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Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments; however, other schemes have been devised.
Contents
1 Chinese classification
2 Western classification
3 Mahillon and Hornbostel-Sachs systems
4 André Schaeffner
4.1 Elementary organology
5 Range
6 Other classifications
6.1 Indonesian instruments
6.2 West African instruments
6.3 Kurt Reinhard
6.4 Persia
7 See also
8 References
Chinese classification[edit]
The oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC.[citation needed] It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. Instruments made of stone were in one group, those of wood in another, those of silk are in a third, and those of bamboo in a fourth, as recorded in the Yo Chi (record of ritual music and dance), compiled from sources of the Chou period (9th-5th centuries BC) and corresponding to the four seasons and four winds.[1][2]
The eight-fold system of pa yin (八音 "eight sounds", "octave"), from the same source, occurred gradually, and in the legendary Emperor Zhun's time (3rd millennium BC) it is believed to have been presented in the following order: metal (chin), stone (shih), silk (ssu), bamboo (che), gourd (piao), clay (t'u), leather (hoes), and wood (mutt) classes, and it correlated to the eight seasons and eight winds of Chinese culture, autumn and west, autumn-winter and NW, summer and south, spring and east, winter-spring and NE, summer-autumn and SW, winter and north, and spring-summer and SE, respectively.[1]
However, the Chou-Li (Rites of Chou), an anonymous treatise compiled from earlier sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order: metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd, and bamboo. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan (Commentary of Tso), attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, probably compiled in the 4th century BC.[1]
Much later, Ming dynasty (14th-17th century) scholar Chu Tsai Yu recognized three groups: those instruments using muscle power or used for musical accompaniment, those that are blown, and those that are rhythmic, a scheme which was probably the first scholarly attempt, while the earlier ones were traditional, folk taxonomies.[3]
More usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced (regardless of post-processing, i.e., an electric guitar is still a string-instrument regardless of what analog or digital/computational post-processing effects pedals may be used with it).
Western classification[edit]
The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion. It is of Greek origin (in the Hellenistic period, prominent proponents being Nicomachus and Porphyry). The scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division (although plucked strings are grouped separately from bowed strings in sheet music), but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed (woodwinds) and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips (brass instruments).
Many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, as a column of air is set in motion by the lips. However, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves.
Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme. For example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. For this reason, keyboard instruments are often regarded as inhabiting a category of their own, including all instruments played by a keyboard, whether they have struck strings (like the piano), plucked strings (like the harpsichord) or no strings at all (like the celesta).
It might be said that with these extra categories, the classical system of instrument classification focuses less on the fundamental way in which instruments produce sound, and more on the technique required to play them.
Various names have been assigned to these three traditional Western groupings:[1]:136–138, 157, notes for Chapter 10
Boethius (5th and 6th centuries) labelled them intensione ut nervis, spiritu ut tibiis ("breath in the tube"), and percussione;
Cassiodorus, a younger contemporary of Boethius, used the names tensibilia, percussionalia, and inflatilia;
Roger Bacon (13th century) dubbed them tensilia, inflativa, and percussionalia;
Ugolino da Orvieto (14th and 15th centuries) called them intensione ut nervis, spiritu ut tibiis, and percussione;
Sebastien de Brossard (1703) referred to them as enchorda or entata (but only for instruments with several strings), pneumatica or empneousta, and krusta (from the Greek for hit or strike) or pulsatilia (for percussives);
Filippo Bonanni (1722) used vernacular names: sonori per il fiato, sonori per la tensione, and sonori per la percussione;
Joseph Majer (1732) called them pneumatica, pulsatilia (percussives including plucked instruments), and fidicina (from fidula, fiddle) (for bowed instruments);
Johann Eisel (1738) dubbed them pneumatica, pulsatilia, and fidicina;
Johannes de Muris (1784) used the terms chordalia, foraminalia (from foramina, "bore" in reference to the bored tubes), and vasalia (for "vessels");
Regino of Prum (1784) called them tensibile, inflatile, and percussionabile.
Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa (17th century) also recognized the same three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun ("Clarification and Conjecture About the Names of Books and Sciences"), a treatise on the origin and construction of musical instruments. but this was exceptional for Near Eastern writers as they mostly ignored the percussion group as did early Hellenistic Greeks, the Near Eastern culture traditionally and that period of Greek history having low regard for that group.[1]
The T'boli of Mindanao use the same three categories as well, but group the strings (t'duk) with the winds (nawa) together based on a gentleness-strength dichotomy (lemnoy-megel, respectively), regarding the percussion group (tembol) as strong and the winds-strings group as gentle. The division pervades T'boli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, and artistic styles.[1]
Mahillon and Hornbostel-Sachs systems[edit]
An ancient system of Indian origin, dating from the 4th or 3rd century BC, in the Natya Shastra, a theoretical treatise on music and dramaturgy, by Bharata Muni, divides instruments into four main classification groups: instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating strings (tata vadya, "stretched instruments"); instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air (susira vadya, "hollow instruments"); percussion instruments made of wood or metal (Ghana vadya, "solid instruments"); and percussion instruments with skin heads, or drums (avanaddha vadya, "covered instruments").
Victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. He was the curator of the musical instrument collection of the conservatoire in Brussels, and for the 1888 catalogue of the collection divided instruments into four groups: strings, winds, drums, and other percussion. This scheme was later taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is widely used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system (or the Sachs-Hornbostel system).
The original Sachs-Hornbostel system classified instruments into four main groups; the fifth group, electrophones, was added later by Sachs:
idiophones, such as the xylophone, which produce sound by vibrating themselves;
membranophones, such as drums or kazoos, which produce sound by a vibrating membrane;
chordophones, such as the piano or cello, which produce sound by vibrating strings;
aerophones, such as the pipe organ or oboe, which produce sound by vibrating columns of air.
electrophones, such as the synthesizer or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged into an amplifier.
