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I Walked with a Zombie
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I Walked with a Zombie
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Jacques Tourneur
Produced by
Val Lewton
Written by
Curt Siodmak
Ardel Wray
Based on
I Walked with a Zombie
by Inez Wallace
Starring
James Ellison
Frances Dee
Tom Conway
Narrated by
Frances Dee
Music by
Roy Webb
Cinematography
J. Roy Hunt
Edited by
Mark Robson
Distributed by
RKO Radio Pictures
Release date
April 21, 1943 (1943-04-21) (New York City)
April 30, 1943 (1943-04-30) (U.S.)
Running time
69 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
I Walked with a Zombie is a 1943 horror film directed by Jacques Tourneur. It was the second horror film from producer Val Lewton for RKO Pictures.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
5 In popular culture
5.1 Books
5.2 Music
5.3 Television
5.4 Film
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Betsy Connell (Frances Dee), a Canadian nurse, relates in a voiceover how she once "walked with a zombie."
Betsy is hired to care for the wife of Paul Holland (Tom Conway), a sugar plantation owner on the Caribbean island of Saint Sebastian. Saint Sebastian is inhabited by a small white community and descendants of African slaves. On the boat to the island she is warned by her employer that there is nothing but sadness and decay on Saint Sebastian. While being driven to the Holland plantation, the black driver tells Betsy the story of how the Hollands brought slaves to the island, and that the statue of "Ti-Misery" (Saint Sebastian pierced by arrows) in the courtyard is the figurehead from a slave ship.
That night at dinner, Betsy meets Paul's half-brother and employee, Wesley Rand (James Ellison), who clearly resents Paul. While getting ready for bed, Betsy hears crying. When she investigates, a woman in a white robe walks towards her, her eyes staring. Betsy screams, waking the rest of the household. Paul takes charge of Jessica Holland, the woman Betsy is to care for. The next morning, Dr. Maxwell tells Betsy that Jessica's spinal cord was irreparably damaged by a serious illness, leaving her totally without the willpower to do anything for herself.
On her day off, Betsy encounters Wesley in town. While he drinks himself into a stupor, a calypso singer (Sir Lancelot) sings about how Jessica was going to run away with Wesley, but Paul would not let them go. Then she was struck down by the fever. Betsy meets Mrs. Rand (Edith Barrett), Paul and Wesley's doctor mother.
That night, at dinner, Paul tries to persuade Wesley to reduce his drinking (at Betsy's suggestion), but he accuses Paul of trying to impress Betsy and of driving Jessica insane in the first place.
Later, Betsy is drawn to the sound of Paul playing the piano. He apologizes for bringing her to the island and admits that he may have been the cause of his wife's condition. Betsy has been falling in love with her moody employer. She determines to make him happy by curing Jessica.
Betsy gets Paul to agree to try a potentially fatal treatment of insulin shock on Jessica, but it has no effect. Housemaid Alma (Theresa Harris) then tells her that a Voodoo priest cured a woman of a similar condition. Betsy takes her patient without permission through cane fields past a crossroads guarded by the towering figure of the eerie Carre-Four (a reference to the loa Maitre Carrefours[citation needed]) to the houmfort (a place where Voodoo worshipers gather).
There, they watch a man (the Sabreur) wield a saber during a ritual. People are given advice through a shack door by a Voodoo priest. Betsy is summoned inside, where she is shocked to find that the priest is none other than Mrs. Rand. Mrs. Rand explains that she uses Voodoo to convince the natives to accept conventional medical practices and tells Betsy that Jessica can never be cured.
Outside, the locals stab Jessica in the arm with the sword as a test. When she does not bleed, they are convinced she is a zombie. Betsy takes her back to the house, where Paul is waiting. He is furious that she took Jessica to the voodoo ceremony but is moved when he realizes that she wanted to cure her for his sake. The local authorities come to investigate the next day, and the natives demand that Jessica be returned to them for "ritual tests". Later, Carre-Four approaches the residence, but Mrs. Rand orders him to leave.
Paul suggests that Betsy return to Canada, as he is regretful for messing her up in his family problems and fearful of demeaning and abusing her as he did Jessica. Betsy reluctantly agrees to leave Saint Sebastian.
The next day, Doctor Maxwell reports that the unrest has sparked an official inquiry into Jessica's illness. Mrs. Rand shocks everyone by claiming that Jessica is a zombie. Although she had never taken voodoo seriously before, Mrs Rand reveals that when she discovered that Jessica was planning to run away with Wesley and break up her family, she felt herself possessed by a Voodoo god. She then put a curse on Jessica. Paul, Maxwell and Betsy dismiss her story, but Wesley becomes obsessed with freeing Jessica from her zombie state. He asks Betsy if she would consider euthanasia, but she refuses.
Using an effigy of Jessica, the Sabreur takes control of her and draws her to him. Paul and Betsy stop her the first time, but they are not around when he tries again. Wesley opens the gate, letting Jessica out. Then he pulls an arrow out of the statue of Ti-Misery and follows. As the Sabreur stabs the doll with a pin, Wesley thrusts the arrow into Jessica. He then carries her body into the sea, pursued slowly by Carre-Four. Later, the natives discover the bodies of Jessica and Wesley floating in the surf. Paul comforts Betsy while Mrs. Rand weeps.
Cast[edit]
Theatre in Montreal featuring I Walked with a Zombie
Frances Dee as Betsy Connell
Tom Conway as Paul Holland
James Ellison as Wesley Rand
Edith Barrett as Mrs. Rand
James Bell as Dr. Maxwell
Christine Gordon as Jessica Holland
Theresa Harris as Alma
Sir Lancelot as Calypso Singer
Darby Jones as Carrefour
Jeni Le Gon as Dancer
Rita Christiani as a friend of Melise (uncredited)
Production[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2015)
Producer Val Lewton was forced to use the film's title by RKO executives. Officially, the film was based on an article written by Inez Wallace for American Weekly Magazine.[1] Lewton asked his writers to use Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre for giving the story a narrative structure and to do research on Haitian voodoo practices.[2][3]
Anna Lee was originally slated for the Frances Dee role, but had to bow out due to another commitment.[4]
Reception[edit]
This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (October 2018)
While I Walked with a Zombie was declared to be "a dull, disgusting exaggeration of an unhealthy, abnormal concept of life" by The New York Times in 1943,[5] critics later called it "intelligent" (William K. Everson),[6] "exceptional" (Leonard Maltin)[7] and "the most elegant" in Lewton's RKO horror series (Tom Milne).[8]
The film's treatment of the supernatural element repeatedly attracted interest among reviewers:
"As with all of Val Lewton’s films, I Walked with a Zombie hovers on the deliberate edge of ambiguity between whether the explanation for events is mundane or supernatural. [...] The central belief/doubt ambiguity of the film hovers around the question of whether Jessica is suffering from tropical fever or has been affected by voodoo. The film sits just between rationalism and superstition – its duality plays on the conflict between Western Christendom and Caribbean culture, and between medicine and magic." – Richard Scheib[9]
"In [I Walked with a Zombie] belief in the supernatural is but one of many faults in the human character. The script never confirms the reality of Voodoo even when it is clear that the Voodoo masters are controlling the zombie Carre-Four. It's worth noting that Wesley 'falls under the voodoo spell' only after despairing of the hopeless state of affairs at the Hammond house, and sinking into a deep depression. [...] Lewton's theme is that human nature creates Evil – that unresolved guilt and suspicions from the past dominate the Hammond family's present. Better natures are stifled, starting a chain of human misery that leads to tragedy. The result – wasted lives and blighted vitality – is as pervasive as the creeping Voodoo beliefs themselves. " – Glenn Erickson[10]
In 2007, Stylus Magazine named it the fifth best zombie movie of all time.[11]
In popular culture[edit]
Books[edit]
The film is referenced in Thomas Pynchon's novel Inherent Vice.
