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Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals
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The periodic table showing:
metals in most of the left and centre;
metalloids in a narrow diagonal band;
nonmetals in the right, and hydrogen
The chemical elements can be broadly divided into metals, metalloids and nonmetals according to their shared physical and chemical properties. All metals have a shiny appearance (at least when freshly polished); are good conductors of heat and electricity; form alloys with other metals; and have at least one basic oxide. Metalloids are metallic-looking brittle solids that are either semiconductors or exist in semiconducting forms, and have amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides. Typical nonmetals have a dull, coloured or colourless appearance; are brittle when solid; are poor conductors of heat and electricity; and have acidic oxides. Most or some elements in each category share a range of other properties; a few elements have properties that are either anomalous given their category, or otherwise extraordinary.
Contents
[hide]
1 Properties
1.1 Metals
1.2 Metalloids
1.3 Nonmetals
2 Comparison of properties
2.1 Overview
2.2 Detailed
3 Anomalous properties
3.1 Metals
3.2 Metalloids
3.3 Nonmetals
4 Notes
5 Citations
6 References
Properties[edit]
Metals[edit]
Pure (99.97%+) iron chips, electrolytically refined, accompanied by a high purity (99.9999% = 6N) 1 cm3 cube
Main article: Metal
Metals appear lustrous (beneath any patina); form mixtures (alloys) when combined with other metals; tend to lose or share electrons when they react with other substances; and each forms at least one predominantly basic oxide.
Most metals are silvery looking, high density, relatively soft and easily deformed solids with good electrical and thermal conductivity, closely packed structures, low ionisation energies and electronegativities, and are found naturally in combined states.
Some metals appear coloured (Cu, Cs, Au), have low densities (e.g. Be, Al) or very high melting points, are liquids at or near room temperature, are brittle (e.g. Os, Bi), not easily machined (e.g. Ti, Re), or are noble (hard to oxidise) or have nonmetallic structures (Mn and Ga are structurally analogous to, respectively, white P and I).
Metals comprise the large majority of the elements, and can be subdivided into several different categories. From left to right in the periodic table, these categories include the highly reactive alkali metals; the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and radioactive actinides; the archetypal transition metals, and the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Specialized subcategories such as the refractory metals and the noble metals also exist.
Metalloids[edit]
Tellurium, described by Dmitri Mendeleev as forming a transition between metals and nonmetals[1]
Main article: Metalloid
Metalloids are metallic looking brittle solids; tend to share electrons when they react with other substances; have weakly acidic or amphoteric oxides; and are usually found naturally in combined states.
Most are semiconductors, and moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.
Some metalloids (As, Sb) conduct electricity like metals.
The metalloids, as the smallest major category of elements, are not subdivided further.
Nonmetals[edit]
25 ml of bromine, a dark red-brown liquid at room temperature
Main article: Nonmetal
Nonmetals have open structures (unless solidified from gaseous or liquid forms); tend to gain or share electrons when they react with other substances; and do not form distinctly basic oxides.
Most are gases at room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.
Some nonmetals (C, black P, S and Se) are brittle solids at room temperature (although each of these also have malleable, pliable or ductile allotropes).
From left to right in the periodic table, the nonmetals can be subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals which, being nearest to the metalloids, show some incipient metallic character; the diatomic nonmetals, which are essentially nonmetallic; and the monatomic noble gases, which are almost completely inert.
Comparison of properties[edit]
Overview[edit]
Number of metalloid properties that resemble metals or nonmetals
v
t
e
(or that are reasonably distinct)
Resemble metals
Relatively distinctive
Resemble nonmetals
Properties compared: (36) 7 (19%) 25 (68%) 5 (13%)
Physical (21) 5 (24%) 14 (67%) 2 (10%)
• Presentation & structure (10) 2 6 2 (20%)
• Electron-related (6) 1 5
• Thermodynamics (5) 2 3
Chemical (16) 2 (13%) 11 (69%) 3 (19%)
• Elemental chemistry (6) 3 3 (50%)
• Combined form chemistry (6) 2 4
• Environmental chemistry (4) 4
The characteristic properties of metals and nonmetals are quite distinct, as shown in the table below. Metalloids, straddling the metal-nonmetal border, are mostly distinct from either, but in a few properties resemble one or the other, as shown in the shading of the metalloid column below and summarized in the small table at the top of this section.
Authors differ in where they divide metals from nonmetals and in whether they recognize an intermediate metalloid category. Some authors count metalloids as nonmetals with weakly nonmetallic properties.[n 1] Others count some of the metalloids as post-transition metals.[n 2]
