text:
Transitional epithelium
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Transitional epithelium
Transitional striated epithelium
Identifiers
TH
H2.00.02.0.02033
Anatomical terms of microanatomy
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This article is one of a series on
Epithelia
Squamous epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Columnar epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified
Cuboidal epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Specialised epithelia
Olfactory
Respiratory
Intestinal
Transitional
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female
male
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Table of epithelia of human organs
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Transitional epithelium is a type of stratified epithelium – tissue consisting of multiple layers of epithelial cells which can contract and expand as needed. It is so named because of this function in the transition of degree of distension. This tissue structure type is found in urothelium, including that of the renal pelvis, urinary bladder, the ureters, the superior urethra, and the prostatic and ejaculatory ducts of the prostate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cell layers
1.2 Cell membrane
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Carcinoma
4 Gallery
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
The appearance of transitional epithelium depends on the layers in which it resides. Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal, or cube-shaped, and columnar, or column-shaped, while the cells of the superficial layer vary in appearance depending on the degree of distension.[1] These cells appear to be cuboidal with a domed apex when the organ or the tube in which they reside is not stretched. When the organ or tube is stretched (e.g. when the bladder is filled with urine), the tissue compresses and the cells become stretched. When this happens, the cells flatten, and they appear to be squamous and irregular.
Cell layers[edit]
Transitional epithelium is made up of three types of cell layers: basal, intermediate, and superficial.[2] The basal layer fosters the epithelial stem cells in order to provide constant renewal of the epithelium.[3] These cells' cytoplasm is rich in tonofilaments and mitochondria; however, they contain few rough endoplasmic reticulum. The tonofilaments play a role in the attachment of the basal layer to the basement membrane via desmosomes.[4] The intermediate cell layer is highly proliferative and, therefore, provides for rapid cell regeneration in response to injury or infection of the organ or tube in which it resides.[3] These cells contain a prominent Golgi apparatus and an array of membrane-bound vesicles.[4] These function in the packaging and transport of proteins, such as keratin, to the superficial cell layer. The superficial cell layer, that which lines the lumen, is the only fully differentiated layer of the epithelium. It provides an impenetrable barrier between the lumen and the bloodstream, so as not to allow the bloodstream to reabsorb harmful wastes or pathogens.[3] All transitional epithelial cells are covered in microvilli and a fibrillar mucous coat.[2]
The epithelium contains many intimate and delicate connections to neural and connective tissue. These connections allow for communication to tell the cells to expand or contract. The superficial layer of transitional epithelium is connected to the basal layer via cellular projections, such as intermediate filaments protruding from the cellular membrane. These structural elements cause the epithelium to allow distension; however, these also cause the tissue to be relatively fragile and, therefore, difficult to study. All cells touch the basement membrane.
Cell membrane[edit]
Because of its importance in acting as an osmotic barrier between the contents of the urinary tract and the surrounding organs and tissues, transitional epithelium is relatively impermeable to water and salts. This impermeability is due to a highly keratinized cellular membrane synthesized in the Golgi apparatus.[5] The membrane is made up of a hexagonal lattice put together in the Golgi apparatus and implanted into the surface of the cell by reverse pinocytosis, a type of exocytosis.[6] The cells in the superficial layer of the transitional epithelium are highly differentiated, allowing for maintenance of this barrier membrane.[6] The basal layer of the epithelium is much less differentiated; however, it does act as a replacement source for more superficial layer.[6] While the Golgi complex is much less prominent in the cells of the basal layer, these cells are rich in cytoplasmic proteins that bundle together to form tonofibrils. These tonofibrils converge at hemidesmosomes to attach the cells at the basement membrane.[4]
Function[edit]
The transitional epithelium cells stretch readily in order to accommodate fluctuation of volume of the liquid in an organ. (The distal part of the urethra becomes non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium in females; the part that lines the bottom of the tissue is called the basement membrane.) Transitional epithelium also functions as a barrier between the lumen, or inside hollow space of the tract that it lines and the bloodstream. To help achieve this, the cells of transitional epithelium are connected by tight junctions, or virtually impenetrable junctions that seal together to the cellular membranes of neighboring cells. This barrier prevents re-absorption of toxic wastes and pathogens by the bloodstream.