The film is referenced in the novel The Goldfinch by Donna Tartt.
The film's plot is recounted by the main characters in the novel Kiss of the Spider Woman by Manuel Puig.
Music[edit]
Singer-songwriter Roky Erickson wrote a song titled "I Walked with a Zombie", which appeared on his 1981 album The Evil One. Since then, the bands R.E.M., The Vietnam Veterans, U.K. Subs, Turbonegro, Alice Donut, The Visitors, Električni Orgazam, The New Orleans Radiators and Elf Power have covered this song.
In 1997, the punk band Link 80 used an image from the movie for their cover of their second album Killing Katie.
Wednesday 13's album Transylvania 90210: Songs of Death, Dying, and the Dead (2005) contains the track "I Walked With A Zombie", inspired by this film.
Dance collective Transglobal Underground sampled some of the voodoo chanting from the soundtrack of I Walked with a Zombie for the track "Zombie'ites" from their 1993 album Dream of 100 Nations.
Television[edit]
In the season 1 episode of Pretty Little Liars, 'Please, Do Talk About Me When I'm Gone', the characters of Emily and Maya go to see the film and shots from the film are used in the episode.
The film is referenced in the season 8 episode of Archer, 'Archer Dreamland: Sleepers Wake'.
Film[edit]
Pedro Costa has suggested that his original intention for his 1994 film Casa de Lava was to remake I Walked With a Zombie.[12] It tells the story of a nurse (Inês de Medeiros) returning a comatose patient (Isaach De Bankolé) to his homeland of Cape Verde.
Ritual is an authorized remake of I Walked With a Zombie, coproduced by RKO.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wallace, Inez. "I Walked with a Zombie." Reprinted in Peter Haining, Zombie! Stories of the Walking Dead (London 1986): pp.95- 102.
Jump up ^ Focusfeatures.com Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ TCM.com
Jump up ^ Hanson, Patricia K.; Dunkleberger, Amy (1999). AFI: American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures Produced in the United States : Feature Films 1941-1950 Indexes, Volume 2. University of California Press. p. 1127. ISBN 0520215214. According to a 21 Oct 1942 HR news item, Anna Lee was initially slated to play 'Betsy,' but was forced to withdraw because of a previous commitment.
Jump up ^ Review in The New York Times, April 22, 1943
Jump up ^ William K. Everson: Classics of the Horror Film. The Citadel Press, 1974.
Jump up ^ Leonard Maltin's 2008 Movie Guide. Signet/Penguin Group, 2007.
Jump up ^ Time Out Film Guide, Seventh Edition 1999. Penguin Group, 1998.
Jump up ^ Richard Scheib: I Walked with a Zombie review on Moria - The Science Fiction, Horror and Fantasy Film Review.
Jump up ^ Glenn Erickson: The Val Lewton Collection review on DVD Savant.
Jump up ^ Stylus Magazine’s Top 10 Zombie Films of All Time - Movie Review - Stylus Magazine
Jump up ^ ICA (2015-12-10), Horse Money: Q&A with Pedro Costa hosted by Laura Mulvey, retrieved 2017-01-24
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to I Walked with a Zombie.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: I Walked with a Zombie
I Walked with a Zombie at the American Film Institute Catalog
I Walked with a Zombie on IMDb
I Walked with a Zombie at the TCM Movie Database
I Walked with a Zombie at AllMovie
I Walked with a Zombie at Rotten Tomatoes
show
v
t
e
Films directed by Jacques Tourneur
Romance of Radium (short, 1937)
They All Come Out (1939)
Nick Carter, Master Detective (1939)
Phantom Raiders (1940)
Doctors Don't Tell (1941)
Cat People (1942)
I Walked with a Zombie (1943)
The Leopard Man (1943)
Reward Unlimited (short, 1944)
Days of Glory (1944)
Experiment Perilous (1945)
Canyon Passage (1946)
Out of the Past (1947)
Berlin Express (1948)
Easy Living (1949)
The Flame and the Arrow (1950)
Stars in My Crown (1950)
Circle of Danger (1951)
Anne of the Indies (1951)
Way of a Gaucho (1952)
Appointment in Honduras (1953)
Stranger on Horseback (1955)
Wichita (1955)
Great Day in the Morning (1956)
Nightfall (1957)
Night of the Demon (1957)
The Fearmakers (1958)
The Giant of Marathon (1959)
Timbuktu (1959)
The Comedy of Terrors (1964)
City Under the Sea (1965)
show
v
t
e
Val Lewton
Films
No Man of Her Own (1932)
Cat People (1942)
I Walked with a Zombie (1943)
The Leopard Man (1943)
The Seventh Victim (1943)
The Ghost Ship (1943)
The Curse of the Cat People (1944)
Mademoiselle Fifi (1944)
Youth Runs Wild (1944)
The Body Snatcher (1945)
Isle of the Dead (1945)
Bedlam (1946)
My Own True Love (1949)
Please Believe Me (1950)
Apache Drums (1951)
Documentaries
Shadows in the Dark: The Val Lewton Legacy (2005)
Val Lewton: The Man in the Shadows (2007)
show
v
t
e
Curt Siodmak works
Novel
Donovan's Brain (1942)
Film
Writer
People on Sunday (1930)
Girls Will Be Boys (1934)
It's a Bet (1935)
The Loves of Madame Dubarry (1935)
The Tunnel (1935)
Non-Stop New York (1937)
Her Jungle Love (1938)
Pacific Blackout (1941)
The Wolf Man (1941)
Invisible Agent (1942)
Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1943)
Shady Lady (1945)
The Beast with Five Fingers (1946)
Bride of the Gorilla (1951)
The Magnetic Monster (1953)
Riders to the Stars (1954)
Creature with the Atom Brain (1955)
Screenplay
Le Bal (1931)
F.P.1 antwortet nicht (1932)
F.P.1 (1933)
The Invisible Man Returns (1940)
Black Friday (1940)
The Ape (1940)
I Walked with a Zombie (1943)
The Climax (1944)
Frisco Sal (1945)
Tarzan's Magic Fountain (1949)
Sherlock Holmes und das Halsband des Todes (1962)
Story
Son of Dracula (1943)
House of Frankenstein (1944)
Berlin Express (1948)
Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956)
Director
People on Sunday (1930)
Bride of the Gorilla (1951)
The Magnetic Monster (1953)
Curucu, Beast of the Amazon (1957)
Love Slaves of the Amazons (1958)
Uncredited
Abdul the Damned (1935)
The Devil's Messenger (1961)
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WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb15098606c (data)
GND: 7549023-7
SUDOC: 074162020
VIAF: 316751824
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Walked_with_a_Zombie&oldid=865907381"
Categories:
1943 films
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text:
Sun path
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
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Sun's seasonal declination differences, viewed from some northern mid-latitude
Sun path polar chart for any location at the latitude of Rotterdam
Sun path, sometimes also called day arc, refers to the daily and seasonal arc-like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun. The Sun's path affects the length of daytime experienced and amount of daylight received along a certain latitude during a given season.