Detailed[edit]
Physical and chemical properties[n 3]
v
t
e
Metals[8]
Metalloids
Nonmetals[8]
Presentation and structure
Colour
nearly all are shiny and grey-white
Cu, Cs, Au: shiny and golden[9]
shiny and grey-white[10]
most are colourless or dull red, yellow, green, or intermediate shades[11]
C, P, Se, I: shiny and grey-white
Reflectivity
intermediate to typically high[12][13]
intermediate[14][15]
zero or low (mostly)[16] to intermediate[17]
Form
almost all solid
Rb, Cs, Fr, Ga, Hg: liquid at/near stp[18][19][n 4]
all solid[10]
most are gases[21]
C, P, S, Se, I: solid; Br: liquid
Density
generally high, with some exceptions such as the alkali metals[22]
lower than nearby metals but higher than nearby nonmetals[23]
often low
Deformability (as a solid)
most are ductile and malleable
some are brittle (Cr, Mn, Ga, Ru, W, Os, Bi)[24][n 5]
brittle[27]
brittle, when solid
some (C, P, S, Se) have non-brittle forms[n 6]
Poisson's ratio[n 7]
low to high[n 8]
low to intermediate[n 9]
low to intermediate[n 10]
Crystalline structure at freezing point[47]
most are hexagonal or cubic
Ga, U, Np: orthorhombic; In, Sn, Pa: tetragonal; Sm, Hg, Bi: rhombohedral; Pu: monoclinic
B, As, Sb: rhombohedral
Si, Ge: cubic
Te: hexagonal
H, He, C, N, Se: hexagonal
O, F, Ne, P, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn: cubic
S, Cl, Br, I: orthorhombic
Packing & coordination number
close-packed crystal structures[48]
high coordination numbers
relatively open crystal structures[49]
medium coordination numbers[50]
open structures[51]
low coordination numbers
Atomic radius
(calculated)[52]
intermediate to very large
112–298 pm, average 187
small to intermediate: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te
87–123 pm, average 115.5 pm
very small to intermediate
31–120 pm, average 76.4 pm
Allotropes[53][n 11]
around half form allotropes
one (Sn) has a metalloid-like allotrope (grey Sn, which forms below 13.2 °C[54])
all or nearly all form allotropes
some (e.g. red B, yellow As) are more nonmetallic in nature
some form allotropes
some (e.g. graphitic C, black P, grey Se) are more metalloidal or metallic in nature
Electron-related
Periodic table block
s, p, d, f[55]
p[56]
s, p[56]
Outer s and p electrons
few in number (1–3)
except 0 (Pd); 4 (Sn, Pb, Fl); 5 (Bi); 6 (Po)
medium number (3–7)
high number (4–8)
except 1 (H); 2 (He)
Electron bands: (valence, conduction)
nearly all have substantial band overlap
Bi: has slight band overlap (semimetal)
most have narrow band gap (semiconductors)
As, Sb are semimetals
most have wide band gap (insulators)
C (graphite): a semimetal
P (black), Se, I: semiconductors
Electron behaviour
"free" electrons (facilitating electrical and thermal conductivity)
valence electrons less freely delocalized; considerable covalent bonding present[57]
have Goldhammer-Herzfeld criterion[n 12] ratios straddling unity[61][62]
no, few, or directionally confined "free" electrons (generally hampering electrical and thermal conductivity)
Electrical conductivity
good to high[n 13]
intermediate[64] to good[n 14]
poor to good[n 15]
... as a liquid[70]
falls gradually as temperature rises[n 16]
most behave like metals[61][72]
increases as temperature rises
Thermodynamics
Thermal conductivity
medium to high[73]
mostly intermediate;[27][74] Si is high
almost negligible[75] to very high[76]
Temperature coefficient of resistance[n 17]
nearly all positive (Pu is negative)[77]
negative (B, Si, Ge, Te)[78] or positive (As, Sb)[79]
nearly all negative (C, as graphite, is positive in the direction of its planes)[80][81]
Melting point
very high and solid at room temperature (except mercury)
very high and solid at room temperature
mostly low and gas at room temperature
Melting behaviour
volume generally expands[82]
some contract, unlike (most)[83] metals[84]
volume generally expands[82]
Enthalpy of fusion
low to high
intermediate to very high
very low to low (except C: very high)
Elemental chemistry
Overall behaviour
metallic
nonmetallic[85]
nonmetallic
Ion formation
tend to form cations
some tendency to form anions in water[6]
solution chemistry dominated by formation and reactions of oxyanions[86][87]
tend to form anions
Bonds
seldom form covalent compounds
form salts as well as covalent compounds[88]
form many covalent compounds
Oxidation number
nearly always positive
positive or negative[89]
positive or negative
Ionization energy
relatively low
intermediate[90][91]
high
Electronegativity
usually low
close to 2,[92] i.e., 1.9–2.2[93][n 18]
high
Combined form chemistry
With metals
form alloys
can form alloys[88][96][97]
form ionic or interstitial compounds
With carbon
carbides and organometallic compounds
same as metals
carbon-nonmetal (e.g. CO2, CS2)[n 19] or organic (e.g. CH4, C6H12O6) compounds
With hydrogen (hydrides)
ionic, with alkali, alkaline earth metals
metallic, with transition metals
covalent, with post-transition metals
covalent, volatile hydrides[98]
covalent, gaseous or liquid hydrides
With oxygen (oxides)
nearly all solid (Mn2O7 is a liquid)
very few glass formers[99]
lower oxides: ionic and basic
higher oxides: more covalent, acidic
solid
glass formers (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)[100]