In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification of musical instruments, lamellophones are considered plucked idiophones, a category that includes various forms of jaw harp and the European mechanical music box, as well as the huge variety of African and Afro-Latin thumb pianos such as the mbira and marimbula.
Later Sachs added a fifth category, electrophones, such as theremins, which produce sound by electronic means.[4] Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category. Within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, but remains widely used by ethnomusicologists and organologists.
One notable example of this criticism is that there is care to be taken with electrophones, as some electronic instruments like the electric guitar (chordophone) and some electronic keyboards (sometimes idiophones or chordophones) can produce music without electricity or the use of an amplifier.
André Schaeffner[edit]
In 1932, comparative musicologist (ethnomusicologist) André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was "exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments".[1]:176
Schaeffner's system has only two top-level categories which he denoted by Roman numerals:
I: instruments that make sound from vibrating solids:
I.A: no tension (free solid, for example, xylophones, cymbals, or claves);
I.B: linguaphones (lamellophones) (solid fixed at only one end, such as a kalimba or thumb piano);
I.C: chordophones (solid fixed at both ends, i.e. strings such as piano or harp)); plus drums
II: instruments that make sound from vibrating air (such as clarinets, trumpets, or bull-roarers.)
The system agrees with Mahillon and Hornbostel-Sachs for chordophones, but groups percussion instruments differently.
2nd-century Greek grammarian, sophist, and rhetoritician Julius Pollux, in the chapter called De Musica of his ten-volume Onomastikon, presented the two-class system, percussion (including strings) and winds, which persisted in medieval and postmedieval Europe. It was used by St. Augustine (4th and 5th centuries), in his De Ordine, applying the terms rhythmic (percussion and strings), organic (winds), and adding harmonic (the human voice); Isidore of Seville (6th to 7th centuries); Hugh of Saint Victor (12th century), also adding the voice; Magister Lambertus (13th century), adding the human voice as well; and Michael Praetorius (17th century).[1]:119–21,147
The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system. They distinguish the struck (yàle), including both beaten and plucked, and the blown (fêe).[1][5] The yàle group is subdivided into five categories: instruments possessing lamellas (the sanzas); those possessing strings; those possessing a membrane (various drums); hollow wooden, iron, or bottle containers; and various rattles and bells. The Hausa, also of West Africa, classify drummers into those who beat drums and those who beat (pluck) strings (the other four player classes are blowers, singers, acclaimers, and talkers),[6] Kartomi does not specify if these two classifications pre-date Schaeffner or Pollux. The concept, the way the person produces the sound, is human-centered, which is part of their traditional culture so presumably they at least pre-date Schaeffner.
The MSA (Multi-Dimensional Scalogram Analysis) of René Lysloff and Jim Matson,[7] using 37 variables, including characteristics of the sounding body, resonator, substructure, sympathetic vibrator, performance context, social context, and instrument tuning and construction, corroborated Schaeffner, producing two categories, aerophones and the chordophone-membranophone-idiophone combination.
Elementary organology[edit]
Another similar system is the five-class, physics-based organology that was presented by Steve Mann in 2007,[8] comprises Gaiaphones (Chordophones, Membranophones, and Idiophones), Hydraulophones, Aerophones, Plasmaphones, and Quintephones (electrically and optically produced music), the names referring to the five essences, earth, water, wind, fire and the quintessence, thus adding three new categories to the Schaeffner taxonomy.
Elementary organology, also known as physical organology, is a classification scheme based on the elements (i.e. states of matter) in which sound production takes place.[9][10] "Elementary" refers both to "element" (state of matter) and to something that is fundamental or innate (physical).[11][12] The elementary organology map can be traced to Kartomi, Schaeffner, Yamaguchi, and others,[11] as well as to the Greek and Roman concepts of elementary classification of all objects, not just musical instruments.[11]
Elementary organology categorizes musical instruments by their classical element, i.e.
Element
State
Category
1 Earth solids gaiaphones the first category proposed by Andre Schaeffner[13]
2 Water liquids hydraulophones
3 Air gases aerophones the second category proposed by Andre Schaeffner[13]
4 Fire plasmas plasmaphones
5 Quintessence/Idea informatics quintephones
Musical instrument classification in physics-based organology.
Range[edit]
Instruments can be classified by their musical range in comparison with other instruments in the same family. These terms are named after singing voice classifications:
Soprano instruments: flute, clarinet, recorder, violin, trumpet, oboe, soprano saxophone
Alto instruments: alto flute, viola, French horn, natural horn, alto horn, alto saxophone, English horn
Tenor instruments: trombone, tenor saxophone
Baritone instruments: cello, baritone horn, bass clarinet, bassoon, baritone saxophone
Bass instruments: double bass, contrabassoon, tuba, bass saxophone
Some instruments fall into more than one category: for example, the cello may be considered either tenor or bass, depending on how its music fits into the ensemble, and the trombone may be alto, tenor, or bass and the French horn, bass, baritone, tenor, or alto, depending on which range it is played. In a typical concert band setting, the first alto saxophone covers soprano parts, while the second alto saxophone covers alto parts.
Many instruments include their range as part of their name: soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone, baritone horn, alto flute, bass flute, alto recorder, bass guitar, etc. Additional adjectives describe instruments above the soprano range or below the bass, for example: sopranino saxophone, contrabass clarinet.
When used in the name of an instrument, these terms are relative, describing the instrument's range in comparison to other instruments of its family and not in comparison to the human voice range or instruments of other families. For example, a bass flute's range is from C3 to F♯6, while a bass clarinet plays about one octave lower.
Other classifications[edit]
Instruments can be categorized according to a common use, such as signal instruments, a category that may include instruments in different Hornbostel-Sachs categories such as trumpets, drums, and gongs. An example based on this criterion is Bonanni (e.g., festive, military, and religious).[1] He separately classified them according to geography and era.
