according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman, with other invertebrates including a spider, an ant, and two caterpillars.[58][59]
Grasshoppers are also featured in cinema. The 1957 film Beginning of the End portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago.[60] In the 1998 Pixar film A Bug's Life, the heroes are the members of an ant colony, and the lead villain and his henchmen are grasshoppers.[61]
Symbolism[edit]
Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper symbol, Lombard Street, London, 1563
Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols.[62] During the Greek Archaic Era, the grasshopper was the symbol of the polis of Athens,[63] possibly because they were among the most common insects on the dry plains of Attica.[63] Native Athenians for a while wore golden grasshopper brooches to symbolize that they were of pure Athenian lineage with no foreign ancestors.[63] Another symbolic use of the grasshopper is Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street, London, dating from 1563;[a] the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange, but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust.[64]
When grasshoppers appear in dreams, these have been interpreted as symbols of "Freedom, independence, spiritual enlightenment, inability to settle down or commit to decision". Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers; figuratively as "wicked men and women" for non-farmers; and "Extravagance, misfortune, & ephemeral happiness" by "gypsies".[65]
As food[edit]
Fried grasshoppers from Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
In some countries, grasshoppers are used as food.[66] In southern Mexico, grasshoppers, known as chapulines, are eaten in a variety of dishes, such as in tortillas with chilli sauce.[67] Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets, like the Donghuamen Night Market.[68] Fried grasshoppers (walang goreng) are eaten in the Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Java in Indonesia.[69] In Native America, the Ohlone people burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food.[70]
It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey (Greek: ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, akrídes kaì méli ágrion) while living in the wilderness;[71] attempts have been made to explain the locusts as suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, but the plain meaning of ἀκρίδες is the insects.[72][73]
As pests[edit]
Crop pest: grasshopper eating a maize leaf
Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development, and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies. Pasture, grain, forage, vegetable and other crops can be affected. Grasshoppers often bask in the sun, and thrive in warm sunny conditions, so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations. A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a massive population increase, but several successive dry seasons can do so, especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive. Although sunny weather stimulates growth, there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population. This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth, prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development.[74]
Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment. Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging luxurious growth beside ditches and on roadside verges. With increasing numbers of grasshoppers, predator numbers may increase, but this seldom happens sufficiently rapidly to have much effect on populations. Biological control is being investigated, and spores of the protozoan parasite Nosema locustae can be used mixed with bait to control grasshoppers, being more effective with immature insects.[75] On a small scale, neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development. Insecticides can be used, but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill, and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth, crops may soon become reinfested.[74]
Some grasshopper species, like the Chinese rice grasshopper, are a pest in rice paddies. Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field, to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies. Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place.[76]
Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations, causing famines and population upheavals. They are mentioned in both the Koran and the Bible and have also been held responsible for cholera epidemics, resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches.[42] The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world. Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers from forming before dense swarms of adults can build up.[77] Besides conventional control using contact insecticides,[77] biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum, which specifically infects grasshoppers, has been used with some success.[78]
In literature[edit]
Egyptian hieroglyphs "snḥm"
The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written snḥm in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system. The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts: "They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude."[79]
One of Aesop's Fables, later retold by La Fontaine, is the tale of The Ant and the Grasshopper. The ant works hard all summer, while the grasshopper plays. In winter, the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves. Somerset Maugham's short story "The Ant and the Grasshopper" explores the fable's symbolism via complex framing.[80] Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper's behaviour.[65] So an unfaithful woman (hopping from man to man) is "a grasshopper" in "Poprygunya", an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov,[81] and in Jerry Paris's 1969 film The Grasshopper.[82][83]
In mechanical engineering[edit]
A grasshopper beam engine, 1847
The name "Grasshopper" was given to the Aeronca L-3 and Piper L-4 light aircraft, both used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II. The name is said to have originated when Major General Innis P. Swift saw a Piper making a rough landing and remarked that it looked like a "damned grasshopper" for its bouncing progress.[83][84][85]
Grasshopper beam engines were beam engines pivoted at one end, the long horizontal arm resembling the hind leg of a grasshopper. The type was patented by William Freemantle in 1803.[86][87][88]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The symbol is a wordplay on the name Gresham and "grass".[62]
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^ Jump up to: a b Rowell, Hugh; Flook, Paul (2001). "Caelifera: Shorthorned Grasshoppers, Locusts and Relatives". Tree of Life web project. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Donelson, Nathan C.; van Staaden, Moira J. (2005). "Alternate tactics in male bladder grasshoppers Bullacris membracioides (Orthoptera: Pneumoridae)" (PDF). Behaviour. 142 (6): 761–778. doi:10.1163/1568539054729088. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Davidowitz, Goggy. "Grasshoppers". Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
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Jump up ^ Gilbert, Lawrence Irwin (2012). Insect Molecular Biology and Biochemistry. Academic Press. p. 399. ISBN 978-0-12-384747-8. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017.
