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Hephaestus
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For other uses, see Hephaestus (disambiguation).
Hephaestus
God of fire, metalworking, stone masonry, forges, the art of sculpture and blacksmiths.
Hephaestus at the Forge by Guillaume Coustou the Younger (Louvre)
Abode
Mount Olympus
Symbol
Hammer, anvil, tongs, Volcano
Personal information
Consort
Aphrodite, Aglaea
Children
Thalia, Eucleia, Eupheme, Philophrosyne, Cabeiri and Euthenia
Parents
Zeus and Hera, or Hera alone
Siblings
Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai
Roman equivalent
Vulcan
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Hephaestus (/hɪˈfiːstəs, hɪˈfɛstəs/; eight spellings; Greek: Ἥφαιστος Hēphaistos) is the Greek god of blacksmiths, metalworking, carpenters, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metallurgy, fire, and volcanoes.[1] Hephaestus' Roman equivalent is Vulcan. In Greek mythology, Hephaestus was the son of Zeus and Hera, the king and queen of the gods. In another version, he was Hera's parthenogenous child, rejected by his mother because of his deformity and thrown off Mount Olympus and down to earth.[2]
As a smithing god, Hephaestus made all the weapons of the gods in Olympus. He served as the blacksmith of the gods, and was worshipped in the manufacturing and industrial centers of Greece, particularly Athens. The cult of Hephaestus was based in Lemnos.[1] Hephaestus' symbols are a smith's hammer, anvil, and a pair of tongs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Epithets
3 Mythology
3.1 Craft of Hephaestus
3.2 Parentage
3.3 Fall from Olympus
3.4 Return to Olympus
3.5 Consorts and children
3.6 Hephaestus and Aphrodite
3.7 Hephaestus and Athena
3.8 Volcano god
3.9 Other mythology
4 Symbolism
5 Comparative mythology
6 Minor planet
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
Hephaestus is probably associated with the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription 𐀀𐀞𐀂𐀴𐀍, A-pa-i-ti-jo, found at Knossos; the inscription indirectly attests his worship at that time because it is believed that it reads the theophoric name Haphaistios or Haphaistion.[3][4][5] The name of the god in Greek (Hēphaistos) has a root which can be observed in names of places of Pre-Greek origin, like Phaistos[6][7] (Pa-i-to in Linear B).[8]
Epithets[edit]
Hephaestus is given many epithets. The meaning of each epithet is:[9]
Amphigúeis "the lame one" (Ἀμφιγύεις)
Kullopodíōn "the halting" (Κυλλοποδίων)
Khalkeús "coppersmith" (Χαλκεύς)
Klutotékhnēs "renowned artificer" (Κλυτοτέχνης)
Polúmētis "shrewd, crafty" or "of many devices" (Πολύμητις)
Aitnaîos "Aetnaean" (Αἰτναῖος), owing to his workshop being supposedly located below Mount Aetna.[10]
Mythology[edit]
Craft of Hephaestus[edit]
Vulcan Presenting the Arms of Achilles to Thetis by Peter Paul Rubens.
Thetis Receiving the Weapons of Achilles from Hephaestus by Anthony van Dyck (1630-1632)
Hephaestus had his own palace on Olympus, containing his workshop with anvil and twenty bellows that worked at his bidding.[11] Hephaestus crafted much of the magnificent equipment of the gods, and almost any finely wrought metalwork imbued with powers that appears in Greek myth is said to have been forged by Hephaestus. He designed Hermes' winged helmet and sandals, the Aegis breastplate, Aphrodite's famed girdle, Agamemnon's staff of office,[12] Achilles' armor, Heracles' bronze clappers, Helios's chariot, the shoulder of Pelops, and Eros's bow and arrows. In later accounts, Hephaestus worked with the help of the chthonic Cyclopes—among them his assistants in the forge, Brontes, Steropes and Pyracmon.[13][14]
Hephaestus built automatons of metal to work for him. This included tripods that walked to and from Mount Olympus. He gave to the blinded Orion his apprentice Cedalion as a guide. In some versions of the myth,[15] Prometheus stole the fire that he gave to man from Hephaestus's forge. Hephaestus also created the gift that the gods gave to man, the woman Pandora and her pithos. Being a skilled blacksmith, Hephaestus created all the thrones in the Palace of Olympus.[13]
The Greek myths and the Homeric poems sanctified in stories that Hephaestus had a special power to produce motion.[16] He made the golden and silver lions and dogs at the entrance of the palace of Alkinoos in such a way that they could bite the invaders.[17] The Greeks maintained in their civilization an animistic idea that statues are in some sense alive. This kind of art and the animistic belief goes back to the Minoan period, when Daedalus, the builder of the labyrinth, made images which moved of their own accord.[18] A statue of the god was somehow the god himself, and the image on a man's tomb indicated somehow his presence.[19]
Parentage[edit]
According to Hesiod (Theogony, 927-928) Hera gave birth to Hephaestus on her own as revenge for Zeus giving birth to Athena without her (Zeus lay with Metis).