Clinical significance[edit]
Carcinoma[edit]
Main article: Carcinoma
Carcinoma is a type of cancer that occurs in epithelial cells. Transitional cell carcinoma is the leading type of bladder cancer, occurring in 9 out of 10 cases.[7] It is also the leading cause of cancer of the ureter, urethra, and urachus, and the second leading cause of cancer of the kidney. Transitional cell carcinoma can develop in two different ways. Should the transitional cell carcinoma grow toward the inner surface of the bladder via finger-like projections, it is known as papillary carcinoma. Otherwise, it is known as flat carcinoma.[7] Either form can transition from non-invasive to invasive by spreading into the muscle layers of the bladder. Transitional cell carcinoma is commonly multifocal, more than one tumor occurring at the time of diagnosis.
Transitional cell carcinoma can metastasize, or spread to other parts of the body via the surrounding tissues, the lymph system, and the bloodstream. It can spread to the tissues and fat surrounding the kidney, the fat surrounding the ureter, or, more progressively, lymph nodes and other organs, including bone. Common risk factors of transitional cell carcinoma include long-term misuse of pain medication, smoking, and exposure to chemicals used in the making of leather, plastic, textiles, and rubber.[8]
Transitional cell carcinoma patients have a variety of treatment options. These include nephroureterectomy, or the removal of kidney, ureter, and bladder cuff, and segmental resection of the ureter. This is an option only when the cancer is superficial and infects only the bottom third of the ureter. The procedure entails removing the segment of cancerous ureter and reattaching the end.[8] Patients with advanced bladder cancer or disease, also often look to bladder reconstruction as a treatment. Current methods of bladder reconstruction include the use of gastrointestinal tissue. However, while this method is effective in improving the function of the bladder, it can actually increases the risk of cancer, and can cause other complications, such as infections, urinary stones, and electrolyte imbalance. Therefore, other methods loom in the future. For example, current research paves the way for use of pluripotent stem cells to derive urothelium, as they are highly and indefinitely proliferative in vitro (i.e. outside of the body).[3]
Gallery[edit]
Types of epithelium
Schematic view of transitional epithelium
Vertical section of bladder wall.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marieb, E., & Hoehn, K. (2013). Human anatomy & physiology (9th ed., pp. 122-124). Boston: Pearson.
^ Jump up to: a b Monis, B., & Zambrano, D. (1968). Ultrastructure of transitional epithelium of man. Zeitschrift für Zellforschung und Microscopical Anatomie, 87(1), 101-117.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Osborn, S. L., & Kurzrock, E. A. (2015). Production of Urothelium from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Regenerative Applications. Current Urology Reports, 16(1), 1+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA390522720&v=2.1&u=clemsonu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=bf6961c15c9b9523113dee93fd8df89c
^ Jump up to: a b c Hicks, R. (1965). The Fine Structure Of The Transitional Epithelium Of Rat Ureter. The Journal of Cell Biology, 26(1), 25-48. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http://jcb.rupress.org/content/26/1/25.abstract
Jump up ^ Hicks, R. (1966). THE FUNCTION OF THE GOLGI COMPLEX IN TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM: Synthesis of the Thick Cell Membrane. The Journal of Cell Biology, 30(3), 623-643. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http://jcb.rupress.org/content/30/3/623.abstract
^ Jump up to: a b c Firth, J. A., & Hicks, R. M. (1973). Interspecies variation in the fine structure and enzyme cytochemistry of mammalian transitional epithelium. Journal of Anatomy, 116(Pt 1), 31–43.
^ Jump up to: a b American Cancer Society. (2014). Bladder cancer. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http://www.cancer.org/cancer/bladdercancer/detailedguide/bladder-cancer-what-is-bladder-cancer
^ Jump up to: a b Transitional Cell Cancer. (2012, April 13). Retrieved December 14, 2014, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases_conditions/hic_Transitional_Cell_Cancer_of_Renal_Pelvis_and_Ureter
External links[edit]
Histology at utmb.edu
Histology image: 36_02 at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center - "ureter"
Histology image: 37_02 at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center - "urinary bladder"
Anatomy Atlases - Microscopic Anatomy, plate 02.24 - "Transitional Epithelium", Ureter
Histology at KUMC urinary-renal16 "ureter"
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Me at the zoo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the first YouTube video. For the Chris Crocker documentary, see Me at the Zoo.