polymeric in structure;[101] tend to be amphoteric or weakly acidic[10][102]
solid, liquid or gaseous
few glass formers (P, S, Se)[103]
covalent, acidic
With sulfur (sulfates)
do form[n 20][n 21]
most form[n 22]
some form[n 23]
With halogens (halides, esp. chlorides) (see also[124])
typically ionic, involatile
generally insoluble in organic solvents
mostly water-soluble (not hydrolysed)
more covalent, volatile, and susceptible to hydrolysis[n 24] and organic solvents with higher halogens and weaker metals[125][126]
covalent, volatile[127]
usually dissolve in organic solvents[128]
partly or completely hydrolysed[129]
some reversibly hydrolysed[129]
covalent, volatile
usually dissolve in organic solvents
generally completely or extensively hydrolyzed
not always susceptible to hydrolysis if parent nonmetal at maximum covalency for period e.g. CF4, SF6 (then nil reaction)[130]
Environmental chemistry
Molar composition of Earth's ecosphere[n 25]
about 14%, mostly Al, Na, Ng, Ca, Fe, K
about 17%, mostly Si
about 69%, mostly O, H
Primary form on Earth
most occur in combined states, as carbonates, silicates, phosphates, oxides, sulfides, or halides
some (e.g. Au, Cu, Ag, Pt) occur in free or uncombined states[134]
all occur in combined states, as borates, silicates, sulfides, or tellurides
elemental C, N, O, S, noble gases are plentiful
H,[n 26] F[n 27], Se occur primarily in compounds
P, Cl, Br, I occur only in compounds, as phosphates, oxides, selenides or halides
Required by mammals
large amounts needed: Na, Mg, K, Ca
trace amounts needed of some others
trace amounts needed: B, Si, As
large amounts needed: H, C, N, O, P, S, Cl
trace amounts needed: Se, Br, I, possibly F
only noble gases not needed
Composition of the human body, by weight
about 1.5% Ca
traces of most others through 92U
trace amounts of B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te
about 97% O, C, H, N, P
others detectable except noble gases
Anomalous properties[edit]
There were exceptions…in the periodic table, anomalies too—some of them profound. Why, for example, was manganese such a bad conductor of electricity, when the elements on either side of it were reasonably good conductors? Why was strong magnetism confined to the iron metals? And yet these exceptions, I was somehow convinced, reflected special additional mechanisms at work…
“
”
Oliver Sacks
Uncle Tungsten (2001, p. 204)
Within each category, elements can be found with one or two properties very different from the expected norm, or that are otherwise notable.
Metals[edit]
Sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, barium, platinum, gold
The common notions that "alkali metal ions (group 1A) always have a +1 charge"[136] and that "transition elements do not form anions"[137] are textbook errors. The synthesis of a crystalline salt of the sodium anion Na− was reported in 1974. Since then further compounds ("alkalides") containing anions of all other alkali metals except Li and Fr, as well as that of Ba, have been prepared. In 1943, Sommer reported the preparation of the yellow transparent compound CsAu. This was subsequently shown to consist of caesium cations (Cs+) and auride anions (Au−) although it was some years before this conclusion was accepted. Several other aurides (KAu, RbAu) have since been synthesized, as well as the red transparent compound Cs2Pt which was found to contain Cs+ and Pt2− ions.[138]
Manganese
Well-behaved metals have crystal structures featuring unit cells with up to four atoms. Manganese has a complex crystal structure with a 58-atom unit cell, effectively four different atomic radii, and four different coordination numbers (10, 11, 12 and 16). It has been described as resembling "a quaternary intermetallic compound with four Mn atom types bonding as if they were different elements."[139] The half-filled 3d shell of manganese appears to be the cause of the complexity. This confers a large magnetic moment on each atom. Below 727 °C, a unit cell of 58 spatially diverse atoms represents the energetically lowest way of achieving a zero net magnetic moment.[140] The crystal structure of manganese makes it a hard and brittle metal, with low electrical and thermal conductivity. At higher temperatures "greater lattice vibrations nullify magnetic effects"[139] and manganese adopts less complex structures.[141]
Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium
The only elements strongly attracted to magnets are iron, cobalt, and nickel at room temperature, gadolinium just below, and terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, and thulium at ultra cold temperatures (below −54 °C, −185 °C, −254 °C, −254 °C, and −241 °C respectively).[142]
Iridium
The only element encountered with an oxidation state of +9 is iridium, in the [IrO4]+ cation. Other than this, the highest known oxidation state is +8, in Ru, Xe, Os, Ir, and Hs.[143]
Gold
The malleability of gold is extraordinary: a fist sized lump can be hammered and separated into one million paper back sized sheets, each 10 nm thick,[citation needed] 1600 times thinner than regular kitchen aluminium foil (0.016 mm thick).[citation needed]
Mercury