According to Homer (Iliad, I 571-577]) Hera is mentioned as the mother of Hephaestus but there is not sufficient evidence to say that Zeus was his father (although he refers to him in such way).
According to Homer (Odyssey, VIII 306) there is not sufficient evidence to say that Zeus was the father of Hephaestus (although he refers to him in such way). Hera is not mentioned as the mother.
According to Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, 1.3.6) Hera gave birth to Hephaestus alone. Pseudo-Apollodorus also relates that, according to Homer, Hephaestus is one of the children of Zeus and Hera (consciously contradicting Hesiod and Homer).
Several later texts follow Hesiod's account, including Hyginus and the preface to Fabulae.
In the account of Attic vase painters, Hephaestus was present at the birth of Athena and wields the axe with which he split Zeus' head to free her. In the latter account, Hephaestus is there represented as older than Athena, so the mythology of Hephaestus is inconsistent in this respect.
Fall from Olympus[edit]
In one branch of Greek mythology, Hera ejected Hephaestus from the heavens because he was "shrivelled of foot". He fell into the ocean and was raised by Thetis (mother of Achilles) and the Oceanid Eurynome.[20]
In another account, Hephaestus, attempting to rescue his mother from Zeus' advances, was flung down from the heavens by Zeus. He fell for an entire day and landed on the island of Lemnos, where he was cared for and taught to be a master craftsman by the Sintians – an ancient tribe native to that island.[21] Later writers describe his lameness as the consequence of his second fall, while Homer makes him lame and weak from his birth.
Return to Olympus[edit]
Hephaestus was the only Olympian to have returned to Olympus after being exiled.
In an archaic story,[a][22][23] Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical golden throne, which, when she sat on it, did not allow her to stand up.[b] The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he refused, saying "I have no mother".[23]
The western face of the Doric temple of Hephaestus, Agora of Athens.
At last, Dionysus fetched him, intoxicated him with wine, and took the subdued smith back to Olympus on the back of a mule accompanied by revelers – a scene that sometimes appears on painted pottery of Attica and of Corinth.[24][25][26] In the painted scenes, the padded dancers and phallic figures of the Dionysan throng leading the mule show that the procession was a part of the dithyrambic celebrations that were the forerunners of the satyr plays of fifth century Athens.[27][28]
The theme of the return of Hephaestus, popular among the Attic vase-painters whose wares were favored among the Etruscans, may have introduced this theme to Etruria.[c][29][30] In the vase-painters' portrayal of the procession, Hephaestus was mounted on a mule or a horse, with Dionysus holding the bridle and carrying Hephaestus' tools (including a double-headed axe).
The traveller Pausanias reported seeing a painting in the temple of Dionysus in Athens, which had been built in the 5th century but may have been decorated at any time before the 2nd century CE. When Pausanias saw it, he said:
There are paintings here – Dionysus bringing Hephaestus up to heaven. One of the Greek legends is that Hephaestus, when he was born, was thrown down by Hera. In revenge he sent as a gift a golden chair with invisible fetters. When Hera sat down she was held fast, and Hephaestus refused to listen to any other of the gods except Dionysus – in him he reposed the fullest trust – and after making him drunk Dionysus brought him to heaven.
—  Pausanias, 1.20.3
Consorts and children[edit]
According to most versions, Hephaestus's consort is Aphrodite, who is unfaithful to Hephaestus with a number of gods and mortals, including Ares. However, in Book XVIII of Homer's Iliad, the consort of Hephaestus is a lesser Aphrodite, Charis ("the grace") or Aglaia ("the glorious") – the youngest of the Graces, as Hesiod calls her.[31]
Athena Scorning the Advances of Hephaestus by Paris Bordone (between c. 1555 and c. 1560)
In Athens, there is a Temple of Hephaestus, the Hephaesteum (miscalled the "Theseum") near the agora. An Athenian founding myth tells that the city's patron goddess, Athena, refused a union with Hephaestus. Pseudo-Apollodorus[32] records an archaic legend, which claims that Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh.[33][34] Athena wiped the semen off using a tuft of wool, which she tossed into the dust, impregnating Gaia and causing her to give birth to Erichthonius,[33][34] whom Athena adopted as her own child.[33] The Roman mythographer Hyginus[32] records a similar story in which Hephaestus demanded Zeus to let him marry Athena since he was the one who had smashed open Zeus's skull, allowing Athena to be born.[33] Zeus agreed to this and Hephaestus and Athena were married,[33] but, when Hephaestus was about to consummate the union, Athena vanished from the bridal bed, causing him to ejaculate on the floor, thus impregnating Gaia with Erichthonius.[33][35]
On the island of Lemnos, Hephaestus' consort was the sea nymph Cabeiro, by whom he was the father of two metalworking gods named the Cabeiri. In Sicily, his consort was the nymph Aetna, and his sons were two gods of Sicilian geysers called Palici. With Thalia, Hephaestus was sometimes considered the father of the Palici.