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^ Jump up to: a b Chapman, 2013. pp. 745–755
Jump up ^ Chapman, 2013. p. 163
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Jump up ^ Biewener, Andrew A. (2003). Animal Locomotion. Oxford University Press. pp. 172–175. ISBN 978-0-19-850022-3. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Vogel (2013). Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 312.
Jump up ^ Brangham, A. N. (1960). "Communication among social insects". Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists' Society. 19: 66–68.
Jump up ^ Umbers, K.; Tatarnic, N.; Holwell, G.; Herberstein, M. (2012). "Ferocious Fighting between Male Grasshoppers". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e49600. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049600. PMC 3498212. PMID 23166725.
Jump up ^ Hill, M. P.; Oberholzer, I. G. (2000). Spencer, Neal R., ed. "Host specificity of the grasshopper, Cornops aquaticum, a natural enemy of water hyacinth" (PDF). Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Montana State University: 349–356. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Pfadt, 1994. pp. 11–16. Diagrams Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Morgan, James (29 January 2009). "Locust swarms 'high' on serotonin". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Stephen M.; Matheson, Thomas; Despland, Emma; Dodgson, Timothy; Burrows, Malcolm; Simpson, Stephen J. (2003). "Mechanosensory-induced behavioral gregarization in the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (22): 3991–4002. doi:10.1242/jeb.00648. PMID 14555739. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Yoon, Carol Kaesuk (23 April 2002). "Looking Back at the Days of the Locust". New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Lockwood, Jeffrey A. (2004). Locust: the Devastating Rise and Mysterious Disappearance of the Insect that Shaped the American Frontier (1st ed.). Basic Books. p. 21. ISBN 0-7382-0894-9. ffol
^ Jump up to: a b Capinera, 2008. pp 1181–1183
^ Jump up to: a b Capinera, 2008. Pages 1709–1710
Jump up ^ Branson, David H. (2003). "Effects of a parasite mite on life-history variation in two grasshopper species". Evolutionary Ecology Research. 5 (3): 397–409. ISSN 1522-0613.
Jump up ^ Capinera, John (2014). "Grasshopper nematode: Mermis nigrescens". Featured Creatures. IFAS, University of Florida. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Thomas, F.; Schmidt-Rhaesa, A.; Martin, G.; Manu, C.; Durand, P. Renaud, F. (May 2002). "Do hairworms (Nematomorpha) manipulate the water seeking behaviour of their terrestrial hosts?". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 15 (3): 356–361. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00410.x. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Schmidt-Rhaesa, Andreas; Biron, David G.; Joly, Cécile; Thomas, Frédéric (2005). "Host–parasite relations and seasonal occurrence of Paragordius tricuspidatus and Spinochordodes tellinii (Nematomorpha) in Southern France". Zoologischer Anzeiger. 244 (1): 51–57. doi:10.1016/j.jcz.2005.04.002.
Jump up ^ "CSIRO ScienceImage 1367 Locusts attacked by the fungus Metarhizium". CSIRO. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Capinera, 2008. pp 1229–1230
Jump up ^ Valovage, W. D.; Nelson, D. R. (1990). "Host Range and Recorded Distribution of Entomophaga grylli (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), a Fungal Pathogen of Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae), in North Dakota". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 63 (3): 454–458. JSTOR 25085205.
Jump up ^ Cott, pp. 25–26
Jump up ^ Hogue, C. L. (1993). Latin American Insects and Entomology. University of California Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0520078499.
Jump up ^ Cott, p. 378
Jump up ^ Cott, p. 291
Jump up ^ McGovern, George M.; Mitchell, Joseph C.; Knisley, C. Barry (1984). "Field Experiments on Prey Selection by the Whiptail Lizard, Cnemidophorus inornatus, in Arizona". Journal of Herpetology. 18 (3): 347–349. doi:10.2307/1564093. JSTOR 1564093.