Jean-Benjamin de la Borde (1780) classified instruments according to ethnicity, his categories being black, Abyssinian, Chinese, Arabic, Turkisk, and Greek.[1]
Instruments can be classified according to the ensemble in which they play, or the role they play in the ensemble. For example, the horn section in popular music typically includes both brass instruments and woodwind instruments. The symphony orchestra typically has the strings in the front, the woodwinds in the middle, and the basses, brass, and percussion in the back.
Indonesian instruments[edit]
Classifications done for the Indonesian ensemble, the gamelan, were done by Jaap Kunst (1949), Martopangrawit, Poerbapangrawit, and Sumarsam (all in 1984).[1] Kunst described five categories: nuclear theme (cantus firmus in Latin and balungan ("skeletal ramework") in Indonesian); colotomic ( a word invented by Kunst) (interpunctuating), the gongs; countermelodic; paraphrasing (panerusan), subdivided as close to the nuclear theme and ornamental filling; agogic (tempo-regulating), drums.
R. Ng. Martopangrawit has two categories, irama (the rhythm instruments) and lagu (the melodic instruments), the former corresponds to Kunst's classes 2 and 5, and the latter to Kunst's 1, 3, and 4.
Kodrat Poerbapangrawit, similar to Kunst, derives six categories: balungan, the saron, demung, and slenthem; rerenggan (ornamental), the gendèr, gambang, and bonang); wiletan (variable formulaic melodic), rebab and male chorus (gerong); singgetan (interpunctuating); kembang (floral), flute and female voice; jejeging wirama (tempo regulating), drums.
Sumarsam's scheme comprises:
an inner melodic group (lagu)(with a wide range), divided as
elaborating (rebab, gerong, gendèr (a metallophone), gambang (a xylophone), pesindhen (female voice), celempung (plucked strings), suling (flute));
mediating ( between the 1st and 3rd subdivisions (bonang (gong-chimes), saron panerus(a loud metallophone); and
abstracting (balungan, "melodic abstraction")( with a 1-octave range), loud and soft metallophones (saron barung, demung, and slenthem);
an outer circle, the structural group (gongs), which underlines the structure of the work;
and occupying the space outside the outer circle, the kendang, a tempo-regulating group (drums).
The gamelan is also divided into front, middle, and back, much like the symphony orchestra.
An orally-transmitted Javanese taxonomy has 8 groupings:[1]
ricikan dijagur ("instruments beaten with a padded hammer," e.g., suspended gongs);
ricikan dithuthuk ("instruments knocked with a hard or semihard hammer," e.g., saron (similar to the glockenspiel) and gong-chimes);
ricikan dikebuk ("hand-beaten instruments", e.g., kendhang (drum);
ricikan dipethik ("plucked instruments");
ricikan disendal ("pulled instruments," e.g., trump harp with string mechanism);
ricikan dikosok ("bowed instruments");
ricikan disebul ("blown instruments");
ricikan dikocok ("shaken instruments").
A Javanese classification transmitted in literary form is as follows:[1]
ricikan prunggu/wesi ("instruments made of bronze or iron");
ricikan kulit ("leather instruments", drums);
ricikan kayu ("wooden instruments");
ricikan kawat/tali ("string instruments");
ricikan bambu pring ("bamboo instruments", e.g., flutes).
This is much like the pa yin. It is suspected of being old but its age is unknown.
Minangkabau musicians (of West Sumatra) use the following taxonomy for bunyi-bunyian ("objects that sound"): dipukua ("beaten"), dipupuik ("blown), dipatiek ("plucked"), ditariek ("pulled"), digesek ("bowed"), dipusiang ("swung"). The last one is for the bull-roarer. They also distinguish instruments on the basis of origin because of sociohistorical contacts, and recognize three categories: Mindangkabau (Minangkabau asli), Arabic (asal Arab), and Western (asal Barat), each of these divided up according to the five categories. Classifying musical instruments on the basis sociohistorical factors as well as mode of sound production is common in Indonesia.[1]
The Batak of North Sumatra recognize the following classes: beaten (alat pukul or alat palu), blown (alat tiup), bowed (alat gesek), and plucked (alat petik) instruments, but their primary classification is of ensembles.[1]
West African instruments[edit]
In West Africa, tribes such as the Dan, Gio, Kpelle, Hausa, Akan, and Dogon, use a human-centered system. It derives from 4 myth-based parameters: the musical instrument's nonhuman owner (spirit, mask, sorcerer, or animal), the mode of transmission to the human realm (by gift, exchange, contract, or removal), the making of the instrument by a human (according to instructions from a nonhuman, for instance), and the first human owner. Most instruments are said to have a nonhuman origin, but some are believed invented by humans, e.g., the xylophone and the lamellophone.[1]
Kurt Reinhard[edit]
In 1960, German musicologist Kurt Reinhard presented a stylistic taxonomy, as opposed to a morphological one, with two divisions determined by either single or multiple voiced playing.[1] Each of these two divisions was subdivided according to pitch changeability (not changeable, freely changeable, and changeable by fixed intervals), and also by tonal continuity (discontinuous (as the marimba and drums) and continuous (the friction instruments (including bowed) and the winds), making 12 categories. He also proposed classification according to whether or not they had dynamic tonal variability, a characteristic that separates whole eras (e.g., the baroque from the classical) as in the transition from the terraced dynamics of the harpsichord to the crescendo of the piano, grading by degree of absolute loudness, timbral spectra, tunability, and degree of resonance.
Persia[edit]
Al-Farabi, Persian scholar of the 10th century, also distinguished tonal duration. In one of his four schemes, in his two-volume Kitab al-Musiki al-Kabir (Great Book of Music) he identified five classes, in order of ranking, as follows: the human voice, the bowed strings (the rebab) and winds, plucked strings, percussion, and dance, the first three pointed out as having continuous tone.