Hephaestus fathered several children with mortals and immortals alike. One of those children was the robber Periphetes.
This is the full list of his consorts and children according to the various accounts:
Aphrodite
Aglaea
Eucleia
Euthenia
Eupheme
Philophrosyne
Aetna
The Palici
Cabeiro
The Cabeiri
Gaia
Erichthonius
Anticleia
Periphetes
by unknown mothers
Ardalus
Cercyon (possibly)
Olenus
Palaemonius, Argonauts
Philottus
Pylius
Spinter
In addition, the Romans claim their equivalent god, Vulcan, to have produced the following children:
Cacus
Caeculus
Hephaestus and Aphrodite[edit]
Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan by Alexandre Charles Guillemot (1827)
Though married to Hephaestus, Aphrodite had an affair with Ares, the god of war. Eventually, Hephaestus discovered Aphrodite’s affair through Helios, the all-seeing Sun, and planned a trap during one of their trysts. While Aphrodite and Ares lay together in bed, Hephaestus ensnared them in an unbreakable chain-link net so small as to be invisible and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other gods for retribution.
The gods laughed at the sight of these naked lovers, and Poseidon persuaded Hephaestus to free them in return for a guarantee that Ares would pay the adulterer's fine. Hephaestus states in The Odyssey that he would return Aphrodite to her father and demand back his bride price.
The Thebans told that the union of Ares and Aphrodite produced Harmonia. However, of the union of Hephaestus with Aphrodite, there was no issue unless Virgil was serious when he said that Eros was their child.[36] Later authors explain this statement by saying that Eros was sired by Ares but passed off to Hephaestus as his own son.
Hephaestus was somehow connected with the archaic, pre-Greek Phrygian and Thracian mystery cult of the Kabeiroi, who were also called the Hephaistoi, "the Hephaestus-men", in Lemnos. One of the three Lemnian tribes also called themselves Hephaestion and claimed direct descent from the god.
Hephaestus and Athena[edit]
Hephaestus is to the male gods as Athena is to the females, for he gives skill to mortal artists and was believed to have taught men the arts alongside Athena.[37] He was nevertheless believed to be far inferior to the sublime character of Athena. At Athens they had temples and festivals in common.[d] Both were believed to have great healing powers, and Lemnian earth (terra Lemnia) from the spot on which Hephaestus had fallen was believed to cure madness, the bites of snakes, and haemorrhage, and priests of Hephaestus knew how to cure wounds inflicted by snakes.[38]
He was represented in the temple of Athena Chalcioecus (Athena of the Bronze House[39]) at Sparta, in the act of delivering his mother;[40] on the chest of Cypselus, giving Achilles's armour to Thetis;[41] and at Athens there was the famous statue of Hephaestus by Alcamenes, in which his lameness was only subtly portrayed.[42] The Greeks frequently placed small dwarf-like statues of Hephaestus near their hearths, and these figures are the oldest of all his representations.[43] During the best period of Grecian art he was represented as a vigorous man with a beard, and is characterized by his hammer or some other crafting tool, his oval cap, and the chiton.