Jump up ^ Hingston, R. W. G. (1927). "The liquid-squirting habit of oriental grasshoppers". Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. 75: 65–69. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1927.tb00060.x.
Jump up ^ "Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects". The National Gallery. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Flowers in a Vase". The National Gallery. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "The National Gallery Podcast: Episode Nineteen". The National Gallery. May 2008. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015. Betsy Wieseman: Well, there are two caterpillars that I can see. I particularly like the one right in the foreground that's just dangling from his thread and looking to land somewhere. It's this wonderful little suggestion of movement. There's a grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring to the other side and then nestled up between the rose and the peony is a wonderful spider and an ant on the petals of the rose.
Jump up ^ Senn, Bryan (2007). A Year of Fear: A Day-by-Day Guide to 366 Horror Films. McFarland. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-7864-3196-0. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Parihar, Parth (4 January 2014). "A Bug's Life: Colonial Allegory". Princeton Buffer. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Hazard, Mary E. (2000). Elizabethan Silent Language. University of Nebraska Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8032-2397-8. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017. research into Elizabethan wordplay reveals the proprietary nature of Gresham's grasshopper.
^ Jump up to: a b c Roche, Paul (2005). Aristophanes: The Complete Plays: A New Translation by Paul Roche. New American Library. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-451-21409-6.
Jump up ^ Connell, Tim (9 January 1998). "The City's golden grasshopper". Times Higher Education Supplement. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Klein, Barrett A. (2012). "The Curious Connection Between Insects and Dreams". Insects. 3: 1–17. doi:10.3390/insects3010001.
Jump up ^ Aman, Paul; Frederich, Michel; Uyttenbroeck, Roel; Hatt, Séverin; Malik, Priyanka; Lebecque, Simon; Hamaidia, Malik; Miazek, Krystian; Goffin, Dorothée; Willems, Luc; Deleu, Magali; Fauconnier, Marie-Laure; Richel, Aurore; De Pauw, Edwin; Blecker, Christophe; Arnaud, Monty; Francis, Frédéric; Haubruge, Eric; Danthine, Sabine (2016). "Grasshoppers as a food source? A review". Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement. 20: 337–352. ISSN 1370-6233. Archived from the original on 31 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Diana (2011). Oaxaca al Gusto: An Infinite Gastronomy. University of Texas Press. p. 754. ISBN 978-0-292-77389-9. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Dōnghuámén Night Market". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2015. the bustling night market near Wangfujing Dajie is a veritable food zoo: lamb, beef and chicken skewers, corn on the cob, smelly dòufu (tofu), cicadas, grasshoppers, kidneys, quail eggs, snake, squid
Jump up ^ "Walang Goreng Khas Gunung Kidul" (in Indonesian). UMKM Jogja. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Margolin, Malcolm; Harney, Michael (illus.). The Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area. Heyday. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-59714-219-9. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Gospel of Mark Mark 1:6; Gospel of Matthew 3:4
Jump up ^ Brock, Sebastian. "St John the Baptist's diet – according to some early Eastern Christian sources". St John's College, Oxford. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Kelhoffer, James A. (2004). "Did John The Baptist Eat Like A Former Essene? Locust-Eating In The Ancient Near East And At Qumran". Dead Sea Discoveries. 11 (3): 293–314. doi:10.1163/1568517042643756. JSTOR 4193332. There is no reason, however, to question the plausibility of Mark 1:6c, that John regularly ate these foods while in the wilderness.
^ Jump up to: a b Capinera, 2008. Pages 1710–1712
Jump up ^ "Nosema Locustae (117001) Fact Sheet" (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 2000. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Rice grasshopper (Oxya chinensis)". Plantwise. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Control". Locusts in Caucasus and Central Asia. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Lomer, C. J.; Bateman, R. P.; Johnson, D .L.; Langewald, J.; Thomas, M. (2001). "Biological Control of Locusts and Grasshoppers". Annual Review of Entomology. 46: 667–702. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.667. PMID 11112183.
Jump up ^ Dollinger, André (January 2010) [2002]. "Insects". Reshafim. Archived from the original on 1 April 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Sopher, H. (1994). "Somerset Maugham's "The Ant and the Grasshopper": The Literary Implications of Its Multilayered Structure". Studies in Short Fiction. 31 (1 (Winter 1994)): 109-. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Loehlin, James N. (2010). The Cambridge Introduction to Chekhov. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–83. ISBN 978-1-139-49352-9.