Bricks and bowling balls will float on the surface of mercury thanks to it having a density 13.5 times that of water. Equally, a solid mercury bowling ball would weigh around 50 pounds and, if it could be kept cold enough, would float on the surface of liquid gold.[citation needed]
The only metal having an ionisation energy higher than some nonmetals (sulfur and selenium) is mercury.[citation needed]
Mercury and its compounds have a reputation for toxicity but on a scale of 1 to 10, dimethylmercury ((CH3)2Hg) (abbr. DMM), a volatile colourless liquid, has been described as a 15. It is so dangerous that scientists have been encouraged to use less toxic mercury compounds wherever possible. In 1997, Karen Wetterhahn, a professor of chemistry specialising in toxic metal exposure, died of mercury poisoning ten months after a few drops of DMM landed on her "protective" latex gloves. Although Wetterhahn had been following the then published procedures for handling this compound, it passed through her gloves and skin within seconds. It is now known that DMM is exceptionally permeable to (ordinary) gloves, skin and tissues. And its toxicity is such that less than one-tenth of a ml applied to the skin will be seriously toxic.[144]
Lead
The expression, to "go down like a lead balloon" is anchored in the common view of lead as a dense, heavy metal—being nearly as dense as mercury. However, it is possible to construct a balloon made of lead foil, filled with a helium and air mixture, which will float and be buoyant enough to carry a small load.[citation needed]
Bismuth
Bismuth has the longest half life of any naturally occurring element; its only primordial isotope, bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to be slightly radioactive, decaying via alpha decay with a half life more than a billion times the estimated age of the universe. Prior to this discovery, bismuth-209 was thought to be the heaviest naturally occurring stable isotope;[145] this distinction now belongs to lead-208.
Uranium
The only element with a naturally occurring isotope capable of undergoing nuclear fission is uranium.[146] The capacity of uranium-235 to undergo fission was first suggested (and ignored) in 1934, and subsequently discovered in 1938.[n 28]
Plutonium
It is a commonly held belief that metals reduce their electrical conductivity when heated. Plutonium increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around –175 to +125 °C.[citation needed]
Metalloids[edit]
Boron
Boron is the only element with a partially disordered structure in its most thermodynamically stable crystalline form.[149]
Boron, antimony
These elements are record holders within the field of superacid chemistry. For seven decades, fluorosulfonic acid HSO3F and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid CF3SO3H were the strongest known acids that could be isolated as single compounds. Both are about a thousand times more acidic than pure sulfuric acid. In 2004, a boron compound broke this record by a thousand fold with the synthesis of carborane acid H(CHB11Cl11). Another metalloid, antimony, features in the strongest known acid, a mixture 10 billion times stronger than carborane acid. This is fluoroantimonic acid H2F[SbF6], a mixture of antimony pentafluoride SbF5 and hydrofluoric acid HF.[citation needed]
Silicon
The thermal conductivity of silicon is better than that of most metals.[citation needed]
A sponge-like porous form of silicon (p-Si) is typically prepared by the electrochemical etching of silicon wafers in a hydrofluoric acid solution.[150] Flakes of p-Si sometimes appear red;[151] it has a band gap of 1.97–2.1 eV.[152] The many tiny pores in porous silicon give it an enormous internal surface area, up to 1,000 m2/cm3.[153] When exposed to an oxidant,[154] especially a liquid oxidant,[153] the high surface-area to volume ratio of p-Si creates a very efficient burn, accompanied by nano-explosions,[150] and sometimes by ball-lightning-like plasmoids with, for example, a diameter of 0.1–0.8 m, a velocity of up to 0.5 m/s and a lifetime of up to 1s.[155] The first ever spectrographic analysis of a ball lightning event (in 2012) revealed the presence of silicon, iron and calcium, these elements also being present in the soil.[156]
Arsenic
Metals are said to be fusible, resulting in some confusion in old chemistry as to whether arsenic was a true metal, or a nonmetal, or something in between. It sublimes rather than melts at standard atmospheric pressure, like the nonmetals carbon and red phosphorus.[citation needed]
Antimony
A high-energy explosive form of antimony was first obtained in 1858. It is prepared by the electrolysis of any of the heavier antimony trihalides (SbCl3, SbBr3, SbI3) in a hydrochloric acid solution at low temperature. It comprises amorphous antimony with some occluded antimony trihalide (7–20% in the case of the trichloride). When scratched, struck, powdered or heated quickly to 200 °C, it "flares up, emits sparks and is converted explosively into the lower-energy, crystalline grey antimony."[157]
Nonmetals[edit]
Hydrogen
Water (H2O), a well known oxide of hydrogen, is a spectacular anomaly.[158] Extrapolating from the heavier hydrogen chalcogenides, namely hydrogen sulfide H2S, hydrogen selenide H2Se, and hydrogen telluride H2Te, water should be "a foul-smelling, poisonous, inflammable gas…condensing to a nasty liquid [at] around –100° C". Instead, due to hydrogen bonding, water is "stable, potable, odorless, benign, and…indispensable to life".[159]