Athena is sometimes thought to be "the ‘soul-mate’ of [Hephaestus]. Yet a kind of cloudy mysteriousness shrouds their relationship; no single tradition was ever clearly established on this subject, and so what confronts us is a blurred image based on rumors and conflicting reports." Nonetheless, he "seeks impetuously and passionately to make love to Athena: at the moment of climax she pushes him aside, and his semen falls to the earth where it impregnates Gaia."[44]
Volcano god[edit]
Hephaestus was associated by Greek colonists in southern Italy with the volcano gods Adranus (of Mount Etna) and Vulcanus of the Lipari islands. The first-century sage Apollonius of Tyana is said to have observed, "there are many other mountains all over the earth that are on fire, and yet we should never be done with it if we assigned to them giants and gods like Hephaestus".[45]
Other mythology[edit]
In the Trojan war, Hephaestus sided with the Greeks, but was also worshiped by the Trojans and saved one of their men from being killed by Diomedes.[46] Hephaestus’ favourite place in the mortal world was the island of Lemnos, where he liked to dwell among the Sintians,[47][48][49] but he also frequented other volcanic islands such as Lipara, Hiera, Imbros and Sicily, which were called his abodes or workshops.[50][51][52][53][54][55]
The epithets and surnames by which Hephaestus is known by the poets generally allude to his skill in the plastic arts or to his figure or lameness. The Greeks frequently placed small dwarf-like statues of Hephaestus near their hearths, and these figures are the oldest of all his representations.[56][57][58]
Symbolism[edit]
Hephaestus was sometimes portrayed as a vigorous man with a beard and was characterized by his hammer or some other crafting tool, his oval cap, and the chiton.
Hephaestus is described in mythological sources as "lame" (cholōs), and "halting" (ēpedanos).[59] He was depicted with crippled feet and as misshapen, either from birth or as a result of his fall from Olympus. In vase paintings, Hephaestus is usually shown lame and bent over his anvil, hard at work on a metal creation, and sometimes with his feet back-to-front: Hephaistos amphigyēeis. He walked with the aid of a stick. The Argonaut Palaimonius, "son of Hephaestus" (i.e. a bronze-smith) was also lame.[60]
Other "sons of Hephaestus" were the Cabeiri on the island of Samothrace, who were identified with the crab (karkinos) by the lexicographer Hesychius. The adjective karkinopous ("crab-footed") signified "lame", according to Detienne and Vernant.[61] The Cabeiri were also lame.
In some myths, Hephaestus built himself a "wheeled chair" or chariot with which to move around, thus helping him overcome his lameness while demonstrating his skill to the other gods.[62] In the Iliad 18.371, it is stated that Hephaestus built twenty bronze wheeled tripods in order assist him in moving around.[63]
Hephaestus’s ugly appearance and lameness is taken by some to represent arsenicosis, an effect of high levels of arsenic exposure that would result in lameness and skin cancers. In place of less easily available tin, arsenic was added to copper in the Bronze Age to harden it; like the hatters, crazed by their exposure to mercury, who inspired Lewis Carroll's famous character of the Mad Hatter, most smiths of the Bronze Age would have suffered from chronic poisoning as a result of their livelihood. Consequently, the mythic image of the lame smith is widespread. As Hephaestus was an iron-age smith, not a bronze-age smith, the connection is one from ancient folk memory.[64]
Comparative mythology[edit]
Parallels in other mythological systems for Hephaestus's symbolism include:
The Ugarit craftsman-god Kothar-wa-Khasis, who is identified from afar by his distinctive walk – possibly suggesting that he limps.[65]
As Herodotus was given to understand, the Egyptian craftsman-god Ptah was a dwarf, naked, and deformed.[66]
In Norse mythology, Weyland the Smith was a lame bronzeworker.
In Hinduism the artificer god Tvastr fills a similar role, albeit more positively portrayed.[67]
The Ossetian god Kurdalagon may share a similar origin.[68]
Minor planet[edit]
The minor planet 2212 Hephaistos discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh was named in Hephaestus' honour.[69]
See also[edit]
Greek mythology portal
Hellenismos portal
Hephaestus in popular culture
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Features within the narrative suggest to Kerenyi and others that it is archaic; the most complete literary account, however, is a late one, in the Roman rhetorician Libanios, according to Hedreen (2004).
Jump up ^ A section "The Binding of Hera" is devoted to this archaic theme in Kerenyi (1951, pp 156–158), who refers to this "ancient story", which is one of the "tales of guileful deeds performed by cunning gods, mostly at a time when they had not joined the family on Olympus".
Jump up ^ The return of Hephaestus was painted on the Etruscan tomb at the "Grotta Campana" near Veii was identified by Petersen (1902); the "well-known subject" was doubted in this instance by Harmon (1912).
Jump up ^ See Dict of Ant. s. v. Hêphaisteia, Chalkeia.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Walter Burkert, Greek Religion 1985: III.2.ii; see coverage of Lemnos-based traditions and legends at Mythic Lemnos
Jump up ^ Graves, Robert (1955). The Greek Myths:1. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. p. 51.
Jump up ^ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN 0-521-29037-6. At Google Books.
Jump up ^ Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in translation. Hackett Publishing. 2004. p. 443. ISBN 0-87220-721-8. At Google Books
Jump up ^ "a-pa-i-ti-jo". Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B.