Jump up ^ Greenspun, Roger (28 May 1970). "Movie Review: The Grasshopper (1969)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Aeronca L-3B Grasshopper". The Museum of Flight. Archived from the original on 27 November 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Chen, C. Peter. "L-4 Grasshopper". World War II Database. Lava Development. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Piper L-4 Grasshopper Light Observation Aircraft (1941)". Military Factory. Archived from the original on 1 January 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Crowley, T. E. (1982). The Beam Engine. Senecio. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0-906831-02-4.
Jump up ^ "Grasshopper Beam Engine". Animated Engines. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Dickinson, H.W. (1939). A short history of the steam engine. Cambridge University Press. p. 108.
Sources[edit]
Capinera, John L., ed. (2008). Encyclopedia of Entomology (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1.
Chapman, R. F.; Simpson, Stephen J.; Douglas, Angela E. (2013). The Insects: Structure and Function. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11389-2.
Cott, Hugh (1940). Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Oxford University Press.
Pfadt, Robert E. (1994). Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers (2nd ed.). Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station.
External links[edit]
Media related to Caelifera at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Grasshoppers at Wikiquote
Data related to Caelifera at Wikispecies
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Extant Orthoptera families
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota
Infraclass: Neoptera
Superorder: Orthopterida
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Suborder Ensifera
Grylloidea
Gryllidae (crickets)
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)
Mogoplistidae
Myrmecophilidae (ant crickets)
Hagloidea
Prophalangopsidae (grigs)
Rhaphidophoroidea
Rhaphidophoridae (cave, camel and spider crickets; cave wetas)
Schizodactyloidea
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Stenopelmatoidea
Anostostomatidae (wetas, king crickets)
Cooloolidae (Cooloola monster and relatives)
Gryllacrididae (leaf-rolling crickets)
Stenopelmatidae (Jerusalem crickets)
Tettigonioidea
Tettigoniidae (katydids, bush-crickets or long-horned grasshoppers)
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Suborder Caelifera
Acrididea
Acridoidea
Acrididae (grasshoppers, locusts)
Dericorythidae
Lathiceridae
Lentulidae
Lithidiidae
Ommexechidae
Pamphagidae (toad grasshoppers)
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Euschmidtiidae
Mastacideidae
Morabidae
Proscopiidae
Thericleidae
Pneumoroidea
Pneumoridae (bladder grasshoppers)
Pyrgomorphoidea
Pyrgomorphidae (gaudy grasshoppers)
Tanaoceroidea
Tanaoceridae
Tetrigoidea
Tetrigidae (grouse locusts, pygmy locusts or groundhoppers)
Trigonopterygoidea
Trigonopterygidae
Xyronotidae
Tridactylidea
Tridactyloidea
Cylindrachetidae (sandgropers)
Ripipterygidae
Tridactylidae (pygmy mole crickets)
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text:
Lucas Black
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Lucas Black
Black at the 2009 Toronto Film Festival
Born
Lucas York Black
(1982-11-29) November 29, 1982 (age 34)
Decatur, Alabama, U.S.
Occupation
Actor
Years active
1994–present
Spouse(s)
Maggie O'Brien (m. 2010)
Children
3
Lucas York Black (born November 29, 1982) is an American film and television actor. He is known for his roles in the CBS television series American Gothic (1995) as well as roles in films such as Sling Blade (1996), Flash (1997), Crazy in Alabama (1999), All the Pretty Horses (2000), Friday Night Lights (2004), Jarhead (2005), The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006), Get Low (2009), Legion (2010), and Seven Days in Utopia (2011). Since September 2014, he has played Special Agent Christopher LaSalle on CBS' NCIS: New Orleans.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
5 Awards and nominations
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Black was born in Decatur, Alabama,[1] to Jan Gillespie, an office worker, and Larry Black, a museum employee.[2] He has two older siblings and was raised a Southern Baptist.[3] He grew up in Speake, Alabama,[1] played football for the Speake Bobcats, and graduated from high school in May 2001.[4]
Career[edit]
Black made his film debut in Kevin Costner's film The War (1994).[5] He subsequently was cast as Caleb Temple in CBS' television series American Gothic, which ran from 1995 to 1996, and in the films Sling Blade, Ghosts of Mississippi, and The X-Files.[6] Later Black starred as Conner Strong in the TV film Flash (1997), which aired on The Wonderful World of Disney; in the movie his character visits a horse every day in hopes of buying it.[7]