Ibn Sina, Persian scholar of the 11th century, presented a scheme in his Kitab al-Najat (Book of the Delivery), made the same distinction. He used two classes. In his Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Soul Healing), he proposed another taxonomy, of five classes: fretted instruments, unfretted (open) stringed, lyres and harps, bowed stringed, wind (reeds and some other woodwinds, such as the flute and bagpipe), other wind instruments such as the organ, and the stick-struck santur (a board zither). The distinction between fretted and open was in classic Persian fashion.
See also[edit]
Organology
Hornbostel–Sachs
Category:Hornbostel-Sachs
List of musical instruments
Classification of percussion instruments
Musical instrument#Classification
Signal instrument
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Kartomi, Margaret J. (1990-11-01). On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology. University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ Rowell, Lewis Eugene (1992). Three Ancient Conceptions of Musical Sound. Music and Musical Thought in Early India. University of Chicago Press. p. 54.
Jump up ^ Margaret Kartomi, 2011, Upward and Downward Classifications of Musical Instruments-musicology.ff,cuni.cz)
Jump up ^ The History of Musical Instruments, C. Sachs, Norton, New York, 1940
Jump up ^ Ruth Stone, "Let the Inside Be Sweet: the interpretation of music among the Kpelle of Liberia", 1982, Indiana U. Press
Jump up ^ Ames and King. Glossary of Hausa Music and its Social Contexts, 1971, Northwestern U. Press.
Jump up ^ A New Approach to the Classification of Sound-Producing Instruments, Ethnomusicology, Spring/Summer, 1985, also at mywebspace.wisc.edu
Jump up ^ Mann, Steve (2007). Natural Interfaces for Musical Expression, Proceedings of the Conference on Interfaces for Musical Expression. New Interfaces for Musical Expression. pp. 118–23.
Jump up ^ Computer Music Journal Fall 2008, Vol. 32, No. 3, Pages 25-41 Posted Online August 15, 2008. doi:10.1162/comj.2008.32.3.25
Jump up ^ The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments (2 ed.), Oxford University Press, Print ISBN 9780199743391, 2016, Edited by Laurence Libin.
^ Jump up to: a b c Physiphones, NIME 2007, New York, pp118-123
Jump up ^ Computer Music Journal Fall 2008, Vol. 32, No. 3, Pages 25-41
^ Jump up to: a b Kartomi, page 176, "On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments", by Margaret J. Kartomi, University of Chicago Press, Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology (CSE), 1990
show
v
t
e
Hornbostel–Sachs system
1. Idiophone
(list)
11. Struck
111. Directly
111.1. Concussion
111.2. Percussion
112. Indirectly
112.1. Shaken/rattle
112.2. Scraped/rasp
12. Plucked
121. Frame
121.1. Clack
121.2. Guimbarde
122. Comb
122.1. Lace (Mbira)
122.2. Cut out
13. Friction
131. Stick
Nail violin
132. Plaque
Musical saw
Daxophone
133. Vessel
Glass harmonica
14. Blown
141. Stick
142. Plaque
2. Membran-
ophone
(list)
21. Struck
211. Directly
211.1. Bowl
211.2. Tubular
211.3. Frame
212. Shaken
22. Plucked
Nyatiti
23. Friction
231. Stick
232. Cord
233. Hand
24. Kazoo
241. Free
242. Tube/vessel
3.
Chordophone
(list)
31. Simple
/ zither
311. Bar/stick
Musical bow
Stick zither
312. Tube
Whole
Half
313. Raft
Idiochord
Heterochord
314. Board
315. Trough
316. Frame
32.
Composite
321. Lute
321.1. Bow
321.2. Yoke
322. Harp
322.1. Open
322.2. Frame
323. Harp lute
4. Aerophone
(list)
41. Free
411. Displacement
Whip
412. Interruptive
412.1. Idiophonic/reed
412.2. Non-idiophonic
413. Plosive
42.
Non-free
421. Flute
421.1. Non-fipple
421.2. Fipple
422. Reed
422.1. Double reed
422.2. Single reed
422.3. Reedpipe
423. Brass
423.1 Natural
423.2 Chromatic
5.
Electrophone
(list)
51. Action
52. Amplification
53. Radioelectric
Theremin
List of musical instruments by Hornbostel-Sachs number
Musical instrument classification
show
v
t
e
Elementary organology
Aerophone
Gaiaphone
Chordophone
Idiophone
Membranophone
Hydraulophone
Plasmaphone
Quintephone
show
v
t
e
Musical instruments
Strings
Acoustic guitar
Balalaika
Banjo
Adungu
Bass guitar (electric bass)
Bass amplifier
Cavaquinho
Chapman Stick
Classical guitar
Electric guitar
Guitar amplifier
Guitar
Janzi
Harp
Hurdy-gurdy
Guitarrón
Guitarra de golpe
Lute
Mandolin
Musical bow
Rajão
Sitar
Slack-key guitar
Steel guitar
String section (Classical strings)
Violin
Viola
Cello
Double bass
Theorbo
Timple
Ukulele
Vihuela
Viol
Washtub bass
Zither
Brass
Trumpet
Fanfare trumpet
Trombone
Cornet
Saxhorn
Flugelhorn
Tenor horn
Baritone horn
Euphonium
Tuba
French horn
Sousaphone
Mellophone
Alphorn
Buccina
Bugle
Contrabass bugle
Carnyx
Cornett
Cornu
Dord (instrument)
German horn
Horn
Nabal
Nyele
Ophicleide
Post horn
Serpent
Shofar
Sringa
Tibetan horn
Vienna horn
Wagner tuba
Wazza
Woodwind
Piccolo
Flute
Oboe
English horn
Bassoon
Clarinet
Saxophone
Recorder
Bagpipes
Musette de cour
Nose flute
Sring
Tárogató
Keyboard
Accordion
Calliope
Carillon
Celesta
Clavichord
Harpsichord
Mellotron
Organ
Hammond organ
Pipe organ
Pump organ
Pedal keyboard
Piano
Digital piano
Electric piano
Electronic piano
Synthesizer
Percussion
Bell
Bell tree
Cajon
Cymbals
Djembe
Drum
Bass drum
Snare drum
Tenor drum
Drum kit
Gong
Hammered dulcimer
Marimba
Tambourine
Timpani
Triangle
Vibraphone
Xylophone
Friction
Cristal baschet
Glass harmonica
Friction drum
Lion's roar
Musical saw
Nail violin
Verrophone
Rhythm section
Acoustic guitar
Bass guitar
Double bass
Drum kit
Drum machine
Electric guitar
Guitar amplifier
Electric piano
Hammond organ
Leslie speaker
Piano
Synthesizer
Miscellaneous
Didgeridoo
Turntables used as instrument
Harmonica
Melodica
Experimental musical instrument
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text:
Divergent boundary
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This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 6 May 2018.