Jump up ^ Probably Phaistos, like Athēnā. Chadwick (1976), p. 87.
Jump up ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 527.
Jump up ^ "pa-i-to". Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B.
Jump up ^ Autenrieth, Georg (1891). "Hephaestus". A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. United States of America: Harper and Brothers.
Jump up ^ Aelian, Hist. An. xi. 3, referenced under Aetnaeus in William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
Jump up ^ Il. xviii. 370, &c.
Jump up ^ The provenance of the staff of office is recounted in Iliad II
^ Jump up to: a b Graves, Robert (1960). "The Palace of Olympus". Greek Gods and Heroes. United States of America: Dell Laurel-Leaf. p. 150.
Jump up ^ Virg. Aen. viii. 416, &c.
Jump up ^ West (1979). "The Prometheus Trilogy. The Journal of Hellenic Studies" (99): 130–148. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Iliad, XVIII 372ff
Jump up ^ Iliad, VIII: Nigel Spivey (1997): The Greek art. Phaidon Press Limited, p.9
Jump up ^ Diodorus Siculus, LV 76
Jump up ^ C.M.Bowra (1957).The Greek experience. The World Publishing company. p.159
Jump up ^ Homeric Hymn to Apollo 316–321; Homer, Iliad 395–405.
Jump up ^ Homer, Iliad 1.590–594; Valerius Flaccus, ii, 8.5; Apollodorus, i, 3 § 5. Apollodorus confounds the two occasions on which Hephaestus was thrown from Olympus.
Jump up ^ Guy Hedreen (2004) The Return of Hephaistos, Dionysiac Processional Ritual and the Creation of a Visual Narrative. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 124 (2004:38–64) p. 38 and note.
^ Jump up to: a b Kerényi 1951, p. 156–158.
Jump up ^ Axel Seeberg (1965) Hephaistos Rides Again. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 85, pp. 102–109, describes and illustrates four pieces of Corinthian painted pottery with the theme
Jump up ^ A black red-figure calpis in the collection of Marsden J. Perry was painted with the return of Hephaestus (Eldridge, 1917, pp 38–54).
Jump up ^ L. G. Eldridge (1917) An Unpublished Calpis. American Journal of Archaeology, 21.1, pp 38–54 (January–March 1917).
Jump up ^ The significance of the subject for the pre-history of Greek drama is argued by Webster (1958, pp 43 [[wikt:ff.|]]) and more recently by Hedreen (2004, pp 38–64).
Jump up ^ T.B.L. Webster (1958) Some thoughts on the pre-history of Greek drama. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, 5, pp 43 [[wikt:ff.|]]
Jump up ^ Petersen (1902) Über die älteste etruskische Wandmälerei, pp 149 [[wikt:ff.|]]. Rome.
Jump up ^ A. M. Harmon (1912) The Paintings of the Grotta Campana. American Journal of Archaeology, 16.1, 1–10 (January–March 1912);
Jump up ^ Hesiod, Theogony, 945
^ Jump up to: a b Kerényi 1951, p. 281.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kerényi 1951, p. 123.
^ Jump up to: a b Burkert, Walter (1985), Greek Religion, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, p. 143, ISBN 0-674-36281-0
Jump up ^ Hyginus made an imaginative etymology for Erichthonius, of strife (Eris) between Athena and Hephaestus and the Earth-child (chthonios).
Jump up ^ Aeneid i.664
Jump up ^ Od. vi. 233, xxiii. 160. Hymn. in Vaulc. 2. &c.
Jump up ^ Philostr. Heroic. v. 2; Eustath. ad Hom. p. 330; Dict. Cret. ii. 14.
Jump up ^ The Museum of Goddess Athena, Sanctuary of Athena Chalkiokos at Sparta
Jump up ^ Paus. iii. 17. § 3
Jump up ^ v. 19. § 2
Jump up ^ Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 30; Val. Max. viii. 11. § 3
Jump up ^ Herod. iii. 37; Aristoph. Av. 436; Callim. Hymnn. in Dian. 60
Jump up ^ Hillman, James (1980). Facing the Gods. Spring Pubns. ISBN 978-0882143125.
Jump up ^ Life of Apollonius of Tyana, book v.16.
Jump up ^ Homer, Iliad, v, 9 [[wikt:ff.|]]
Jump up ^ Od. viii. 283 [[wikt:ff.|]]
Jump up ^ Homer, Iliad, i, 593.
Jump up ^ Ovid, Fasti, viii, 82.
Jump up ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, iii. 41.