Less well known of the oxides of hydrogen is the trioxide, H2O3. Berthelot proposed the existence of this oxide in 1880 but his suggestion was soon forgotten as there was no way of testing it using the technology of the time.[160] Hydrogen trioxide was prepared in 1994 by replacing the oxygen used in the industrial process for making hydrogen peroxide, with ozone. The yield is about 40 per cent, at –78 °C; above around –40 °C it decomposes into water and oxygen.[161] Derivatives of hydrogen trioxide, such as F3C–O–O–O–CF3 ("bis(trifluoromethyl) trioxide") are known; these are metastable at room temperature.[162] Mendeleev went a step further, in 1895, and proposed the existence of hydrogen tetroxide HO–O–O–OH as a transient intermediate in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide;[160] this was prepared and characterised in 1974, using a matrix isolation technique.[citation needed] Alkali metal ozonide salts of the unknown hydrogen ozonide (HO3) are also known; these have the formula MO3.[162]
Helium
At temperatures below 0.3 and 0.8 K respectively, helium-3 and helium-4 each have a negative enthalpy of fusion. This means that, at the appropriate constant pressures, these substances freeze with the addition of heat.[citation needed]
Until 1999 helium was thought to be too small to form a cage clathrate—a compound in which a guest atom or molecule is encapsulated in a cage formed by a host molecule—at atmospheric pressure. In that year the synthesis of microgram quantities of He@C20H20 represented the first such helium clathrate and (what was described as) the world's smallest helium balloon.[163]
Carbon
Graphite is the most electrically conductive nonmetal, better than some metals.[citation needed]
Diamond is the best natural conductor of heat; it even feels cold to the touch. Its thermal conductivity (2,200 W/m•K) is five times greater than the most conductive metal (Ag at 429); 300 times higher than the least conductive metal (Pu at 6.74); and nearly 4,000 times that of water (0.58) and 100,000 times that of air (0.0224). This high thermal conductivity is used by jewelers and gemologists to separate diamonds from imitations.[citation needed]
Graphene aerogel, produced in 2012 by freeze-drying a solution of carbon nanotubes and graphite oxide sheets and chemically removing oxygen, is seven times lighter than air, and ten per cent lighter than helium. It is the lightest solid known (0.16 mg/cm3), conductive and elastic.[164]
Phosphorus
The least stable and most reactive form of phosphorus is the white allotrope. It is a hazardous, highly flammable and toxic substance, spontaneously igniting in air and producing phosphoric acid residue. It is therefore normally stored under water. White phosphorus is also the most common, industrially important, and easily reproducible allotrope, and for these reasons is regarded as the standard state of phosphorus. The most stable form is the black allotrope, which is a metallic looking, brittle and relatively non-reactive semiconductor (unlike the white allotrope, which has a white or yellowish appearance, is pliable, highly reactive and a semiconductor). When assessing periodicity in the physical properties of the elements it needs to be borne in mind that the quoted properties of phosphorus tend to be those of its least stable form rather than, as is the case with all other elements, the most stable form.[citation needed]
Iodine
The mildest of the halogens, iodine is the active ingredient in tincture of iodine, a disinfectant. This can be found in household medicine cabinets or emergency survival kits. Tincture of iodine will rapidly dissolve gold,[165] a task ordinarily requiring the use of aqua regia (a highly corrosive mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids).[citation needed]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For example:
Brinkley[2] writes that boron has weakly nonmetallic properties.
Glinka[3] describes silicon as a weak nonmetal.
Eby et al.[4] discuss the weak chemical behaviour of the elements close to the metal-nonmetal borderline.
Booth and Bloom[5] say "A period represents a stepwise change from elements strongly metallic to weakly metallic to weakly nonmetallic to strongly nonmetallic, and then, at the end, to an abrupt cessation of almost all chemical properties ...".
Cox[6] notes "nonmetallic elements close to the metallic borderline (Si, Ge, As, Sb, Se, Te) show less tendency to anionic behaviour and are sometimes called metalloids."
Jump up ^ See, for example, Huheey, Keiter & Keiter[7] who classify Ge and Sb as post-transition metals.
Jump up ^ At standard pressure and temperature, for the elements in their most thermodynamically stable forms, unless otherwise noted
Jump up ^ Copernicium is reported to be the only metal known to be a gas at room temperature.[20]
Jump up ^ Whether polonium is ductile or brittle is unclear. It is predicted to be ductile based on its calculated elastic constants.[25] It has a simple cubic crystalline structure. Such a structure has few slip systems and "leads to very low ductility and hence low fracture resistance".[26]