Black played a supporting role as Oakley in the historical drama Cold Mountain (2003)[8] and starred as Vernon, an autistic who is a prodigious pianist, in the indie musical drama Killer Diller (2004).[9] Later that year, he starred as Mike Winchell in the football-themed drama film Friday Night Lights (2004), directed by Peter Berg.[10]
Black starred as Nat Banyon in the indie thriller film Deepwater (2005), directed by David S. Marfield;[11] as Chris Kruger in the Gulf War themed drama film Jarhead (2005), directed by Sam Mendes;[12] and as Sean Boswell in the third The Fast and the Furious film, The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006), directed by Justin Lin.[13] He described his part in the latter film as a "fun role".[2]
Black starred as Buddy in the indie drama Get Low (2009), directed by Aaron Schneider;[14] as Jeep Hanson in the bible-themed fantasy thriller Legion (2010);[15] and as Luke Chisholm, a talented young golfer set on making the pro tour, in the indie golfing film Seven Days in Utopia (2010).[16]
He portrayed the Brooklyn Dodgers shortstop Pee Wee Reese in the drama film 42 (2013). Black, having done previous sports films and played sports early in his life, found the filming experience "a lot more enjoyable because you get to reminisce about the days when I used to play, and then you get the experience of being on a team again with the actors and have that camaraderie with the players".[17]
In 2014, Lucas was cast in the NCIS: New Orleans as a NCIS Special Agent Lasalle, a no-nonsense agent with a "work hard, play hard" motto.[18]
In September 2013, Lucas Black signed a contract with Universal Pictures to repeat his role of Sean Boswell in Furious 7, The Fate of the Furious, Fast & Furious 9, and Fast & Furious 10. In 2015, he reprised his Tokyo Drift role in a cameo appearance in Furious 7, although he did not appear in Fate of the Furious due to scheduling conflicts.[19][20]
Personal life[edit]
Black married Maggie O'Brien, a lawyer, in 2010.[21][22] They have 2 children.[21]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1994 The War Ebb Lipnicki
1996 Sling Blade Frank Wheatley
1996 Ghosts of Mississippi Burt DeLaughter
1997 Flash Connor
1998 The X-Files Stevie
1999 Our Friend, Martin Randy Voice role
1999 Crazy in Alabama Peter Joseph "Peejoe" Bullis
2000 All the Pretty Horses Jimmy Blevins
2003 Cold Mountain Oakley
2004 Killer Diller Vernon
2004 Friday Night Lights Mike Winchell
2005 Deepwater Nat Banyon
2005 Jarhead LCpl. Chris Kruger
2006 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift Sean Boswell Main
2009 Get Low Buddy Robinson
2010 Legion Jeep Hanson
2011 Seven Days in Utopia Luke Chisholm
2012 Promised Land Paul Geary
2013 42 Pee Wee Reese
2013 Fast & Furious 6 Sean Boswell Archive
2015 Furious 7 Sean Boswell Cameo
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1995–1996 American Gothic Caleb Temple 22 episodes
2000 The Miracle Worker James Keller Movie
2010 Tough Trade Tucker Unsold Epix pilot
2014, 2016 NCIS [23] Special Agent Christopher Lasalle 2 pilot episodes: "Crescent City"
Crossover: "Sister City" (Part 1)
2014–present NCIS: New Orleans [24] Main role
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Association
Category
Work
Result
1996 Screen Actors Guild Outstanding Performance by a Cast Sling Blade Nominated
1997 Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films Best Performance by a Younger Actor[citation needed] Won
Young Artist Awards Best Performance in a Feature Film - Leading Young Actor Won
YoungStar Awards Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Drama Film Won
Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Drama TV Series American Gothic Nominated
1998 Young Artist Awards Best Performance in a TV Movie/Pilot/Mini-Series – Leading Young Actor Flash Nominated
2000 Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor Crazy in Alabama Nominated
YoungStar Awards Best Young Actor/Performance in a Motion Picture Drama Nominated
2001 Young Artist Awards Best Performance in a Feature Film - Supporting Young Actor All the Pretty Horses Nominated
2006 Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie: Male Breakout Star The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift Nominated