Jump up ^ Callimachus, Hymn. in Dian. 47
Jump up ^ Serv. ad Aen, viii, 416.
Jump up ^ Strabo, p. 275.
Jump up ^ Pliny, Naturalis Historia, iii, 9.
Jump up ^ Valerius Flaccus, ii, 96.
Jump up ^ Heroditus, iii, 37
Jump up ^ Aristophanes, Av., 436.
Jump up ^ Callimachus, Hymn. in Dian., 60.
Jump up ^ Odyssey 8.308; Iliad 18.397, etc.
Jump up ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica i.204.
Jump up ^ Detienne, Marcel; Vernant, Jean-Pierre (1978). Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society. Janet Lloyd, translator. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. pp. 269–272. ISBN 0-391-00740-8. Cited by Silver, Morris (1992). Taking Ancient Mythology Economically. New York: Brill. p. 35 note 5. ISBN 90-04-09706-6.
Jump up ^ Dolmage, Jay (2006). "'Breathe Upon Us an Even Flame': Hephaestus, History, and the Body of Rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 25 (2): 119–140 [p. 120]. doi:10.1207/s15327981rr2502_1.
Jump up ^ Murray, A.T. "The Iliad 18.371". Perseus. Tufts University. Retrieved 21 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Saggs, H. W. F. (1989). Civilization Before Greece and Rome. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 200–201. ISBN 0-300-04440-2.
Jump up ^ Baruch Margalit, Aqhat Epic 1989:289.
Jump up ^ Herodotus, iii.36.
Jump up ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2007), Indo-European Poetry and Myth, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9
Jump up ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2007), Indo-European Poetry and Myth, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9
Jump up ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names (5th ed.). New York: Springer Verlag. p. 180. ISBN 3-540-00238-3.
Bibliography[edit]
Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, London, England: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-27048-1
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hephaestus.
Theoi Project, Hephaestus in classical literature and art
Greek Mythology Link, Hephaestus summary of the myths of Hephaestus
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Amazon Machine Image
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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An Amazon Machine Image (AMI) is a special type of virtual appliance that is used to create a virtual machine within the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud ("EC2"). It serves as the basic unit of deployment for services delivered using EC2.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Contents
2 Operating systems
2.1 Amazon Linux AMI
3 Types of images
4 References
5 External links
Contents[edit]
Like all virtual appliances, the main component of an AMI is a read-only filesystem image that includes an operating system (e.g., Linux, Unix, or Windows) and any additional software required to deliver a service or a portion of it.[2]
The AMI filesystem is compressed, encrypted, signed, split into a series of 10 MB chunks and uploaded into Amazon S3 for storage. An XML manifest file stores information about the AMI, including name, version, architecture, default kernel id, decryption key and digests for all of the filesystem chunks.
An AMI does not include a kernel image, only a pointer to the default kernel id, which can be chosen from an approved list of safe kernels maintained by Amazon and its partners (e.g., Red Hat, Canonical, Microsoft). Users may choose kernels other than the default when booting an AMI.[3]
Operating systems[edit]
When it launched in August 2006, the EC2 service offered Linux and later Sun Microsystems' OpenSolaris and Solaris Express Community Edition. In October 2008, EC2 added the Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008 operating systems to the list of available operating systems.[4][5] As of December 2010, it has also been reported to run FreeBSD;[6] in March 2011, NetBSD AMIs became available.[7] In November 2012, Windows Server 2012 support was added.[8]
Amazon Linux AMI[edit]
Amazon has their own Linux distribution based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux. This offering has been in production since September 2011, and in development since 2010.[9][10][11][12][13] The most recent release is version 2017.03[14] and uses version 4.9 of the Linux kernel, among other enhancements.
Types of images[edit]
Public: an AMI image that can be used by anyone.
Paid: a for-pay AMI image that is registered with Amazon DevPay and can be used by anyone who subscribes for it. DevPay allows developers to mark-up Amazon's usage fees and optionally add monthly subscription fees.
Shared: a private AMI that can only be used by Amazon EC2 users who are allowed access to it by the developer.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Amazon. "Amazon EC2 Functionality".
Jump up ^ Amazon. "Creating an Image".
Jump up ^ AWS Blog post announcing EC2 User Selectable Kernels
Jump up ^ Shankland, Stephen (October 23, 2008). "Amazon's Linux cloud computing out of beta, joined by Windows". CNet News. Retrieved October 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) Running Microsoft Windows Server and SQL Server". Amazon.com. October 23, 2008. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved October 25, 2008.
Jump up ^ FreeBSD on EC2 status. Daemonology.net. Retrieved on 2013-08-09.