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Continental-continental divergent/constructive boundary
In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary (also known as a constructive boundary or an extensional boundary) is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent boundaries also form volcanic islands which occur when the plates move apart to produce gaps which molten lava rises to fill.
Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earth's mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary.[1] This supplies the area with vast amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other.
Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate.
Contents
1 Description
2 Examples
3 Other plate boundary types
4 See also
5 References
Description[edit]
Bridge across the Álfagjá rift valley in southwest Iceland, that is part of the boundary between the Eurasian and North American continental tectonic plates.
At divergent boundaries, two plates move away from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere. The hot spot which may have initiated the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system currently underlies Iceland which is widening at a rate of a few centimeters per year.
Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley. Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system. Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different, massive transform faults occur. These are the fracture zones, many bearing names, that are a major source of submarine earthquakes. A sea floor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis. If one views the sea floor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear. Crest depths of the old ridges, parallel to the current spreading center, will be older and deeper... (from thermal contraction and subsidence).[citation needed]
It is at mid-ocean ridges that one of the key pieces of evidence forcing acceptance of the seafloor spreading hypothesis was found. Airborne geomagnetic surveys showed a strange pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals on opposite sides of ridge centers. The pattern was far too regular to be coincidental as the widths of the opposing bands were too closely matched. Scientists had been studying polar reversals and the link was made by Lawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews in the Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis. The magnetic banding directly corresponds with the Earth's polar reversals. This was confirmed by measuring the ages of the rocks within each band. The banding furnishes a map in time and space of both spreading rate and polar reversals.
Examples[edit]
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Red Sea Rift
Baikal Rift Zone
East African Rift
East Pacific Rise
Gakkel Ridge
Galapagos Rise
Explorer Ridge
Juan de Fuca Ridge
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
West Antarctic Rift
Great Rift Valley
Other plate boundary types[edit]
Convergent boundary
Transform boundary
See also[edit]
Seafloor spreading
Continental drift
Subduction zone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Toshiro Tanimoto, Thorne Lay (November 7, 2000). "Mantle dynamics and seismic tomography". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (23): 12409–10. Bibcode:2000PNAS...9712409T. doi:10.1073/pnas.210382197. PMC 34063  . PMID 11035784.
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text:
List of ancient Egyptian sites
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (January 2017)
This is a list of ancient Egyptian sites, throughout all of Egypt and Nubia. Sites are listed by their classical name whenever possible, if not by their modern name, and lastly with their ancient name if no other is available.
Contents
1 Nomes
1.1 Lower Egypt
1.2 Upper Egypt
2 Lower Egypt (The Nile Delta)
3 Middle Egypt
4 Upper Egypt
4.1 Northern Upper Egypt
4.2 Southern Upper Egypt
5 Lower Nubia
6 Upper Nubia
7 Oases and Mediterranean coast
8 Sinai
9 Eastern Desert
10 Notes and references
11 Bibliography
Nomes[edit]
The nomes of Ancient Egypt, in lower Egypt
The nomes of Ancient Egypt, in upper Egypt
A nome is a subnational administrative division of Ancient Egypt.