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Talking turkey". The Decatur Daily. May 11, 2003. Archived from the original on May 20, 2006. Retrieved June 18, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b "Behind the wheel". The Huntsville Times. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved June 18, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Black on Golf, God, and 'Utopia'". Christianity Today. September 1, 2011. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Black | Biography and Filmography | 1982". Hollywood.com. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The War | Full Cast and Credits | 1994". Hollywood.com. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Black Filmography and Movies - Fandango". Fandango. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Flash | TV Series | 1997". Hollywood.com. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Eileen Atkins, Lucas Black join Cold Mountain". www.screendaily.com. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ Leydon, Joe (2004-03-24). "Review: ‘Killer Diller’". Variety. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (2004-09-26). "Review: ‘Friday Night Lights’". Variety. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ Eisner, Ken (2005-06-30). "Review: ‘Deepwater’". Variety. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (2005-10-28). "Review: ‘Jarhead’". Variety. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Black gets 'Furious'". Variety. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Leydon, Joe (2009-09-14). "Review: ‘Get Low’". Variety. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ Leydon, Joe (2010-01-22). "Review: ‘Legion’". Variety. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ "Pair bound for 'Utopia'". Variety. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Carlton, Bob (April 14, 2013). "Alabama's Lucas Black gets back in uniform to play Pee Wee Reese in the Jackie Robinson movie '42'". AL.com. Retrieved July 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ "'Fast & Furious' Actor Joins 'NCIS' New Orleans Spinoff". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Black Signs On For Fast & Furious 7, 8 And 9". www.cinemablend.com. September 16, 2013. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Chris Mannix Show - Lucas Black". July 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Some Celebrities Play for Real, Not Laughs". The New York Times. February 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ Gillespie, Loretta. "Actor Lucas Black’s mother proud of son’s accomplishments". The Cullman Times. Retrieved 2017-04-11.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 10, 2014). "Lucas Black Joins CBS’ ‘NCIS’ Spinoff". Retrieved February 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "CBS Orders 'NCIS' and 'CSI' Spin-Offs and More for 2014-2015 Season". Retrieved December 17, 2014.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucas Black.
Lucas Black on IMDb
Lucas Black at AllMovie
[show]
Awards for Lucas Black
[show]
v
t
e
Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor
Noah Hathaway (1984)
Barret Oliver (1985)
Carrie Henn (1986)
Kirk Cameron (1987)
Fred Savage (1988)
Adan Jodorowsky (1989/90)
Edward Furlong (1991)
Scott Weinger (1992)
Elijah Wood (1993)
Kirsten Dunst (1994)
Christina Ricci (1995)
Lucas Black (1996)
Jena Malone (1997)
Tobey Maguire (1998)
Haley Joel Osment (1999)
Devon Sawa (2000)
Haley Joel Osment (2001)
Tyler Hoechlin (2002)
Jeremy Sumpter (2003)
Emmy Rossum (2004)
Dakota Fanning (2005)
Ivana Baquero (2006)
Freddie Highmore (2007)
Jaden Smith (2008)
Saoirse Ronan (2009)
Chloë Grace Moretz (2010)
Joel Courtney (2011)
Suraj Sharma (2012)
Chloë Grace Moretz (2013)
Mackenzie Foy (2014)
Ty Simpkins (2015)
Tom Holland (2016)
[show]
v
t
e
Young Artist Award for Best Leading Young Actor in a Feature Film
1979–1990
Dennis Christopher (1979)
Justin Henry (1980)
Ricky Schroder (1981)
Henry Thomas (1982)
C. Thomas Howell (1983)
Anthony Michael Hall (1984)
Sean Astin (1985)
Peter Billingsley (1986)
River Phoenix (1987)
Fred Savage (1987)
Patrick Dempsey (1987)
Corey Feldman (1987)
Christian Bale (1988)
Corey Feldman (1988)
Corey Haim (1988)
Lukas Haas (1988)
Sean Astin (1989)
Macaulay Culkin (1990)
1991–2010
Ethan Embry (1991)
Elijah Wood (1993)
Edward Furlong (1994)
Jason James Richter (1994)
Mason Gamble (1994)
Brad Renfro (1995)
Wil Horneff (1996)
Lucas Black (1997)
Blake Heron (1998)
Kevin Zegers (1998)
Miko Hughes (1999)
Haley Joel Osment (2000)
Rob Brown (2001)
Anton Yelchin (2002)
Tyler Hoechlin (2003)
Jeremy Sumpter (2004)
Jamie Bell (2005)
Josh Hutcherson (2006)
Logan Lerman (2007)
Josh Hutcherson (2008)
Nate Hartley (2009)
Max Records (2010)
2011–present
Jaden Smith (2011)
Dakota Goyo (2012)
Tom Holland (2013)
Miles Elliot (2014)
Reese Hartwig (2015)
Michael Grant (2016)
Julian Feder (2017)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 46970123
LCCN: no99002333
ISNI: 0000 0001 1471 9938
GND: 141391464
SUDOC: 067639992
BNF: cb14156353s (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucas_Black&oldid=804162430"
Categories:
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text:
The New Colossus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The New Colossus
Emma Lazarus's manuscript
Created
1883
Location
Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, New York City, New York, U.S.[1]
Author(s)
Emma Lazarus
Purpose
Sonnet was engraved on a bronze plaque and mounted inside the monument in 1903
"The New Colossus" is a sonnet that American poet Emma Lazarus (1849–1887) wrote in 1883 to raise money for the construction of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.[2] In 1903, the poem was engraved on a bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal's lower level.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the poem
2 Contents
3 Influence
4 References
5 External links
History of the poem[edit]
The Statue of Liberty in New York City
This poem was written as a donation to an auction of art and literary works[3] conducted by the "Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty" to raise money for the pedestal's construction.[4] Lazarus's contribution was solicited by fundraiser William Maxwell Evarts. Initially she refused but writer Constance Cary Harrison convinced her that the statue would be of great significance to immigrants sailing into the harbor.[5]
"The New Colossus" was the first entry read at the exhibit's opening on November 2, 1883, and remained associated with the exhibit through a published catalog until the exhibit closed after the pedestal was fully funded in August 1885,[6][7] but was forgotten and played no role at the opening of the statue in 1886. It was, however, published in Joseph Pulitzer's New York World as well as The New York Times during this time period.[8] In 1901, Lazarus's friend Georgina Schuyler began an effort to memorialize Lazarus and her poem, which succeeded in 1903 when a plaque bearing the text of the poem was put on the inner wall of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.[4]
The line "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" is missing a comma, and reads "Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp!" on the plaque hanging inside the Statue of Liberty[9] since its unveiling in 1903.
The original manuscript is held by the American Jewish Historical Society.[10]
Contents[edit]
The Colossus of Rhodes, as depicted in an artist's impression of 1880
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,
With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame

Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name
MOTHER OF EXILES. From her beacon-hand
Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.

"Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she
With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.

Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"
The title of the poem and the first two lines refer to the Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, sometimes described as standing astride the harbor.
The "sea-washed, sunset gates" are the mouths of the Hudson and East Rivers, to the west of Brooklyn. The "imprisoned lightning" refers to the electric light in the torch, then a novelty.
The "air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame" refers to New York Harbor between New York City and Brooklyn, which were consolidated into one unit in 1898, 15 years after the poem was written.
The "huddled masses" are the many immigrants coming to the United States (many of them through Ellis Island at the port of New York).
Influence[edit]
Bronze plaque inside the Statue of Liberty
Paul Auster wrote that "Bartholdi's gigantic effigy was originally intended as a monument to the principles of international republicanism, but 'The New Colossus' reinvented the statue's purpose, turning Liberty into a welcoming mother, a symbol of hope to the outcasts and downtrodden of the world."[11]
John T. Cunningham wrote that "The Statue of Liberty was not conceived and sculpted as a symbol of immigration, but it quickly became so as immigrant ships passed under the torch and the shining face, heading toward Ellis Island. However, it was [Lazarus's poem] that permanently stamped on Miss Liberty the role of unofficial greeter of incoming immigrants."[12]
The poem has entered the political realm. It was quoted in John F. Kennedy's book A Nation of Immigrants (1958)[13] as well as a 2010 political speech by President Obama advocating immigration policy reform.[14] On August 2nd, 2017, the poem and its importance to the Statue of Liberty's symbolism and thus the effect on American immigration policy, was debated in a White House briefing.
Classical composer David Ludwig has set the poem to music, which was performed at the worship service of President Obama's 2013 inauguration ceremony.[15]
Author and scholar Julia Gordon-Bramer theorizes that Sylvia Plath's poem, "Lady Lazarus," is about the Statue of Liberty and Jewish immigrant poet Emma Lazarus in her book, Fixed Stars Govern a Life: Decoding Sylvia Plath, volume one (2014, Stephen F. Austin State University Press).