The relative position of the Sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems.[1] Accurate location-specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost-effective use of solar trackers.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Effect of the Earth's axial tilt
1.1 Shadow of Vertical Stick at Solar Noon
1.2 Duration of daylight
2 Building design simulation
3 Visualization
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt[edit]
This section is too long. Consider splitting it into new pages, adding subheadings, or condensing it. (June 2017)
Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry.[4] The Earth's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees, relative to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. As the Earth orbits the Sun, this creates the 47° declination difference between the solstice sun paths, as well as the hemisphere-specific difference between summer and winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the winter sun (December, January, February) rises in the southeast, transits the celestial meridian at a low angle in the south (more than 43° above the southern horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the southwest. It is on the south (equator) side of the house all day long. A vertical window facing south (equator side) is effective for capturing solar thermal energy. For comparison, the winter sun in the Southern Hemisphere (June, July, August) rises in the northeast, peaks out at a low angle in the north (more than halfway up from the horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the northwest. There, the north-facing window would let in plenty of solar thermal energy to the house.
In the Northern Hemisphere in summer (June, July, August), the Sun rises in the northeast, peaks out slightly south of overhead point (lower in the south at higher latitude), and then sets in the northwest, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere in summer (December, January, February), the Sun rises in the southeast, peaks out slightly north of overhead point (lower in the north at higher latitude), and then sets in the southwest. A simple latitude-dependent equator-side overhang can easily be designed to block 100% of the direct solar gain from entering vertical equator-facing windows on the hottest days of the year. Roll-down exterior shade screens, interior translucent-or-opaque window quilts, drapes, shutters, movable trellises, etc. can be used for hourly, daily or seasonal sun and heat transfer control (without any active electrical air conditioning).
Everywhere around the world during the equinoxes (March 20/21 and September 22/23) except for the poles, the sun rises due east and sets due west. In the Northern Hemisphere, the equinox sun peaks in the southern half (about halfway up from the horizon at mid latitude) of the sky, while in the Southern Hemisphere, that sun peaks in the northern half of the sky. When facing the equator, the sun appears to move from left to right in the Northern Hemisphere and from right to left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The latitude (and hemisphere)-specific solar path differences are critical to effective passive solar building design. They are essential data for optimal window and overhang seasonal design. Solar designers must know the precise solar path angles for each location they design for, and how they compare to place-based seasonal heating and cooling requirements.
In the U.S., the precise location-specific altitude-and-azimuth seasonal solar path numbers are available from NOAA – the "equator side" of a building is south in the Northern Hemisphere, and north in the Southern Hemisphere, where the peak summer solstice solar altitude occurs on December 21.
Shadow of Vertical Stick at Solar Noon[edit]
On the equator, the sun will be straight overhead and a vertical stick will cast no shadow at solar noon on the equinoxes. On the vernal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator) the vertical stick's shadow will point a little westwards of true north (NNW) reading 336.5° from true north and little eastwards of true south (SSE) reading 156.5° from true north. On the autumnal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator), the shadow will point a little eastwards of true north (NNE) reading 23.5° from true north (and south of the subsolar, the shadow will point a little westward of true south (SSW) reading 203.5° from true north).
The same stick will cast no shadow on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point is on the Tropic of Cancer 23.44° north of equator. Although north of 23.44°N the shadow will point towards true north and south of 23.44°N the shadow will point towards true south. The reverse occurs on the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point will be on the Tropic of Capricorn 23.44°S and a vertical stick will cast no shadow along that point. But north of the Tropic of Capricorn solar noon shadows will point towards true north and south of the Tropic of Capricorn shadows will point towards true south.
The solar noon shadows of objects on points beyond and below subsolar points will point towards true north and true south respectively only when the solar declination has its maximum positive (δ☉ = +23.44°) or maximum negative (δ☉ = −23.44°) value. On the other hand, on the equinoxes when the sun is neither declined north nor south (δ☉ = 0°) and solar time noon shadows point NNW north of the equator and SSE south of the equator on the vernal equinox (and point NNE north of the equator and SSW south of the equator on the autumnal equinox).
Duration of daylight[edit]
Within the polar circles (north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle), each year will experience at least one day when the Sun remains below the horizon for 24 hours (on the winter solstice), and at least one day when the Sun remains above the horizon for 24 hours (on the summer solstice).
In the middle latitudes (between the tropics and the polar circles, where most humans live), the length of daytime, as well as solar altitude and azimuth, vary from one day to the next, and from season to season. The difference between the lengths of a long summer day and of a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the Equator.[2]
This solargraph exposed over the course of a year shows the Sun's paths of diurnal motion, as viewed from Budapest in 2014.
(Credit: Elekes Andor)
Building design simulation[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Before the days of modern, inexpensive, 3D computer graphics, a heliodon (precisely-movable light source) was used to show the angle of the sun on a physical model of a proposed building. Today, mathematical computer models calculate location-specific solar gain (shading) and seasonal thermal performance, with the ability to rotate and animate a 3D color graphic model of a proposed building design.
Heating and cooling issues in passive solar building design can be counterintuitive. Precise performance calculations and simulations are essential to avoid reinventing the wheel and duplicating expensive experimental design errors, such as skylights that turn a building into a solar furnace in summer (see Daylighting#Sawtooth roof).