Lower Egypt[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2013)
Upper Egypt[edit]
Nome 1: Land of the arch or To Khentit: the frontier (Ta-Seti)
Nome 2: Throne of Horus
Nome 3: The rural (Shrine)
Nome 4: The sceptre
Nome 5: The two falcons
Nome 6: The crocodile
Nome 7: Sistrum
Nome 8: Great lands
Nome 9: Minu (Min)
Nome 10: Cobra
Nome 11: The Set animal (Seth)
Nome 12: Viper mountain
Nome 13: Upper pomegranate tree (Upper Sycamore and Viper)
Nome 14: Lower pomegranate tree (Lower Sycamore and Viper)
Nome 15: Hare
Nome 16: Oryx
Nome 17: The black dog (Jackal)
Nome 18: Falcon with spread wings (Nemty)
Nome 19: The pure sceptre (Two Sceptres)
Nome 20: Upper laurel (Southern Sycamore)
Nome 21: Lower laurel (Northern Sycamore)
Nome 22: Knife
Lower Egypt (The Nile Delta)[edit]
Alexandria
Great Library of Alexandria
Pharos of Alexandria
Pompey's Pillar
Athribis (Modern: "Tell Atrib", Ancient: "Hut-Heryib" or "Hut-Tahery-Ibt")
Avaris (Modern: "Tell el-Dab'a", Ancient: "Pi-Ri'amsese")
Behbeit el-Hagar
Bilbeis
Bubastis (Modern: "Tell Basta", Ancient: "Bast")
Busiris (Modern: "Abu Sir Bana")
Buto (Modern: "Tell el-Fara'in", Ancient: "Pe")
Cairo (or near Cairo)
Abu Rawash
Giza Necropolis (Giza Plateau)
Khufu's Pyramid (Great Pyramid)
Khafre's Pyramid
Menkaure's Pyramid
Great Sphinx of Giza
Heliopolis (Modern: "Tell Hisn", Ancient: "Iunu")
Letopolis (Modern: "Ausim", Ancient: "Khem")
Hermopolis Parva (Modern: "El-Baqliya" Ancient: "Ba'h")
Iseum (Modern: "Behbeit el-Hagar", Ancient: "Hebyt")
Kom el-Hisn (Ancient: "Imu" or "Yamu")
Leontopolis (Yahudiya) (Modern: "Tell el-Yahudiya", Ancient: "Nay-Ta-Hut")
Leontopolis (Modern: "Tell el-Muqdam")
Naukratis (Modern: "el-Gi'eif", "el-Niqrash","el-Nibeira")
Memphite Necropolis (Memphis)
Abu Ghurab
Abusir (Busiris)
Pyramid of Neferefre
Pyramid of Neferirkare
Pyramid of Nyuserre
Pyramid of Sahure
Sun temple of Nyuserre
Sun temple of Userkaf
Dahshur
Bent Pyramid
Black Pyramid
Red Pyramid
White Pyramid
Helwan
Mit Rahina
Saqqara
Sekhemkhet's Buried Pyramid
Gisr el-mudir
Haram el-Shawaf
Mazghuna
Pyramid of Ibi
Pyramid of Khendjer
Pyramid of Teti
Pyramid of Unas
Pyramid of Userkaf
Step Pyramid of Djoser
Southern South Saqqara pyramid
Zawyet el'Aryan
Mendes (Modern: "Tell el-Rub'a", Ancient: "'Anpet")
Tell Tebilla
Qantir / El-Khata'na
Sais (Modern: "Sa el-Hagar", Ancient: "Zau")
Saft el-Hinna (Ancient: "Per-Sopdu")
Sebennytos (Modern: "Samannud", Ancient: "Tjebnutjer")
Shagamba
Suwa
Taposiris Magna (Modern: "Abusir")
Tanis (Modern: "San el-Hagar", Ancient: "Djan'net")
Tell el-Maskhuta (Ancient: "Tjeku")
Tell el-Rataba
Tell el-Sahaba
Tell Nabasha
Tell Qua'
Terenuthis (Modern: "Kom Abu Billo")
Thmuis (Modern: "Tell el-Timai")
Tura
Xois (Modern: "Sakha")
Middle Egypt[edit]
The area from about Al Fayyum to Asyut is usually referred to as Middle Egypt.
Akoris (Modern: "Tihna el-Gebel")
Fraser Tombs
Amarna (Ancient: "Akhetaten")
Ankyronpolis (Modern: "el-Hiba", Ancient: "Teudjoi")
Antinopolis (Modern: "el-Sheikh 'Ibada")
Deir el-Bersha
Deir el-Gabrawi
Dishasha
Dja (Modern: "Medinet Madi" Ancient: "Narmouthis")
el-Sheikh Sa'id
Faiyum
Crocodilopolis (Hellenistic: "Arsinoe")
el-Lahun
Hawara
Herakleopolis Magna (Modern: "Ihnasiyyah al-Madinah", Ancient: "Henen-Nesut")
Kom Medinet Ghurab
Lisht
Meidum
Sidment el-Gebel
Seila
Tarkhan
Hermopolis Magna (Modern: "El Ashmunein", Ancient: "Khmun")
Hebenu (Modern: "Kom el-Ahmar")
Beni Hasan
Speos Artemidos (Modern: "Istabl 'Antar")
Zawyet el-Maiyitin
Herwer
Lykopolis (Modern: "Asyut", Ancient: "Zawty")
Meir
Oxyrhynchus (Modern: "el-Bahnasa", Ancient: "Per-Medjed")
Sharuna
Tuna el-Gebel
Upper Egypt[edit]
Northern Upper Egypt[edit]
Abydos (Ancient: "Abedju")
el-'Araba el Madfuna
Kom el-Sultan
Umm el-Qa'ab
Shunet ez Zebib
Osireion
Apollinopolis Parva (Modern: "Qus", Ancient: "Gesa" or "Gesy")
Antaeopolis (Modern: "Qaw el-Kebir", Ancient: "Tjebu" or "Djew-Qa")
Ar Raqāqinah (Known as "Reqaqnah")
Athribis (Modern: "Wannina", Ancient: "Hut-Repyt")
Beit Khallaf
Diospolis Parva (Modern: "Hiw", Ancient: "Hut-Sekhem")
el-Hawawish
el-Salamuni
Khemmis or Panopolis (Modern: "Akhmin", Ancient: "Ipu" or "Khent-Min")
Gebel el-Haridi
Khenoboskion (Modern: "el-Qasr", "el-Saiyad")
Koptos (Modern: "Qift", Ancient: "Gebtu")
Naga ed-Der
Nag' el-Madamud (Ancient: "Mabu")
Ombos (Naqada) (Modern: "Naqada", Ancient: "Nubt")
Shanhûr
Southern Upper Egypt[edit]
Aphroditopolis (Modern: "Gebelein", Ancient: "Per-Hathor")
Apollinopolis Magna (Modern: "Edfu", Ancient: "Djeba, Mesen")
Aswan
el-Mo'alla (Ancient: "Hefat")
Eileithyiaspolis (Modern: "el-Kab", Ancient: "Nekheb")
Gebel el-Silsila (Ancient: "Kheny")
Hermonthis (Modern: "Armant", Ancient: "Iuny")
Hierakonpolis (Modern: "Kom el-Ahmar", Ancient: "Nekhen")
Kom al-Ahmar Necropolis
Kom Ombo
Latopolis (Modern: "Esna", Ancient: "Iunyt, Senet, Tasenet")
Luxor (Ancient: "Ipet-Resyt")
Qasr el-'Aguz
Qurna
el-Assasif