Parts of the poem also appear in popular culture. The Broadway musical Miss Liberty, with music and lyrics by Irving Berlin, an immigrant himself, used the final stanza beginning "Give me your tired, your poor" as the basis for a song.[16][13] It was also read in the 1941 film Hold Back the Dawn as well as being recited by the heroine in Alfred Hitchcock's wartime film Saboteur.[13] Harpist and singer Joanna Newsom indirectly references the poem in her 2015 song "Sapokanikan," in contrast to the forbidding colossus of Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Ozymandias."[17] The poem is read aloud in the eponymous episode entitled 'New Colossus' in the 2016 Netflix web series The OA.[18]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty National Monument". US: National Park Service. 2007-12-31. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
Jump up ^ Lazarus, Emma, The New Colossus, Liberty State Park
Jump up ^ Sutherland, Cara A (2003), The Statue of Liberty: The Museum of the City of New York, Barnes & Noble, p. 77, ISBN 0-7607-3890-4, auction of art and literary work ; Mark Twain also contributed.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, Bette Roth (1997), Emma Lazarus in Her World: Life and Letters, The Jewish Publication Society, p. 3, ISBN 0-8276-0618-4, …fell into obscurity. At the unveiling of the statue […] both Emma and her sonnet were absent […] Georgina Schuyler set in motion a successful attempt to memorialize her friend by placing the poem, inscribed on a bronze tablet, inside the pedestal… .
Jump up ^ Felder, Deborah G; Rosen, Diana L (2003), Fifty Jewish Women Who Changed the World, Citadel, p. 45, ISBN 0-8065-2443-X, …William Maxwell Evert [sic; presumably a misspelling of "William Maxwell Evarts] asked […] Lazarus[…] to compose original works […] who […] refused […] until […] Constance Cary Harrison[…] suggested that she consider what the statue would mean to the thousand of immigrants who would see it as they sailed into New York… .
Jump up ^ "Image-Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty Catalogue".
Jump up ^ "The Statue of Liberty - Engineering, Construction, and Crossing the Atlantic".
Jump up ^ "National Park Service-Statue of Liberty-Emma Lazarus".
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Gary (2006-12-08). "Misprint is spied in Lazarus poem at Liberty island". The New York Sun. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Sam (2011), "How a Sonnet Made a Statue the ‘Mother of Exiles’", New York Times, retrieved 2013-11-21
Jump up ^ Auster, Paul (2005), "NYC = USA", Collected Prose: Autobiographical Writings, True Stories, Critical Essays, Prefaces, and Collaborations with Artists, Picador, p. 508, ISBN 0-312-42468-X .
Jump up ^ Cunningham, John T (2003), Ellis Island: Immigration's Shining Center, Arcadia Publishing, pp. 46–48, ISBN 0-7385-2428-X .
^ Jump up to: a b c McGill, Meredith L. (2008). The Traffic in Poems: Nineteenth-century Poetry and Transatlantic Exchange. Rutgers University Press. p. 118.
Jump up ^ Jackson, David (July 1, 2010). "Obama edits Emma Lazarus poem on Statue of Liberty". The Oval. USA Today. Retrieved July 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Curtis Part of Inauguration Day Ceremonies". Retrieved March 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Esther Schor, Emma Lazarus, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group - 2008, page 255
Jump up ^ Hicks, Michael (2015-11-08). ""'The text will not yield': Fleeting Tesserae in Joanna Newsom’s Sapokanikan"". Medium. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
Jump up ^ "The OA Recap: Yearning to Breathe Free". Vulture. Retrieved 2017-08-17.
See Also Walt Kelly, The Pogo Papers, 1953, p. 152, for reference to right-wing (McCarran act) policy & the Goldman quote.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The New Colossus
Lazarus, Emma, "The new Colossus", A Century of Immigration, 1820–1924 (handwritten) (sonnet), Library of Congress . The latter page says "Courtesy of the American Jewish Historical Society, New York and Newton Centre, Massachusetts". The poem itself, having been published in 1883 or at the very latest 1903 is in the public domain
———, Schor, Esther, ed., The New Colossus (interactive ed.), Nextbook Press .
Manuscript notebook from the Emma Lazarus collection at the American Jewish Historical Society. Includes an undated manuscript version of "The New Colossus."
Cavitch, Max (2008). "Emma Lazarus and the Golem of Liberty." In The Traffic in Poems: Nineteenth-Century Poetry and Transatlantic Exchange. Ed. Meredith L. McGill. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 97-122.
Marom, Daniel (2000). "Who is the 'Mother of Exiles'? An Inquiry into Jewish Aspects of Emma Lazarus's 'The New Colossus'". Prooftexts. 20 (3): 231–61. doi:10.1353/ptx.2000.0020.
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