Visualization[edit]
The pictures below show the following perspectives from Earth, marking the hourly positions of the Sun on both solstice days. When connected, the suns form two day arcs, the paths along which the Sun appears to follow on the celestial sphere in its diurnal motion. The longer arc is always the midsummer path while the shorter arc the midwinter path. The two arcs are 46.88° (2 × 23.44°) apart, indicating the declination difference between the solstice suns.
In addition, some "ghost" suns are visible below the horizon, as much as 18° down, during which twilight occurs. The pictures can be used for both the northern and the southern hemispheres of Earth. A theoretical observer is supposed to stand near the tree on a small island in the middle of the sea. The green arrows represent the cardinal directions.
In the Northern Hemisphere, north is to the left. The Sun rises in the east (far arrow), culminates in the south (to the right) while moving to the right, and sets in the west (near arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the north in midsummer and the south in midwinter.
In the Southern Hemisphere, south is to the left. The Sun rises in the east (near arrow), culminates in the north (to the right) while moving to the left, and sets in the west (far arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the south in midsummer and the north in midwinter.
The following selected cases are depicted.
On the abstract line of the Equator (90° latitude), the Sun's maximum altitude is great during the entire year, but it does not form a perfect right angle with the ground at noon everyday. In fact it happens two days of the year, during the equinoxes. The solstices are the dates that the Sun stays farthest away from the zenith but anyway also in those cases it's high in the sky, reaching an altitude of 66.56° either to the north or the south. All days of the year, solstices included, have the same length of 12 hours.
Solstice day arcs as viewed from 20° latitude. The Sun culminates at 46.56° altitude in winter and 93.44° altitude in summer. In this case an angle larger than 90° means that the culmination takes place at an altitude of 86.56° in the opposite cardinal direction. For example, in the southern hemisphere, the Sun remains in the north during winter, but can reach over the zenith to the south in midsummer. Summer days are longer than winter days, but approximately the difference is no more than only two and a half hours. The daily path of the Sun is steep at the horizon the whole year round, resulting in a twilight of only about one hour and 20 minutes in the morning and in the evening.
Solstice day arcs as viewed from 50° latitude. During the winter solstice Sun does not rise more than 16.56° above the horizon at midday, but 63.44° in summer solstice above the same horizon direction. The difference in the length of the day between summer and winter, from here to the north, begin to be striking – slightly more than 8 hours at winter solstice, to more than 16 hours during the summer solstice. Likewise is the difference in direction of sunrise and sunset. At this latitude at midnight (around 1 a.m. with summer legal hour) the summer sun is 16.56° below the horizon, which means that astronomical twilight continues the whole night. This phenomenon is known as the grey nights, nights when it does not get dark enough for astronomers to do their observations of the deep sky. Above 60° latitude, the Sun would be even closer to the horizon, only 6.56° away from it. Then civil twilight continues almost all night, only a little bit of nautical twilight obviously around the local midnight. And above 66.56° latitude, there is no sunset at all, a phenomenon referred to as the midnight sun.
Solstice day arcs as viewed from 70° latitude. At local noon the winter Sun culminates at −3.44°, and the summer Sun at 43.44°. Said another way, during the winter the Sun does not rise above the horizon, it is the polar night. There will be still a strong twilight though. At local midnight the summer Sun culminates at 3.44°, said another way, it does not set, it is the polar day.
Solstice day arcs as viewed from either pole (90° latitude). At the time of the summer or winter solstices, the Sun is 23.44° degrees above or below the horizon, respectively, irrespective of time of day. Whilst the Sun is up (during summer months) it will circle around the whole sky (clockwise from the North Pole and counter-clockwise from the South Pole), appearing to stay at the same angle from the horizon, therefore the concept of day or night is meaningless. The angle of elevation will gradually change on an annual cycle, with the Sun reaching its highest point at the summer solstice, and rising or setting at the equinox, with extended periods of twilight lasting several days after the autumn equinox and before the spring equinox.
Solstice day arcs as viewed from selected latitudes
0° latitude (the Equator)
20° latitude
50° latitude
70° latitude
90° latitude (either pole)
See also[edit]
Ecliptic
Passive solar design
Solar access
Pyranometer
Pyrheliometer
Heliostat
Daylighting
Analemma
Effect of sun angle on climate
Position of the Sun
Equinox
Solstice
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Solar Resource Information". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 2009-03-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Khavrus, V.; Shelevytsky, I. (2010). "Introduction to solar motion geometry on the basis of a simple model". Physics Education. 45 (6): 641. Bibcode:2010PhyEd..45..641K. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/45/6/010.
Jump up ^ Khavrus, V.; Shelevytsky, I. (2012). "Geometry and the physics of seasons". Physics Education. 47 (6): 680. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/47/6/680.
Jump up ^ Librorum, Helluo (2012). "Notes from Noosphere: The simple geometry of sun, moon, and star paths". notesfromnoosphere.blogspot.com. Retrieved September 19, 2013. [unreliable source?]
External links[edit]
U.S. Naval Observatory Sun or Moon Altitude/Azimuth Table
The simple geometry of sun, moon, and star paths
Sun path calculation and visualization on Android
Sun path in augmented reality
Sun path by location and date
Sun positions, diagram and paths around the world by location and date
Seasonal and Hourly Sun Path Design Issue Tutorial
Sun path on map, charts and table, sun position for every location and date
Sun position by location and date
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text:
History of paper
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Five seminal steps in ancient Chinese papermaking outlined in a woodcut.