Jump up ^ NetBSD Blog. Blog.netbsd.org (2011-03-13). Retrieved on 2013-08-09.
Jump up ^ "Windows Server 2012 Now Available on AWS". Amazon.com. November 19, 2012. Retrieved March 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Brockmeier, Joe (September 27, 2011). "Amazon's Linux AMI is All Grown Up". readwriteweb. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amazon Linux AMI - what distro is this based on?". Amazon web forums. September 27, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amazon Linux AMI - 2011.09 release notes". Amazon. September 27, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amazon Linux AMI - 2012.03 release notes". Amazon. September 27, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "amazon-linux-ami 2012.03 packages". Amazon. September 27, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amazon Linux AMI 2017.03 Release Notes". Amazon Web Services. Retrieved May 5, 2017.
External links[edit]
Creating and preparing AMIs
Amazon Web Services Developer Community : Amazon Machine Images (AMIs)
Amazon Linux AMI
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Solar constant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Solar variation
Solar irradiance spectrum at top of atmosphere, on a linear scale and plotted against wavenumber.
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the mean solar electromagnetic radiation (the solar irradiance) per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light. It is measured by satellite as being 1.361 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m²) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1% greater (roughly 1.362 kW/m²) at solar maximum.[1] The solar "constant" is not a physical constant in the modern CODATA scientific sense; that is, it is not like the Planck constant or the speed of light, which are absolutely constant in physics. The solar constant is merely an average of the actually varying value. It has been shown to vary in the past 400 years over a range of less than 0.2 percent.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Calculation
2 Historical measurements
3 Relationship to other measurements
3.1 Solar irradiance
3.2 Apparent magnitude
3.3 The Sun's total radiation
4 Past variations in solar irradiance
5 Variations due to atmospheric conditions
6 See also
7 References
Calculation[edit]
Solar irradiance is measured by satellite above Earth's atmosphere,[3] and is then adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one Astronomical Unit (AU) to evaluate the solar constant.[4] The approximate average value cited,[1] 1.3608 ± 0.0005 kW/m², which is 81.65 kJ/m² per minute, is equivalent to approximately 1.951 calories per minute per square centimeter, or 1.951 langleys per minute.
Solar output is nearly, but not quite, constant. Variations in total solar irradiance (TSI) were small and difficult to detect accurately with technology available before the satellite era (+/- 2% in 1954). Total solar output is now measured as varying (over the last three 11-year sunspot cycles) by approximately 0.1%;[5] see solar variation for details.
Historical measurements[edit]
In 1838, Claude Pouillet made the first estimate of the solar constant. Using a very simple pyrheliometer he developed, he obtained a value of 1.228 kW/m²,[6] close to the current estimate.
In 1875, Jules Violle resumed the work of Pouillet and offered a somewhat larger estimate of 1.7 kW/m² based, in part, on a measurement that he made from Mont Blanc in France.
In 1884, Samuel Pierpont Langley attempted to estimate the solar constant from Mount Whitney in California. By taking readings at different times of day, he tried to correct for effects due to atmospheric absorption. However, the final value he proposed, 2.903 kW/m², was much too large.
A 1903 Langley bolograph with an erroneous solar constant of 2.54 calories/minute/square centimeter.
Between 1902 and 1957, measurements by Charles Greeley Abbot and others at various high-altitude sites found values between 1.322 and 1.465 kW/m². Abbot showed that one of Langley's corrections was erroneously applied. Abbot's results varied between 1.89 and 2.22 calories (1.318 to 1.548 kW/m²), a variation that appeared to be due to the Sun and not the Earth's atmosphere.[7]
In 1954 the solar constant was evaluated as 2.00 cal/min/sq cm ± 2%.[8] Current results are about 2.5 percent lower.
Relationship to other measurements[edit]
Solar irradiance[edit]
Main article: Solar irradiance
See also: Earth's energy budget
The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m² in early January to 1.321 kW/m² in early July) due to the Earth's varying distance from the Sun, and typically by much less than 0.1% from day to day. Thus, for the whole Earth (which has a cross section of 127,400,000 km²), the power is 1.730×1017 W (or 173,000 terawatts),[9] plus or minus 3.5% (half the approximately 6.9% annual range). The solar constant does not remain constant over long periods of time (see Solar variation), but over a year the solar constant varies much less than the solar irradiance measured at the top of the atmosphere. This is because the solar constant is evaluated at a fixed distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) while the solar irradiance will be affected by the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Its distance to the Sun varies annually between 147.1·106 km at aphelion and 152.1·106 km at perihelion.