Me at the zoo
Play media
Full video
Website
YouTube
Published
April 23, 2005; 12 years ago (2005-04-23)
20:27:12 (PDT)
Filmed by
Yakov Lapitsky
Uploader
Jawed Karim
Duration
0:19
Category
Film and Animation
Me at the zoo is the first video that was uploaded to YouTube. It was uploaded on April 23, 2005 at 20:27:12 PDT (April 24, 2005 at 3:27:12 UTC)[1] by the site's co-founder Jawed Karim, with the username "jawed" and recorded by his high school friend Yakov Lapitsky.[2][3][4]
He created a YouTube account on the same day.[5]
The nineteen-second video was shot by Yakov Lapitsky at the San Diego Zoo, featuring Karim in front of the elephants in their old exhibit in Elephant Mesa, professing his interest in their "really, really, really long trunks".[6][7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Transcript and caption
2 Updates
3 Reception
4 References
5 External links
Transcript and caption[edit]
The transcript of the video is:
All right, so here we are in front of the, uh, elephants, and the cool thing about these guys is that, is that they have really, really, really long, um, trunks, and that's, that's cool, and that's pretty much all there is to say.
Updates[edit]
In 2013, Karim protested YouTube's plan to require Google+ accounts for all commenters. As part of this, he updated the description of "Me at the zoo" and added two annotations to the video.[8]
Reception[edit]
The Los Angeles Times explains that "as the first video uploaded to YouTube, it played a pivotal role in fundamentally altering how people consumed media and helped usher in a golden era of the 60-second video."[9] The Observer describes its production quality as "poor".[6] As of January 2018[update], the video has received more than 45 million views and more than 333,000 comments. It rapidly became the most accepted video on YouTube outlining what YouTube was to become.[10]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Extract Meta Data". www.amnestyusa.org. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hartley, Matt (February 19, 2010). "Ten of YouTube's most influential videos". Canwest.
Jump up ^ McGuinness, Ross (April 15, 2010). "Elephants to Gaga". Metro. p. 34. IT began with a spectacularly ordinary 18-second clip of man at the zoo, watching some elephants... It has been viewed almost 2 million times.
Jump up ^ Meltzer, Tom; Phillips, Sarah (October 23, 2009). "G2: A First Time For Everything". The Guardian (London). p. 14. "Me at the zoo" is a man called Karim's 19-second long report from the elephant enclosure at San Diego zoo... But its historical significance means that it has had well over a million hits so far.
Jump up ^ "jawed - YouTube". YouTube. Retrieved April 25, 2015. Joined 23 Apr 2005
^ Jump up to: a b Hoby, Hermione; Tom Lamont (April 11, 2011). "How YouTube made superstars out of everyday people". The Observer. Kings Place, London, England, UK: Guardian Media Group. ISSN 0029-7712. OCLC 50230244. Archived from the original on October 23, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2011. A girl in red hotpants helped elect a US president, a British pensioner became everyone's favourite grandad. In just five years, the YouTube website has invented a new kind of celebrity
Jump up ^ Heffernan, Virginia (September 6, 2009). "Uploading the Avant-Garde". The New York Times. Retrieved April 4, 2011. The first video on YouTube was uploaded at 8:27 p.m. on Saturday, April 23, 2005. It’s called “Me at the Zoo,” and it features the musings of Jawed Karim, one of the site’s founders, as elephants nose around in hay behind him.
Jump up ^ Bonanos, Paul (April 23, 2014). Happy Ninth Birthday YouTube: From 'Me at the Zoo' to a Billion Monthly Visits, Billboard (magazine)
Jump up ^ Pham, Alex (April 10, 2010). "YouTube turns 5, can't wait to grow up". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California, USA: Eddy Hartenstein. ISSN 0458-3035. OCLC 3638237. Archived from the original on April 21, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011. Born as a clearinghouse for quick, quirky homemade videos, the site now seeks to add more professional — and profitable — content.