Jump up ^ Carbon as exfoliated (expanded) graphite,[28] and as metre-long carbon nanotube wire;[29] phosphorus as white phosphorus (soft as wax, pliable and can be cut with a knife, at room temperature);[30] sulfur as plastic sulfur;[31] and selenium as selenium wires.[32]
Jump up ^ For polycrystalline forms of the elements unless otherwise noted. Determining Poisson's ratio accurately is a difficult proposition and there could be considerable uncertainty in some reported values.[33]
Jump up ^ Beryllium has the lowest known value (0.0476) amongst elemental metals; indium and thallium each have the highest known value (0.46). Around one third show a value ≥ 0.33.[34]
Jump up ^ Boron 0.13;[35] silicon 0.22;[36] germanium 0.278;[37] amorphous arsenic 0.27;[38] antimony 0.25;[39] tellurium ~0.2.[40]
Jump up ^ Graphitic carbon 0.25;[41] [diamond 0.0718];[42] black phosphorus 0.30;[43] sulfur 0.287;[44] amorphous selenium 0.32;[45] amorphous iodine ~0.[46]
Jump up ^ At atmospheric pressure, for elements with known structures
Jump up ^ The Goldhammer-Herzfeld criterion is a ratio that compares the force holding an individual atom's valence electrons in place with the forces, acting on the same electrons, arising from interactions between the atoms in the solid or liquid element. When the interatomic forces are greater than or equal to the atomic force, valence electron itinerancy is indicated. Metallic behaviour is then predicted.[58] Otherwise nonmetallic behaviour is anticipated. The Goldhammer-Herzfeld criterion is based on classical arguments.[59] It nevertheless offers a relatively simple first order rationalization for the occurrence of metallic character amongst the elements.[60]
Jump up ^ Metals have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9 × 103 S•cm−1 for manganese to 6.3 × 105 for silver.[63]
Jump up ^ Metalloids have electrical conductivity values of from 1.5 × 10−6 S•cm−1 for boron to 3.9 × 104 for arsenic.[65] If selenium is included as a metalloid the applicable conductivity range would start from ~10−9 to 10−12 S•cm−1.[66][67][68]
Jump up ^ Nonmetals have electrical conductivity values of from ~10−18 S•cm−1 for the elemental gases to 3 × 104 in graphite.[69]
Jump up ^ Mott and Davis[71] note however that 'liquid europium has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance' i.e. that conductivity increases with rising temperature
Jump up ^ At or near room temperature
Jump up ^ Chedd[94] defines metalloids as having electronegativity values of 1.8 to 2.2 (Allred-Rochow scale). He included boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium and astatine in this category. In reviewing Chedd's work, Adler[95] described this choice as arbitrary, given other elements have electronegativities in this range, including copper, silver, phosphorus, mercury and bismuth. He went on to suggest defining a metalloid simply as, 'a semiconductor or semimetal' and 'to have included the interesting materials bismuth and selenium in the book'.
Jump up ^ Phosphorus is known to form a carbide in thin films.
Jump up ^ See, for example, the sulfates of the transition metals,[104] the lanthanides[105] and the actinides.[106]
Jump up ^ Sulfates of osmium have not been characterized with any great degree of certainty.[107]
Jump up ^ Common metalloids: Boron is reported to be capable of forming an oxysulfate (BO)2SO4,[108] a bisulfate B(HSO4)3[109] and a sulfate B2(SO4)3.[110] The existence of a sulfate has been disputed.[111] In light of the existence of silicon phosphate, a silicon sulfate might also exist.[112] Germanium forms an unstable sulfate Ge(SO4)2 (d 200 °C).[113] Arsenic forms oxide sulfates As2O(SO4)2 (= As2O3.2SO3)[114] and As2(SO4)3 (= As2O3.3SO3).[115] Antimony forms a sulfate Sb2(SO4)3 and an oxysulfate (SbO)2SO4.[116] Tellurium forms an oxide sulfate Te2O3(SO)4.[117] Less common: Polonium forms a sulfate Po(SO4)2.[118] It has been suggested that the astatine cation forms a weak complex with sulfate ions in acidic solutions.[119]
Jump up ^ Hydrogen forms hydrogen sulfate H2SO4. Carbon forms (a blue) graphite hydrogen sulfate C+
24HSO–
4 • 2.4H2SO4.[120] Nitrogen forms nitrosyl hydrogen sulfate (NO)HSO4 and nitronium (or nitryl) hydrogen sulfate (NO2)HSO4.[121] There are indications of a basic sulfate of selenium SeO2.SO3 or SeO(SO4).[122] Iodine forms a polymeric yellow sulfate (IO)2SO4.[123]
Jump up ^ layer-lattice types often reversibly so
Jump up ^ Based on a table of the elemental composition of the biosphere, and lithosphere (crust, atmosphere, and seawater) in Georgievskii,[131] and the masses of the crust and hydrosphere give in Lide and Frederikse.[132] The mass of the biosphere is negligible, having a mass of about one billionth that of the lithosphere.[citation needed] "The oceans constitute about 98 percent of the hydrosphere, and thus the average composition of the hydrosphere is, for all practical purposes, that of seawater."[133]
Jump up ^ Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus. It can be found in the Earth's atmosphere at a concentration of 1 part per million by volume.
Jump up ^ Fluorine can be found in its elemental form, as an occlusion in the mineral antozonite[135]