Paper is a white material primarily used for writing, first invented in ancient China.[1] Although contemporary precursors such as papyrus and amate existed in the Mediterranean world and pre-Columbian Americas, respectively, these materials are not defined as true paper. The first papermaking process was documented in China during the Eastern Han period (25-220 C.E.), traditionally attributed to the court official Cai Lun. During the 8th century, Chinese papermaking spread to the Islamic world, where pulp mills and paper mills were used for money making. By the 11th century, papermaking was brought to medieval Europe, where it was refined with the earliest known paper mills utilizing waterwheels. Later Western improvements to the papermaking process came in the 19th century with the invention of wood-based papers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Precursors: papyrus and amate
2 Paper in China
2.1 Techniques
2.2 Uses
2.3 Impact of paper
3 Paper in Asia
3.1 Vietnam
3.2 Korea
3.3 Japan
3.4 India
3.5 Islamic world
4 Paper in Europe
5 Americas
6 Paper mills
7 Fiber sources
8 19th century advances in papermaking
9 Determining provenance
10 See also
11 References
12 Sources
Precursors: papyrus and amate
Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century AD
The word "paper" is etymologically derived from papyrus, Ancient Greek for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean societies for writing long before paper was used in China.[2] Papyrus however are plants pressed and dried, while paper is made from fibers whose properties have been changed by maceration or disintegration.[3]
It is lucky chance that the date of CE 105 was recorded, because Cai Lun, the official involved, who seems to have introduced some improvements in paper manufacture, worked at the palace as a eunuch. Yet just because the new technology was not trumpeted at the time does not mean that it had no effect. On the contrary: up to this point China was lagging behind those Mediterranean societies where papyrus was used and where light, inexpensive scrolls could be created. But thereafter the advantage swung the other way, since papyrus, which is composed of organic material not as highly processed as paper, was prone to splitting and deterioration at a much greater rate; this may be why vellum eventually came to dominate, especially in the harsher climate of Northern Europe. Paper, by contrast, gave a good, uniform writing surface that could be smoothly rolled and unrolled without damage, while remaining relatively durable.[4]
—  T.H. Barrett
In the pre-Columbian Americas, a type of early bark paper known as amate was used as a folded writing material for codices. The earliest sample of amate was found at Huitzilapa near the Magdalena Municipality, Jalisco, Mexico, belonging to the shaft tomb culture.[5]
Paper in China
Earliest known extant paper fragment unearthed at Fangmatan
Hemp wrapping paper, Western Han period of China, circa 100 BC
Oldest paper book, dating to AD 256
The world's earliest known printed book (using woodblock printing), the Diamond Sutra of 868, shows the widespread availability and practicality of paper in China.
Main article: Papermaking
Further information: Cai Lun § Invention of paper, and Science and technology of the Han Dynasty
Archaeological evidence of papermaking predates the traditional attribution given to Cai Lun,[6] an imperial eunuch official of the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), thus the exact date or inventor of paper can not be deduced. The earliest extant paper fragment was unearthed at Fangmatan in Gansu province, and was likely part of a map, dated to 179-41 BC.[7] Fragments of paper have also been found at Dunhuang dated to 65 BC and at Yumen pass, dated to 8 BC.[8]
"Cai Lun's" invention, recorded hundreds of years after it took place, is dated to 105 AD. The innovation is a type of paper made of mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishing nets, old rags, and hemp waste which reduced the cost of paper production, which prior to this, and later, in the West, depended solely on rags.[8][9][4]
Techniques
During the Shang (1600–1050 BC) and Zhou (1050-256 BC) dynasties of ancient China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo (on tablets or on bamboo strips sewn and rolled together into scrolls), making them very heavy, awkward, and hard to transport. The light material of silk was sometimes used as a recording medium, but was normally too expensive to consider. The Han dynasty Chinese court official Cai Lun (ca. 50–121) is credited as the inventor of a method of papermaking (inspired by wasps and bees) using rags and other plant fibers in 105 CE.[4] However, the discovery of specimens bearing written Chinese characters in 2006 at Fangmatan in north-east China's Gansu Province suggests that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai, in 8 BC, and possibly much earlier as the map fragment found at the Fangmatan tomb site dates from the early 2nd century BC.[7] It therefore would appear that "Cai Lun's contribution was to improve this skill systematically and scientifically, fix a recipe for papermaking".[10]
The record in the Twenty-Four Histories says[11]
In ancient times writings and inscriptions were generally made on tablets of bamboo or on pieces of silk called chih. But silk being costly and bamboos heavy they were not convenient to use. Tshai Lun then initiated the idea of making paper from the bark of trees, remnants of hemp, rags of cloth and fishing nets. He submitted the process to the emperor in the first year of Yuan-Hsing (105 AD) and received praise for his ability. From this time, paper has been in use everywhere and is universally called the paper of Marquis Tshai.
The production process may have originated from the practice of pounding and stirring rags in water, after which the matted fibres were collected on a mat. The bark of Paper Mulberry was particularly valued and high quality paper was developed in the late Han period using the bark of tan (檀; sandalwood). In the Eastern Jin period a fine bamboo screen-mould treated with insecticidal dye for permanence was used in papermaking. After printing was popularized during the Song dynasty the demand for paper grew substantially. In the year 1101, 1.5 million sheets of paper were sent to the capital.[11]
Uses
Open, it stretches; closed, it rolls up. it can be contracted or expanded; hidden away or displayed.[8]
—  Fu Xian
Among the earliest known uses of paper was padding and wrapping delicate bronze mirrors according to archaeological evidence dating to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han from the 2nd century BC.[12] Padding doubled as both protection for the object as well as the user in cases where poisonous "medicine" were involved, as mentioned in the official history of the period.[12] Although paper was used for writing by the 3rd century AD,[1] paper continued to be used for wrapping (and other) purposes. Toilet paper was used in China from around the late 6th century.[13] In 589, the Chinese scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531-591) wrote: "Paper on which there are quotations or commentaries from Five Classics or the names of sages, I dare not use for toilet purposes".[13] An Arab traveler who visited China wrote of the curious Chinese tradition of toilet paper in 851, writing: "... [the Chinese] do not wash themselves with water when they have done their necessities; but they only wipe themselves with paper".[13]
During the Tang dynasty (618–907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. In the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape.[12] During the Song dynasty (960–1279) the government produced the world's first known paper-printed money, or banknote (see Jiaozi and Huizi). Paper money was bestowed as gifts to government officials in special paper envelopes.[13] During the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), the first well-documented Europeans in Medieval China, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites.[14]
Impact of paper
According to Timothy Hugh Barrett, paper played a pivotal role in early Chinese written culture, and a "strong reading culture seems to have developed quickly after its introduction, despite political fragmentation."[15] Indeed the introduction of paper had immense consequences for the book world. It meant books would no longer have to be circulated in small sections or bundles, but in their entirety. Books could now be carried by hand rather than transported by cart. As a result individual collections of literary works increased in the following centuries.[16]
Textual culture seems to have been more developed in the south by the early 5th century, with individuals owning collections of several thousand scrolls. In the north an entire palace collection might have been only a few thousand scrolls in total.[17] By the early 6th century, scholars in both the north and south were capable of citing upwards of 400 sources in commentaries on older works.[18] A small compilation text from the 7th century included citations to over 1,400 works.[19]
The personal nature of texts was remarked upon by a late 6th century imperial librarian. According to him, the possession of and familiarity with a few hundred scrolls was what it took to be socially accepted as an educated man.[20]
According to Endymion Wilkinson, one consequence of the rise of paper in China was that "it rapidly began to surpass the Mediterranean empires in book production."[8] During the Tang dynasty, China became the world leader in book production. In addition the gradual spread of woodblock printing from the late Tang and Song further boosted their lead ahead of the rest of the world.[21]