The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section (π·RE²), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface area (4·π·RE²). Hence the average incoming solar radiation, taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 340 W/m²). The amount reaching the Earth's surface (as insolation) is further reduced by atmospheric attenutation, which varies. At any given moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's latitude, and the time of day.
Apparent magnitude[edit]
The solar constant includes all wavelengths of solar electromagnetic radiation, not just the visible light (see Electromagnetic spectrum). It is positively correlated with the apparent magnitude of the Sun which is −26.8. The solar constant and the magnitude of the Sun are two methods of describing the apparent brightness of the Sun, though the magnitude is based on the Sun's visual output only.
The Sun's total radiation[edit]
The angular diameter of the Earth as seen from the Sun is approximately 1/11,700 radians (about 18 arc-seconds), meaning the solid angle of the Earth as seen from the Sun is approximately 1/175,000,000 of a steradian. Thus the Sun emits about 2.2 billion times the amount of radiation that is caught by Earth, in other words about 3.86×1026 watts.[10]
Past variations in solar irradiance[edit]
Space-based observations of solar irradiance started in 1978. These measurements show that the solar constant is not constant. It varies with the 11-year sunspot solar cycle. When going further back in time, one has to rely on irradiance reconstructions, using sunspots for the past 400 years or cosmogenic radionuclides for going back 10,000 years. Such reconstructions show that solar irradiance varies with distinct periodicities. These cycles are: 11 years (Schwabe), 88 years (Gleisberg cycle), 208 years (DeVries cycle) and 1,000 years (Eddy cycle).[11][12][13][14][15]
Variations due to atmospheric conditions[edit]
At most about 75% of the solar energy actually reaches the earth's surface,[16] as even with a cloudless sky it is partially reflected and absorbed by the atmosphere. Even light cirrus clouds reduce this to 50%, stronger cirrus clouds to 40%. Thus the solar energy arriving at the surface can vary from 550 W/m² with cirrus clouds to 1025 W/m² with a clear sky.
See also[edit]
Sunlight
Solar wind
Irradiance
Radiation pressure
List of solar cycles
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Sun Life cycle
Stellar evolution
List of articles related to the Sun
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Kopp, G.; Lean, J. L. (2011). "A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 38: n/a. Bibcode:2011GeoRL..38.1706K. doi:10.1029/2010GL045777.
Jump up ^ http://lasp.colorado.edu/home/sorce/data/tsi-data/ Total Solar Irradiance Data, SORCE
Jump up ^ Satellite observations of total solar irradiance
Jump up ^ http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/SOLAR/ftpsolarirradiance.html
Jump up ^ Willson, Richard C.; H.S. Hudson (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle". Nature. 351 (6321): 42–4. Bibcode:1991Natur.351...42W. doi:10.1038/351042a0.
Jump up ^ The measurement of the solar constant by Claude Pouillet, by J-L Dufresne, La Météorologie, No. 60, pp. 36-43, Feb. 2008.
Jump up ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sun". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Francis S. Johnson (December 1954). "The Solar Constant". Journal of Meteorology. 11 (6): 431–439. Bibcode:1954JAtS...11..432J. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1954)011<0431:TSC>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Archer, D. (2012). Global Warming: Understanding the Forecast. ISBN 978-0-470-94341-0.
Jump up ^ The Sun at nine planets.org
Jump up ^ Wang; et al. (2005). "Modeling the Sun’s Magnetic Field and Irradiance since 1713". The Astrophysical Journal. 625 (1): 522–538. Bibcode:2005ApJ...625..522W. doi:10.1086/429689.
Jump up ^ Steinhilber et al. (2009), Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 36, L19704, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200811446
Jump up ^ Vieira; et al. (2011). "Evolution of the solar irradiance during the Holocene". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 531: A6. Bibcode:2011A&A...531A...6V. arXiv:1103.4958  . doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015843.
Jump up ^ Steinhilber; et al. (2012). "9,400 years of cosmic radiation and solar activity from ice cores and tree rings". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109: 5967–5971. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.5967S. PMC 3341045  . PMID 22474348. doi:10.1073/pnas.1118965109.
Jump up ^ Vieira, L. E. A.; Norton, A.; Kretzschmar, M.; Schmidt, G. A.; Cheung, M. C. M. (2012). "How the inclination of Earth's orbit affects incoming solar irradiance". Geophys. Res. Lett. 39: L16104. Bibcode:2012GeoRL..3916104V. doi:10.1029/2012GL052950.
Jump up ^ Reimann, Hans-Georg; Weiprecht, Juergen Kompendium für das Astronomische Praktikum
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