el-Khokha
el-Tarif
Dra' Abu el-Naga'
Qurnet Murai
Sheikh Abd el-Qurna
Tuphium (Modern: "Tod", Ancient: "Djerty")
Lower Nubia[edit]
Map of Nubia
Amada
Abu Simbel
Contra Pselchis (Modern: "Quban", Ancient: "Baki")
Debod
el-Lessiya
Mi'am (Modern: "'Aniba")
Primis (Modern: "Qasr Ibrim")
Pselchis (Modern: "el-Dakka", Ancient: "Pselqet")
Temple of Dakka
Talmis (Modern: "Kalabsha")
Beit el-Wali
Temple of Derr
Gerf Hussein
Qasr Ibrim
Wadi es-Sebua
Taphis (Modern: "Tafa")
Tutzis (Modern: "Dendur")
Tzitzis (Modern: "Qertassi")
Upper Nubia[edit]
'Amara East
'Amara West[1]
Abahuda (Abu Oda)
Aksha (Serra West)
Askut Island
Buhen
Dabenarti
Dibeira
Dorginarti Island
Faras
Gebel el-Shams
Gebel Barkal
Kor
Kumma
Meinarti Island
Qustul
Semna
Semna South
Serra East
Shalfak
Uroarti Island
Oases and Mediterranean coast[edit]
Siwa Oasis
Aghurmi
el-Zeitun
Gebel el-Mawta
Qaret el-Musabberin
Umm el-'Ebeida
Bahariya Oasis
el-Qasr
el-Bawiti
el-Hayz
Farafra Oasis
'Ain el-Wadi
el-Qasr
el-Dakhla Oasis
Amheida
Balat
Deir el-Hager
el-Qasr
Kellis (Modern: "Ismant el-Kharab")
Mut el-Kharab
Qaret el-Muzawwaqa
el-Kharga Oasis
Baris
Gebel el-Teir
Hibis
Kysis (Modern: "Dush")
Nadurs
Qasr el-Ghueida
Qasr Zaiyan
Mediterranean Coast
Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham
Sinai[edit]
Aqaba
Arsinoe
Eilat (Elath)
Kuntillet Ajrud
Pelusium (Sin)
Rud el-'Air
Serabit el-Khadim
Tell Kedwa
Wadi Maghareh
Eastern Desert[edit]
Wadi Hammamat
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ The British Museum, Amara West: investigating life in an Egyptian town
Bibliography[edit]
Atlas of Ancient Egypt, John Baines & Jaromir Malek, America University of Cairo Press, 2002
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Berenice Troglodytica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the Egyptian town. For other uses, see Berenice (disambiguation).
Berenice
Βερενίκη
Satellite image of Berenice Troglodytica, on Red Sea coast
Shown within Egypt
Alternate name
Berenice Troglodytica, Baranis, Berenike[1]
Location
Red Sea Governorate, Egypt
Region
Upper Egypt
Coordinates
23°54′38″N 35°28′34″E / 23.91056°N 35.47611°E / 23.91056; 35.47611Coordinates: 23°54′38″N 35°28′34″E / 23.91056°N 35.47611°E / 23.91056; 35.47611
Type
Settlement
History
Builder
Ptolemy II
Founded
First half of the 3rd century BC
Abandoned
After the 6th century AD
Periods
Ptolemaic Kingdom to Byzantine Empire
Berenice (Berenike) or Berenice Troglodytica (Greek: Βερενίκη), also known as Baranis, is an ancient seaport of Egypt on the west coast of the Red Sea. It is situated about 825 km south of Suez and 260 km east of Aswan in Upper Egypt.[2]
It was founded in 275 BC by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC), who named it after his mother, Berenice I of Egypt.[3] Troglodytica refers to the aboriginal people of the region, the "Troglodytai" or "cave dwellers". Although the name is attested by several ancient writers, the more ancient Ptolemaic inscriptions read Trogodytai (which G.W.B. Huntingford has speculated could be related to the same root as Tuareg). It is possible that later copyists confused this name with the more common term Troglodytai.
Built at the head of a gulf, the Sinus Immundus, or Foul Bay, of Strabo, it was sheltered on the north by Ras Benas (Lepte Extrema). A lofty range of mountains runs along this side of the African coast, and separates Berenice from the Nile Valley. The emerald mines of Zabara and Saket are in its neighbourhood. The harbour is indifferent, but was improved by art. Berenice stood upon a narrow rim of shore between the hills and the Red Sea. The harbor of Berenice was sheltered from the northeast wind by the island Ophiodes (Ὀφιώδης νήσος, Strabo xvi. p. 770; Diod. iii. 39), which was rich in topazes.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Recent archaeological finds
3 See also
4 Footnotes
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Berenice was quite famous and prosperous in antiquity. The city is noted by most ancient geographers, including Strabo, Pliny the Elder (vi. 23, 26, 29, 33), and Stephanus of Byzantium (s. v.). Its prosperity after the third century was owing in great measure to three causes: the favour of the Macedonian kings, its safe anchorage, and its being a terminus of the great road from Coptos (now Qift) on the Nile, which rendered Berenice and Myos Hormos the two principal emporia of the trade between Aethiopia and Egypt on the one hand, and Syria and Tamilakkam on the other. The road across the desert from Coptos was 258 Roman miles long, or eleven days' journey. The road was provided with watering stations (Greek hydreumata, see Hadhramaut); the wells and halting places of the caravans are enumerated by Pliny (vi. 23. s. 26), and in the Itineraries (Antonin. p. 172, f.). Belzoni (Travels, vol. ii. p. 35) found traces of several of these stations.