From the fourth century CE to about 1500, the biggest library collections in China were three to four times larger than the largest collections in Europe. The imperial government book collections in the Tang numbered about 5,000 to 6,000 titles (89,000 juan) in 721. The Song imperial collections at their height in the early twelfth century may have risen to 4,000 to 5,000 titles. These are indeed impressive numbers, but the imperial libraries were exceptional in China and their use was highly restricted. Only very few libraries in the Tang and Song held more than one or two thousand titles (a size not even matched by the manuscript collections of the grandest of the great cathedral libraries in Europe).[22]
—  Endymion Wilkinson
However despite the initial advantage afforded to China by the paper medium, by the 9th century its spread and development in the middle east had closed the gap between the two regions. Between the 9th to early 12th centuries, libraries in Cairo, Baghdad, and Cordoba held collections larger than even the ones in China, and dwarfed those in Europe. From about 1500 the maturation of paper making and printing in Southern Europe also had an effect in closing the gap with the Chinese. The Venetian Domenico Grimani's collection numbered 15,000 volumes by the time of his death in 1523. After 1600, European collections completely overtook those in China. The Bibliotheca Augusta numbered 60,000 volumes in 1649 and surged to 120,000 in 1666. In the 1720s the Bibliotheque du Roi numbered 80,000 books and the Cambridge University 40,000 in 1715. After 1700, libraries in North America also began to overtake those of China, and toward the end of the century, Thomas Jefferson's private collection numbered 4,889 titles in 6,487 volumes. The European advantage only increased further into the 19th century as national collections in Europe and America exceeded a million volumes while a few private collections, such as that of Lord Action, reached 70,000.[22]
European book production began to catch up with China after the introduction of the mechanical printing press in the mid fifteenth century. Reliable figures of the number of imprints of each edition are as hard to find in Europe as they are in China, but one result of the spread of printing in Europe was that public and private libraries were able to build up their collections and for the first time in over a thousand years they began to match and then overtake the largest libraries in China.[21]
—  Endymion Wilkinson
Paper became central to the three arts of China - poetry, painting, and calligraphy. In later times paper constituted one of the 'Four Treasures of the Scholar's Studio,' alongside the brush, the ink, and the inkstone.[23]
Paper in Asia
Further information: Dunhuang manuscripts
After its origin in central China, the production and use of paper spread steadily. It is clear that paper was used at Dunhuang by AD 150, in Loulan in the modern-day province of Xinjiang by 200, and in Turpan by 399. Paper was concurrently introduced in Japan sometime between the years 280 and 610.[24]
Vietnam
Paper spread to Vietnam in the 3rd century.[16]
Korea
Paper spread to Korea in the 4th century.[16]
Japan
Paper spread to Japan in the 5th century.[16]
India
Paper spread to India in the 7th century.[16][25] However, the use of paper was not widespread there until the 12th century.[26]
Islamic world
Paper page fragment from a Coptic language Bible from Egypt in the Islamic period, 700s AD or later
After the defeat of the Chinese in the Battle of Talas in 751 (present day Kyrgyzstan), the invention spread to the Middle East.[27]
The legend goes,[28] the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas, which led to the first paper mill in the Islamic world being founded in Samarkand in Sogdia (modern-day Uzbekistan). There was a tradition that Muslims would release their prisoners if they could teach ten Muslims any valuable knowledge.[29] There are records of paper being made at Gilgit in Pakistan by the sixth century, in Samarkand by 751, in Baghdad by 793, in Egypt by 900, and in Fes, Morocco around 1100.[30]
The laborious process of paper making was refined and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing of paper. Production began in Baghdad, where a method was invented to make a thicker sheet of paper, which helped transform papermaking from an art into a major industry.[31] The use of water-powered pulp mills for preparing the pulp material used in papermaking, dates back to Samarkand in the 8th century,[32] though this should not be confused with paper mills (see Paper mills section below). The Muslims also introduced the use of trip hammers (human- or animal-powered) in the production of paper, replacing the traditional Chinese mortar and pestle method. In turn, the trip hammer method was later employed by the Chinese.[33] Historically, trip hammers were often powered by a water wheel, and are known to have been used in China as long ago as 40 BC or maybe even as far back as the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC–221 BC).[34]
By the 9th century, Muslims were using paper regularly, although for important works like copies of the revered Qur'an, vellum was still preferred.[35] Advances in book production and bookbinding were introduced.[36][unreliable source] In Muslim countries they made books lighter—sewn with silk and bound with leather-covered paste boards; they had a flap that wrapped the book up when not in use. As paper was less reactive to humidity, the heavy boards were not needed. By the 12th century in Marrakech in Morocco a street was named "Kutubiyyin" or book sellers which contained more than 100 bookshops.[37]
The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035,[contradictory] when a Persian traveler visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[38] Since the First Crusade in 1096, paper manufacturing in Damascus had been interrupted by wars, but its production continued in two other centres. Egypt continued with the thicker paper, while Iran became the center of the thinner papers. Papermaking was diffused across the Islamic world, from where it was diffused further west into Europe.[39] Paper manufacture was introduced to India in the 13th century by Muslim merchants, where it almost wholly replaced traditional writing materials.[35]
Paper in Europe
A copy of the Gutenberg Bible, printed on paper during the 1450s, in the New York Public Library
The oldest known paper document in the West is the Mozarab Missal of Silos from the 11th century, probably using paper made in the Islamic part of the Iberian Peninsula. They used hemp and linen rags as a source of fiber. The first recorded paper mill in the Iberian Peninsula was in Xàtiva in 1056.[40][41] Papermaking reached Europe as early as 1085 in Toledo and was firmly established in Xàtiva, Spain by 1150. It is clear that France had a paper mill by 1190, and by 1276 mills were established in Fabriano, Italy and in Treviso and other northern Italian towns by 1340. Papermaking then spread further northwards, with evidence of paper being made in Troyes, France by 1348, in Holland sometime around 1340–1350, in Mainz, Germany in 1320, and in Nuremberg by 1390 in a mill set up by Ulman Stromer.[42] This was just about the time when the woodcut printmaking technique was transferred from fabric to paper in the old master print and popular prints. There was a paper mill in Switzerland by 1432 and the first mill in England was set up by John Tate in 1490 near Stevenage in Hertfordshire,[43] but the first commercially successful paper mill in Britain did not occur before 1588 when John Spilman set up a mill near Dartford in Kent.[44] During this time, paper making spread to Poland by 1491, to Austria by 1498, to Russia by 1576, to the Netherlands by 1586, to Denmark by 1596, and to Sweden by 1612.[30]
Arab prisoners who settled in a town called Borgo Saraceno in the Italian Province of Ferrara introduced Fabriano artisans in the Province of Ancona[clarification needed] the technique of making paper by hand. At the time they were renowned for their wool-weaving and manufacture of cloth. Fabriano papermakers considered the process of making paper by hand an art form and were able to refine the process to successfully compete with parchment which was the primary medium for writing at the time. They developed the application of stamping hammers to reduce rags to pulp for making paper, sizing paper by means of animal glue, and creating watermarks in the paper during its forming process. The Fabriano used glue, obtained by boiling scrolls or scraps of animal skin to size the paper; it is suggested that this technique was recommended by the local tanneries. The introduction of the first European watermarks in Fabriano was linked to applying metal wires on a cover laid against the mould which was used for forming the paper.[45]
They adapted the waterwheels from the fuller's mills to drive a series of 3 wooden hammers per trough. The hammers were raised by their heads by cams fixed to a waterwheel's axle made from a large tree trunk.[46][47]
Americas
In the Americas, archaeological evidence indicates that a similar bark-paper writing material was used by the Mayans no later than the 5th century AD.[48] Called amatl, it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. The paper is created by boiling and pounding the inner bark of trees, until the material becomes suitable for art and writing.