Jump up ^ In 1934, a team led by Enrico Fermi postulated that transuranic elements may have been produced as a result of bombarding uranium with neutrons, a finding which was widely accepted for a few years. In the same year Ida Noddack, a German scientist and subsequently a three-time Nobel prize nominee, criticised this assumption, writing "It is conceivable that the nucleus breaks up into several large fragments, which would of course be isotopes of known elements but would not be neighbors of the irradiated element."[147][emphasis added] In this, Noddak defied the understanding of the time without offering experimental proof or theoretical basis, but nevertheless presaged what would be known a few years later as nuclear fission. Her paper was generally ignored as, in 1925, she and two colleagues claimed to have discovered element 43, then proposed to be called masurium (later discovered in 1936 by Perrier and Segrè, and named technetium). Had Ida Noddack's paper been accepted it is likely that Germany would have had an atomic bomb and, 'the history of the world would have been [very] different.'[148]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Mendeléeff 1897, p. 274
Jump up ^ Brinkley 1945, p. 378
Jump up ^ Glinka 1965, p. 88
Jump up ^ Eby et al. 1943, p. 404
Jump up ^ Booth & Bloom 1972, p. 426
^ Jump up to: a b Cox 2004, p. 27
Jump up ^ Huheey, Keiter & Keiter 1993, p. 28
^ Jump up to: a b Kneen, Rogers & Simpson, 1972, p. 263. Columns 2 (metals) and 4 (nonmetals) are sourced from this reference unless otherwise indicated.
Jump up ^ Russell & Lee 2005, p. 147
^ Jump up to: a b c Rochow 1966, p. 4
Jump up ^ Pottenger & Bowes 1976, p. 138
Jump up ^ Askeland, Fulay & Wright 2011, p. 806
Jump up ^ Born & Wolf 1999, p. 746
Jump up ^ Lagrenaudie 1953
Jump up ^ Rochow 1966, pp. 23, 25
Jump up ^ Burakowski & Wierzchoń 1999, p. 336
Jump up ^ Olechna & Knox 1965, pp. A991‒92
Jump up ^ Stoker 2010, p. 62
Jump up ^ Chang 2002, p. 304. Chang speculates that the melting point of francium would be about 23 °C.
Jump up ^ New Scientist 1975; Soverna 2004; Eichler, Aksenov & Belozeroz et al. 2007; Austen 2012
Jump up ^ Hunt 2000, p. 256
Jump up ^ Sisler 1973, p. 89
Jump up ^ Hérold 2006, pp. 149–150
Jump up ^ Russell & Lee 2005
Jump up ^ Legit, Friák & Šob 2010, p. 214118-18
Jump up ^ Manson & Halford 2006, pp. 378, 410
^ Jump up to: a b McQuarrie & Rock 1987, p. 85
Jump up ^ Chung 1987; Godfrin & Lauter 1995
Jump up ^ Cambridge Enterprise 2013
Jump up ^ Faraday 1853, p. 42; Holderness & Berry 1979, p. 255
Jump up ^ Partington 1944, p. 405
Jump up ^ Regnault 1853, p. 208
Jump up ^ Christensen 2012, p. 14
Jump up ^ Gschneidner 1964, pp. 292‒93.
Jump up ^ Qin et al. 2012, p. 258
Jump up ^ Hopcroft, Nix & Kenny 2010, p. 236
Jump up ^ Greaves et al. 2011, p. 826
Jump up ^ Brassington et al. 1980
Jump up ^ Martienssen & Warlimont 2005, p. 100
Jump up ^ Witczak 2000, p. 823
Jump up ^ Marlowe 1970, p. 6;Slyh 1955, p. 146
Jump up ^ Klein & Cardinale 1992, pp. 184‒85
Jump up ^ Appalakondaiah et al. 2012, pp. 035105‒6
Jump up ^ Sundara Rao 1950; Sundara Rao 1954; Ravindran 1998, pp. 4897‒98
Jump up ^ Lindegaard & Dahle 1966, p. 264
Jump up ^ Leith 1966, pp. 38‒39
Jump up ^ Donohoe 1982; Russell & Lee 2005
Jump up ^ Gupta et al. 2005, p. 502
Jump up ^ Walker, Newman & Enache 2013, p. 25
Jump up ^ Wiberg 2001, p. 143
Jump up ^ Batsanov & Batsanov 2012, p. 275
Jump up ^ Clementi & Raimondi 1963; Clementi, Raimondi & Reinhardt 1967
Jump up ^ Addison 1964; Donohoe 1982
Jump up ^ Vernon 2013, p. 1704
Jump up ^ Parish 1977, pp. 34, 48, 112, 142, 156, 178
^ Jump up to: a b Emsley 2001, p. 12
Jump up ^ Russell 1981, p. 628
Jump up ^ Herzfeld 1927; Edwards 2000, pp. 100–103
Jump up ^ Edwards 1999, p. 416
Jump up ^ Edwards & Sienko 1983, p. 695
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards & Sienko 1983, p. 691
Jump up ^ Edwards et al. 2010
Jump up ^ Desai, James & Ho 1984, p. 1160; Matula 1979, p. 1260
Jump up ^ Choppin & Johnsen 1972, p. 351
Jump up ^ Schaefer 1968, p. 76; Carapella 1968, p. 30
Jump up ^ Glazov, Chizhevskaya & Glagoleva 1969 p. 86
Jump up ^ Kozyrev 1959, p. 104
Jump up ^ Chizhikov & Shchastlivyi 1968, p. 25
Jump up ^ Bogoroditskii & Pasynkov 1967, p. 77; Jenkins & Kawamura 1976, p. 88
Jump up ^ Rao & Ganguly 1986
Jump up ^ Mott & Davis 2012, p. 177
Jump up ^ Anita 1998
Jump up ^ Cverna 2002, p.1
Jump up ^ Cordes & Scaheffer 1973, p. 79
Jump up ^ Hill & Holman 2000, p. 42
Jump up ^ Tilley 2004, p. 487
Jump up ^ Russell & Lee 2005, p. 466
Jump up ^ Orton 2004, pp. 11–12
Jump up ^ Zhigal'skii & Jones 2003, p. 66: 'Bismuth, antimony, arsenic and graphite are considered to be semimetals ... In bulk semimetals ... the resistivity will increase with temperature ... to give a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity ...'
Jump up ^ Jauncey 1948, p. 500: 'Nonmetals mostly have negative temperature coefficients. For instance, carbon ... [has a] resistance [that] decreases with a rise in temperature. However, recent experiments on very pure graphite, which is a form of carbon, have shown that pure carbon in this form behaves similarly to metals in regard to its resistance.'
Jump up ^ Reynolds 1969, pp. 91–92
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson 1966, p. 260
Jump up ^ Wittenberg 1972, p. 4526
Jump up ^ Habashi 2003, p. 73
Jump up ^ Bailar et al. 1989, p. 742