Jump up ^ Karim, Jawed (April 23, 2005). "Me at the zoo". San Diego Zoo, San Diego, California, USA: YouTube. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
External links[edit]
Me at the zoo on YouTube
Me at the zoo on IMDb
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Me_at_the_zoo&oldid=832993226"
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Old Major
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Old Major
First appearance
Animal Farm
Last appearance
Animal Farm (Only Appearance)
Created by
George Orwell
Voiced by
Maurice Denham (1954 film)
Peter Ustinov (1999 film)
Information
Nickname(s)
Willingdon Beauty
Species
Middle White boar
Gender
Male
Occupation
Revolutionary Leader of Animal Farm
Old Major (also called Willingdon Beauty, his name used when showing) is the first major character described by George Orwell in Animal Farm. This "purebred" of pigs is a kind, grandfatherly philosopher of change.
Old Major proposes a solution to the animals' desperate plight on Manor Farm under the Jones administration and inspires thoughts of a rebellion. The actual time of the revolt is unsaid; it could be tomorrow or several generations down the road. Old Major dies three days after delivering his speech and the animals, stirred up by this speech, set to work immediately on the bringing about of the Rebellion.
Shortly after his death, the animals rise in revolt and oust the humans from power. This rebellious act is so quick that many do not realize it has happened until it is over. The animals drive Jones and the farmhands off the farm and remove many of the implements of his rule.
The Seven Commandments that Snowball transcribes, that are supposed to encompass Old Major's general philosophy, are gradually altered and deformed under Napoleon until they have entirely different meanings from those originally intended. "Beasts of England", the song that came to Old Major in his dream, is later banned on Animal Farm by Napoleon, at which time it is replaced by "Comrade Napoleon", a hymn composed by Minimus the pig that pledges allegiance to Animal Farm and to work to protect it.
In both film adaptations, Major dies while provoking the animals into rebelling. In the 1954 adaption (voiced by Maurice Denham), he dies suddenly while the animals are singing. In the 1999 version (voiced by Peter Ustinov), Farmer Jones slips in mud while investigating the sounds coming from the barn, which sets off his shotgun, and indirectly hits Major in his backside, killing him.
Major's skull is dug up and saluted by the animals every day, even after the rebellion, as a sign of respect that the animals remember their roots and the roots of the Rebellion. Napoleon, who later decides to accept the humans and strike bargains with them, announces that the remains are to be disposed of because they represent the old days when Animal Farm was "violent and primitive" towards humans; towards the end of the story, Napoleon announces that he has reburied the skull.
References[edit]
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e
George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945)
Characters
Old Major
Napoleon
Snowball
Squealer
Boxer
Benjamin
Pilkington
Mr. Jones
Concepts
Anthems
Other media
1954 film
1999 film
This article about a fictional character from a novel is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Major&oldid=830395546"
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text:
Israel (name)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Israel
Pronunciation
/ˈɪzreɪəl/ or /ˈɪzriːəl/
Hebrew: [jisʁaˈʔel]
Gender
Male
Origin
Word/name
Hebrew
Meaning
'God Contended',[1] 'Wrestles with God',[2] 'Triumphant with God'[3]
Other names
Related names
Izzy, Isaac, Rae
Look up Israel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Look up ישראל in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Israel is a Biblical given name. The patriarch Jacob was given the name Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Standard Yisraʾel Tiberian Yiśrāʾēl) after he "wrestled with the angel" (Genesis 32:28 and 35:10). The given name is already attested in Eblaite (𒅖𒊏𒅋, išrail) and Ugaritic (𐎊𐎌𐎗𐎛𐎍, yšrʾil).[4] Commentators differ on the original literal interpretation. The text of Genesis etymologizes the name with the root śarah "to rule, contend, have power, prevail over" [5]: שָׂרִיתָ עִם־אֱלֹהִים (KJV: "a prince hast thou power with God"), but modern suggestions read the el as the subject, for a translation of "El/God rules/judges/struggles",[6] "El fights/struggles".[7]
Jacob's descendants came to be known as the Israelites, eventually forming the tribes of Israel and ultimately the kingdom of Israel, whence came the name of modern-day State of Israel.