These materials made from pounded reeds and bark are technically not true paper, which is made from pulp, rags, and fibers of plants and cellulose.
European papermaking spread to the Americas first in Mexico by 1575 and then in Philadelphia by 1690.[30]
Paper mills
Main article: Paper mill
The Nuremberg paper mill, the building complex at the lower right corner, in 1493. Due to their noise and smell, paper mills were required by medieval law to be erected outside of the city perimeter.
The use of human and animal powered mills was known to Chinese and Muslim papermakers. However, evidence for water-powered paper mills is elusive among both prior to the 11th century.[49][50][51][52] The general absence of the use of water-powered paper mills in Muslim papermaking prior to the 11th century is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors at the time to call a production center not a "mill", but a "paper manufactory".[53]
Donald Hill has identified a possible reference to a water-powered paper mill in Samarkand, in the 11th-century work of the Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni, but concludes that the passage is "too brief to enable us to say with certainty" that it refers to a water-powered paper mill.[54] This is seen by Halevi as evidence of Samarkand first harnessing waterpower in the production of paper, but notes that it is not known if waterpower was applied to papermaking elsewhere across the Islamic world at the time.[55] Burns remains sceptical, given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere prior to the 13th century.[56]
Clear evidence of a water-powered paper mill dates to 1282 in the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon.[57] A decree by the Christian king Peter III addresses the establishment of a royal "molendinum", a proper hydraulic mill, in the paper manufacturing centre of Xàtiva.[57] The crown innovation originates from the Muslim Mudéjar community in the Moorish quarter of Xàtiva, where paper mills were a Muslim Mudejar operated enterprise.[58] However, it appears to be resented by sections of the local Muslim papermakering community; the document guarantees them the right to continue the way of traditional papermaking by beating the pulp manually and grants them the right to be exempted from work in the new mill.[57] Paper making centers began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; paper making centers reached Germany a century later.[59]
The first paper mill north of the Alps was established in Nuremberg by Ulman Stromer in 1390; it is later depicted in the lavishly illustrated Nuremberg Chronicle.[60] From the mid-14th century onwards, European paper milling underwent a rapid improvement of many work processes.[61]
Fiber sources
See also: wood pulp and deinking
Ancient Sanskrit on hemp-based paper. Hemp fiber was commonly used in the production of paper from 200 BC to the late 1800s.
Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton.[62] A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.[62] Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.[62]
19th century advances in papermaking
Although cheaper than vellum, paper remained expensive, at least in book-sized quantities, through the centuries, until the advent of steam-driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make paper with fibres from wood pulp. Although older machines predated it, the Fourdrinier papermaking machine became the basis for most modern papermaking. Nicholas Louis Robert of Essonnes, France, was granted a patent for a continuous paper making machine in 1799. At the time he was working for Leger Didot with whom he quarrelled over the ownership of the invention. Didot sent his brother-in-law, John Gamble, to meet Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers of London, who agreed to finance the project. Gamble was granted British patent 2487 on 20 October 1801. With the help particularly of Bryan Donkin, a skilled and ingenious mechanic, an improved version of the Robert original was installed at Frogmore, Hertfordshire, in 1803, followed by another in 1804. A third machine was installed at the Fourdriniers' own mill at Two Waters. The Fourdriniers also bought a mill at St Neots intending to install two machines there and the process and machines continued to develop.
However, experiments with wood showed no real results in the late 18th century and at the start of the 19th century. By 1800, Matthias Koops (in London, England) further investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and in 1801 he wrote and published a book titled Historical account of the substances which have been used to describe events, and to convey ideas, from the earliest date, to the invention of paper.[63] His book was printed on paper made from wood shavings (and adhered together). No pages were fabricated using the pulping method (from either rags or wood). He received financial support from the royal family to make his printing machines and acquire the materials and infrastructure needed to start his printing business. But his enterprise was short lived. Only a few years following his first and only printed book (the one he wrote and printed), he went bankrupt. The book was very well done (strong and had a fine appearance), but it was very costly.[64][65][66]
Then in the 1830s and 1840s, two men on two different continents took up the challenge, but from a totally new perspective. Both Friedrich Gottlob Keller and Charles Fenerty began experiments with wood but using the same technique used in paper making; instead of pulping rags, they thought about pulping wood. And at about the same time, by mid-1844, they announced their findings. They invented a machine which extracted the fibres from wood (exactly as with rags) and made paper from it. Charles Fenerty also bleached the pulp so that the paper was white. This started a new era for paper making. By the end of the 19th-century almost all printers in the western world were using wood in lieu of rags to make paper.[67]
Together with the invention of the practical fountain pen and the mass-produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters became possible and so, by 1850, the clerk, or writer, ceased to be a high-status job.
The original wood-based paper was acidic due to the use of alum and more prone to disintegrate over time, through processes known as slow fires. Documents written on more expensive rag paper were more stable. Mass-market paperback books still use these cheaper mechanical papers (see below), but book publishers can now use acid-free paper for hardback and trade paperback books.
Determining provenance
Determining the provenance of paper is a complex process that can be done in a variety of ways. The easiest way is using a known sheet of paper as an exemplar. Using known sheets can produce an exact identification. Next, comparing watermarks with those contained in catalogs or trade listings can yield useful results. Inspecting the surface can also determine age and location by looking for distinct marks from the production process. Chemical and fiber analysis can be used to establish date of creation and perhaps location.[68][page needed]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of paper.
History of origami
Paperless office
References
^ Jump up to: a b Tsien 1985, p. 1
Jump up ^ "Papyrus definition". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2008-11-20.
Jump up ^ Tsien 1985, p. 38
^ Jump up to: a b c Barrett 2008, p. 34.