From the 1st century BC until the 2nd century AD, Berenice was one of the trans-shipping points of trade between India, Arabia, and Upper Egypt. It was connected to Antinopolis on the River Nile in Lower Egypt by the Via Hadriana in 137. The trade from Berenice along the Red Sea coast is described in the 1st century AD travelogue Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by a Greek merchant based in Alexandria. The Periplus indicates that "on the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers", thereby placing Berenice Troglodytica just north of ancient Barbara.[4] In the 4th century Berenice again become an active port, but after the 6th century the port was abandoned. Under the Roman Empire, Berenice formed a district unto itself, with its peculiar prefect, who was entitled Praefectus Berenicidis, or P. montis Berenicidis. (Orelli, Inscr. Lat. no. 3880, f.)
In 1818, the ruins of Berenice were identified by Giovanni Battista Belzoni, confirming an earlier opinion of D'Anville. Since then, several excavations have been undertaken. The port is now nearly filled up, has a sand-bar at its entrance and can be reached only by small craft.[5] Most important of the ruins is a temple; the remnants of its sculptures and inscriptions preserve the name of Tiberius and the figures of many deities, including a (goddess?) Alabarch or Arabarch, also the name of the head magistrate of the Jews in Alexandria under Ptolemaic and Roman rule. The temple is of sandstone and soft calcareous stone, in the Egyptian style. It is 102 feet (31 m) long, and 43 wide. A portion of its walls is sculptured with well-executed basso relieves, of Greek workmanship, and hieroglyphics also occasionally occur on the walls. Belzoni said that the city measured 1,600 feet (490 m) from north to south, and 2,000 from east to west. He estimated the ancient population at 10,000. (Researches, vol. ii. p. 73.)
Recent archaeological finds[edit]
A visit to Berenice, Wellsted, 1838
Ruins of a Temple - Wellsted, 1838
Excavations were launched at Berenike in 1994 by a team of archaeologists from the University of Delaware led by Prof. Steven E. Sidebotham, with partners from several other institutions and continued until 2001. Work was resumed by teams from the University of Delaware and the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Poland, in the winter of 2007/2008 and is still continuing.[6]
A large number of significant finds have been made providing evidence of the cargo from the Malabar Coast and the presence of Tamil people from South India and Jaffna being at this last outpost of the Roman Empire.
"Among the unexpected discoveries at Berenike were a range of ancient Indian goods, including the largest single concentration (7.55 kg) of black peppercorns ever recovered in the classical Mediterranean world (“imported from southern India” and found inside a large vessel made of Nile silt in a temple courtyard); substantial quantities of Indian-made fine ware and kitchen cooking ware and Indian style pottery; Indian-made sail cloth, basketry, matting, etc. from trash dumps; a large quantity of teak wood, black pepper, coconuts, beads made of precious and semi-precious stones, cameo blanks; “a Tamil Brahmi graffito mentioning Korra, a South Indian chieftain”; evidence that “inhabitants from Tamil South India (which then included most of Kerala) were living in Berenike, at least in the early Roman period”; evidence that the Tamil population implied the probable presence of Buddhist worshippers; evidence of Indians at another Roman port 300 km north of Berenike; Indian-made ceramics on the Nile road; a rock inscription mentioning an Indian passing through en route; “abundant evidence for the use of ships built and rigged in India”; and proof “that teak wood (endemic to South India), found in buildings in Berenike, had clearly been reused”(from dismantled ships)."[7]
In 2009 the first find of frankincense was reported and "two blocks of resin from the Syrian fir tree (Abies cilicica), one weighting about 190 g and the other about 339 g, recovered from 1st-century AD contexts in one of the harbor trenches. Produced in areas of greater Syria and Asia Minor, this resin and its oil derivative were used in mummification, as an antiseptic, a diuretic, to treat wrinkles, extract worms and promote hair growth."[8]
See also[edit]
Red Sea Riviera
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Final Report for 5th season - Pattanam Excavation (PDF). Tiruvananthapuram, India: Kerala Council for Historical Research. 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "A Letter Concerning Boats in Berenike and Trade on the Red Sea." Michael Peppard. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Bd. 171 (2009), p. 196.
Jump up ^ Schoff, Wilfred Harvey (1912). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century. London, Bombay & Calcutta. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Chisholm 1911.
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ South Indians in Roman Egypt? R. Krishnakumar Frontline Volume 27 - Issue 08 :: Apr. 10-23, 2010.
Jump up ^ [3]
References[edit]
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Berenice". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 769–770.
The Berenike Project: the port's excavation.
G.W.B. Huntingford "The Ethnology and History of the Area Covered by the Periplus" in Huntingford (trans. & ed.), Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (London, 1980).
S. Sidebotham and W. Wendrich, "Roms Tor am Roten Meer nach Arabien und Indien", in AW 32-3 (2001), p. 251-263.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1854–1857). "article name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray.
Berenike Project run by Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology UW
External links[edit]
Fordham.edu: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea — Schoff translation.
[hide]
v
t
e
Resorts in Red Sea Riviera
On the Sinai Peninsula
Taba
Nuweiba
Dahab
Sharm El Sheikh
Ras Sedr
Ras Muhammad National Park
Straits of Tiran
Sinai's nearby islands
Tiran Island
Sanafir Island
Pharaoh's Island
On the Western Red Sea shore
Ain Sokhna
Gamsha Bay
El Gouna
Ras Gharib
Hurghada
Sahl Hasheesh Bay
Serrenia
Makadi Bay
Soma Bay
Shoni Bay
Safaga
Quseir
Port Ghalib
Marsa Alam
Hamata
Berenice Troglodytica
Hala'ib
Alshalateen
Ras Banas
Foul Bay
Abu Shar
Abu Tig
Gabal Elba
Wadi Gimal
Gubal Strait
Tarabin
Red Sea islands
Shadwan Island
St.John's Island
Mukawwa Island
Rocky Island
Green Island
Abu Minqar Island
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berenice_Troglodytica&oldid=792891357"
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Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Egypt
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Archaeological sites in Egypt
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This page was last edited on 29 July 2017, at 12:00.
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