In Israel, the name "Israel Israeli" is sometimes used to mean someone whose name is unknown or unspecified.
Israel was a common name among Chaldeans till recent times. A famous Chaldean author is Bishop Israel Audo, famous for authoring a book about the Chaldean Genocide.
In Nazi Germany, male Jews who did not have "typically Jewish" given names were forced to add "Israel" as of January 1939. This decree was revoked by the Allies in 1945.
Given name[edit]
Israel (Bishop of Caucasian Albania), 7th century CE
Israel Alter (also: Yisraʾel Alter, 1901-1979), Jewish composer and last chief cantor in Hanover, Germany
Israel Baker (1919–2011), American violinist and concertmaster
Israel Asper (1932–2003), Canadian media magnate
Israel of Axum, Emperor of Ethiopia in the 6th century CE
Israel Baline (1888–1989), the birth name of American composer Irving Berlin
Israel Cruz (born 1983), Australian singer
Israel Dagg (born 1988), New Zealand rugby player
Israel ben Eliezer (1698–1760), Jewish mystical rabbi
Israel Folau (born 1989), Australian rugby player
Israel Gelfand (1913–2009), Russian mathematician
Israel Gigato (born 1987), Spanish football player
Israel the Grammarian, 10th century European scholar
Israel Hands, 18th Century pirate
Israel Houghton (born 1971), American singer and Christian worship leader
Israel Idonije (born 1980), Nigeria-born Canadian player of American football
Israel Kamakawiwoʻole (1959–1997), Hawaiian singer and spiritual leader
Israel Kirzner (born 1930), American economist
Israel of Krems, 14th-15th century Austrian rabbi
Israel "Izzy" Lang, American football running back
Israel Machado (born 1960), Brazilian basketball player
Israel Ochoa (born 1964), Colombian cyclist
Israel Pellew (1758-1832), British admiral
Israel Putnam (1718–1790), American general
Israel Raybon (born 1973), American football player
Israel Regardie (1907–1985), British occultist
Israel B. Richardson (1815–1862), Union major general in the American Civil War
Israel Ruiz, Jr. (born 1943), New York politician
Israel Shahak (1933–2001), Israeli author
Israel Shamir (born 1947), Swedish anti-Zionist writer
Israel Vázquez (born 1977), Mexican boxer
Yisrael Meir Lau (born 1937), former Chief Rabbi of Israel
Surname[edit]
Al Israel, American actor
Dan Israel, American musician
Edward Israel (1859–1884), American astronomer and polar explorer
Elizabeth Israel (c. 1875–2003), Dominican supercentenarian
Jonathan Israel (born 1946), British historian
Märt Israel (born 1983), Estonian discus thrower
Melvin Israel, later known as Mel Allen (1913–1996), American sportscaster
Menasseh ben Israel (1604–1657), Portuguese rabbi and scholar
Rinus Israël (born 1942), Dutch football player and manager
Robert Decatur Israel, San Diego pioneer, keeper of the Old Point Loma lighthouse
Steve Israel (born 1958), American politician
Steve Israel (American football) (born 1969), American football player
Yuri Izrael (1930–2014), Russian scientist and vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Campbell, Mike. "Meaning, origin and history of the name Israel". Behind the Name.
Jump up ^ "Israel Definition and Meaning - Bible Dictionary". Bible Study Tools.
Jump up ^ James P. Boyd, Bible dictionary, Ottenheimer Publishers, 1958
Jump up ^ Michael G. Hasel, Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, Brill, 1998
Jump up ^ שָׂרָה śarah "to contend, have power, contend with, persist, exert oneself, persevere" (Strong's Concordance H8323) שָׂרַר śarar "to be or act as prince, rule, contend, have power, prevail over, reign, govern" (Strong's Concordance 8280)
Jump up ^ Hamilton 1995, p. 334[citation not found]
Jump up ^ Wenham 1994, pp. 296–97[citation not found] "The Jewish Study Bible" of Oxford University Press says on page 68 "The scientific etymology of Israel is uncertain, a good guess being '[The God] El rules.'"[1]
This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Israel_(name)&oldid=837031057"
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This page was last edited on 18 April 2018, at 08:47.
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