Jump up ^ Hiller & Herber 1960, inside front cover; p. 225
Jump up ^ Beveridge et al. 1997, p. 185
^ Jump up to: a b Young & Sessine 2000, p. 849
Jump up ^ Bailar et al. 1989, p. 417
Jump up ^ Metcalfe, Williams & Castka 1966, p. 72
Jump up ^ Chang 1994, p. 311
Jump up ^ Pauling 1988, p. 183
Jump up ^ Mann et al. 2000, p. 2783
Jump up ^ Chedd 1969, pp. 24–25
Jump up ^ Adler 1969, pp. 18–19
Jump up ^ Hultgren 1966, p. 648
Jump up ^ Bassett et al. 1966, p. 602
Jump up ^ Rochow 1966, p. 34
Jump up ^ Martienssen & Warlimont 2005, p. 257
Jump up ^ Sidorov 1960
Jump up ^ Brasted 1974, p. 814
Jump up ^ Atkins 2006 et al., pp. 8, 122–23
Jump up ^ Rao 2002, p. 22
Jump up ^ Wickleder, Pley & Büchner 2006; Betke & Wickleder 2011
Jump up ^ Cotton 1994, p. 3606
Jump up ^ Keogh 2005, p. 16
Jump up ^ Raub & Griffith 1980, p. 167
Jump up ^ Nemodruk & Karalova 1969, p. 48
Jump up ^ Sneed 1954, p. 472; Gillespie & Robinson 1959, p. 407
Jump up ^ Zuckerman & Hagen 1991, p. 303
Jump up ^ Sanderson 1967, p. 178
Jump up ^ Iler 1979, p. 190
Jump up ^ Sanderson 1960, p. 162; Greenwood & Earnshaw 2002, p. 387
Jump up ^ Mercier & Douglade 1982
Jump up ^ Douglade & Mercier 1982
Jump up ^ Wiberg 2001, p. 764
Jump up ^ Wickleder 2007, p. 350
Jump up ^ Bagnall 1966, pp. 140−41
Jump up ^ Berei & Vasáros 1985, pp. 221, 229
Jump up ^ Wiberg 2001, p. 795
Jump up ^ Lidin 1996, pp. 266, 270; Brescia et al. 1975, p. 453
Jump up ^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 2002, p. 786
Jump up ^ Furuseth et al. 1974
Jump up ^ Holtzclaw, Robinson & Odom 1991, pp. 706–07; Keenan, Kleinfelter & Wood 1980, pp. 693–95
Jump up ^ Kneen, Rogers & Simpson 1972, p. 278
Jump up ^ Heslop & Robinson 1963, p. 417
Jump up ^ Rochow 1966, pp. 28–29
Jump up ^ Bagnall 1966, pp. 108, 120; Lidin 1996, passim
^ Jump up to: a b Smith 1921, p. 295; Sidgwick 1950, pp. 605, 608; Dunstan 1968, pp. 408, 438
Jump up ^ Dunstan 1968, pp. 312, 408
Jump up ^ Georgievskii 1982, p. 58
Jump up ^ Lide & Frederikse 1998, p. 14–6
Jump up ^ Hem 1985, p. 7
Jump up ^ Perkins 1998, p. 350
Jump up ^ Sanderson 2012
Jump up ^ Brown et al. 2009, p. 137
Jump up ^ Bresica et al. 1975, p. 137
Jump up ^ Jansen 2005
^ Jump up to: a b Russell & Lee 2005, p. 246
Jump up ^ Russell & Lee 2005, p. 244–5
Jump up ^ Donohoe 1982, pp. 191–196; Russell & Lee 2005, pp. 244–247
Jump up ^ Jackson 2000
Jump up ^ Stoye 2014
Jump up ^ Witt 1991; Endicott 1998
Jump up ^ Dumé 2003
Jump up ^ Benedict et al. 1946, p. 19
Jump up ^ Noddack 1934, p. 653
Jump up ^ Sacks 2001, p. 205: 'This story was told by Glenn Seaborg when he was presenting his recollections at a conference in November 1997.'
Jump up ^ Dalhouse University 2015; White et al. 2015
^ Jump up to: a b DuPlessis 2007, p. 133
Jump up ^ Gösele & Lehmann 1994, p. 19
Jump up ^ Chen, Lee & Bosman 1994
^ Jump up to: a b Kovalev et al. 2001, p. 068301-1
Jump up ^ Mikulec, Kirtland & Sailor 2002
Jump up ^ Bychkov 2012, pp. 20–21; see also Lazaruk et al. 2007
Jump up ^ Slezak 2014
Jump up ^ Wiberg 2001, p. 758; see also Fraden 1951
Jump up ^ Sacks 2001, p. 204
Jump up ^ Sacks 2001, pp. 204–205
^ Jump up to: a b Cerkovnik & Plesničar 2013, p. 7930
Jump up ^ Emsley 1994, p. 1910
^ Jump up to: a b Wiberg 2001, p. 497
Jump up ^ Cross, Saunders & Prinzbach; Chemistry Views 2015
Jump up ^ Sun, Xu & Gao 2013; Anthony 2013
Jump up ^ Nakao 1992
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H He
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Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
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Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
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values: Melting points of the elements (data page)

values: List of oxidation states of the elements

values: Speeds of sound of the elements (data page)

values: Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)

values: Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page)

values: Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)

values: Timeline of chemical element discoveries

values: List of chemical element name etymologies

values: List of chemical elements naming controversies

values: List of places used in the names of chemical elements

values: List of scientists whose names are used in chemical element names

values: Chemical elements in East Asian languages

values: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

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values: Template:Periodic table (32 columns, compact)

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values: Meitnerium, 109 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Darmstadtium, 110 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Roentgenium, 111 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Copernicium, 112 (post-transition metal)

values: Nihonium, 113 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Flerovium, 114 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Moscovium, 115 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Livermorium, 116 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Tennessine, 117 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Oganesson, 118 (unknown chemical properties)

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