Jump up ^ Benz, Bruce; Lorenza Lopez Mestas; Jorge Ramos de la Vega (2006). "Organic Offerings, Paper, and Fibers from the Huitzilapa Shaft Tomb, Jalisco, Mexico". Ancient Mesoamerica. 17 (2). pp. 283–296.
Jump up ^ Tsien 1985, p. 2
^ Jump up to: a b David Buisseret (1998), Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press, p. 12, ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wilkinson 2012, p. 908.
Jump up ^ Papermaking. (2007). In: Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ "eNewsletter". World Archeological Congress. August 2006. Retrieved 2010-07-08.
^ Jump up to: a b Tsien 1985, p. 40 uses Wade-Giles transcription
^ Jump up to: a b c Tsien 1985, p. 122
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tsien 1985, p. 123
Jump up ^ Tsien 1985, p. 105
Jump up ^ Barrett 2008, p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wilkinson 2012, p. 909.
Jump up ^ Barrett 2008, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Barret 2008, p. 37-38.
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^ Jump up to: a b Wilkinson 2012, p. 935.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilkinson 2012, p. 934.
Jump up ^ Barret 2008, p. 40.
Jump up ^ DeVinne, Theo. L. The Invention of Printing. New York: Francis Hart & Co., 1876. p. 134
Jump up ^ Tsien 1985, pp. 2-3
Jump up ^ Tsien 1985, p. 3
Jump up ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
Jump up ^ Quraishi, Silim "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries", Bookbinder, 1989 (3): 29-36.
Jump up ^ Shirazi, Imam Muhammad. The Prophet Muhammad - A Mercy to the World. Createspace Independent Pub, 2013, p. 74
^ Jump up to: a b c Harrison, Frederick. A Book about Books. London: John Murray, 1943. p. 79. Mandl, George. "Paper Chase: A Millennium in the Production and Use of Paper". Myers, Robin & Michael Harris (eds). A Millennium of the Book: Production, Design & Illustration in Manuscript & Print, 900-1900. Winchester: St. Paul’s Bibliographies, 1994. p. 182. Mann, George. Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 79. McMurtrie, Douglas C. The Book: The Story of Printing & Bookmaking. London: Oxford University Press, 1943. p. 63.
Jump up ^ Mahdavi, Farid (2003), "Review: Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World by Jonathan M. Bloom", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, MIT Press, 34 (1): 129–30, doi:10.1162/002219503322645899
Jump up ^ Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 65 & 84, ISBN 90-04-14649-0
Jump up ^ Dard Hunter (1978), Papermaking: the history and technique of an ancient craft, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-23619-6
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. p. 184.
^ Jump up to: a b Fischer, Steven R. (2004), A History of Writing, London: Reaktion Books, p. 264, ISBN 1-86189-101-6
Jump up ^ Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud, "1001 Inventions, Muslim heritage in Our World", FSTC Publishing, 2006, reprinted 2007, pp. 218-219.
Jump up ^ The famous Kutubiya mosque is named so because of its location in this street
Jump up ^ Diana Twede (2005), "The Origins of Paper Based Packaging" (PDF), Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings, 12: 288–300 [289], archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2011, retrieved 2010-03-20
Jump up ^ Mahdavi, Farid (2003), "Review: Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World by Jonathan M. Bloom", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, MIT Press, 34 (1): 129–30, doi:10.1162/002219503322645899
Jump up ^ Richard Leslie Hills: Papermaking in Britain 1488–1988: A Short History. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015, ISBN 978-1-4742-4127-4 (Reprint), S. 2.
Jump up ^ Filipe Duarte Santos: Humans on Earth: From Origins to Possible Futures. Springer, 2012, ISBN 978-3-642-05359-7, S. 116.
Jump up ^ Fuller, Neathery Batsell (2002). "A Brief history of paper". Retrieved 2011-01-24.
Jump up ^ Historie ručního papíru
Jump up ^ "Dartford, cradle of Britain's papermaking industry". Retrieved 2011-01-24.
Jump up ^ Hills, Richard (1936). "Early Italian papermaking : a crucial technical revolution": 37–46.
Jump up ^ Papiernicze, Rękodzieło; Dąbrowski, Józef (1991). "The Papermaking Craft": 152.
Jump up ^ Dabrowski, Jozef (July 2008). "Paper Manufacture in Central and Eastern Europe Before the Introduction of Paper-making Machines" (PDF): 6.
Jump up ^ The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and post classic-Period Maya Civilization Maya Codex and Paper Making
Jump up ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin 1985, pp. 68−73
Jump up ^ Lucas 2005, p. 28, fn. 70
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, pp. 414f.:
It has also become universal to talk of paper "mills" (even of 400 such mills at Fez!), relating these to the hydraulic wonders of Islamic society in east and west. All our evidence points to non-hydraulic hand production, however, at springs away from rivers which it could pollute.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169:
European papermaking differed from its precursors in the mechanization of the process and in the application of water power. Jean Gimpel, in The Medieval Machine (the English translation of La Revolution Industrielle du Moyen Age), points out that the Chinese and Muslims used only human and animal force. Gimpel goes on to say : "This is convincing evidence of how technologically minded the Europeans of that era were. Paper had traveled nearly halfway around the world, but no culture or civilization on its route had tried to mechanize its manufacture."'
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, pp. 414f.:
Indeed, Muslim authors in general call any "paper manufactory" a wiraqah - not a "mill" (tahun)
Jump up ^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), A history of engineering in classical and medieval times, Routledge, pp. 169–71, ISBN 0-415-15291-7
Jump up ^ Leor Halevi (2008), "Christian Impurity versus Economic Necessity: A Fifteenth-Century Fatwa on European Paper", Speculum, Cambridge University Press, 83: 917–945 [917–8], doi:10.1017/S0038713400017073
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, pp. 414−417
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Jump up ^ Koops, Matthias. Historical account of the substances which have been used to describe events, and to convey ideas, from the earliest date, to the invention of paper. London: Printed by T. Burton, 1800.
Jump up ^ Carruthers, George. Paper in the Making. Toronto: The Garden City Press Co-Operative, 1947.
Jump up ^ Matthew, H.C.G. and Brian Harrison. "Koops. Matthias." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: from the earliest times to the year 2000, Vol. 32. London: Oxford University Press, 2004: 80.
Jump up ^ Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8 pp.30-32
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Sources
Barrett, Timothy Hugh (2008), The Woman Who Discovered Printing, Great Britain: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12728-7 (alk. paper)
Bloom, Jonathan (2001). Paper before print: the history and impact of paper in the Islamic world. Yale University Press.
Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800−1400", in Lindgren, Uta, Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9
Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, London: Verso, ISBN 1-85984-108-2
Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
Stromer, Wolfgang von (1960), "Das Handelshaus der Stromer von Nürnberg und die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Papiermühle", Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 47: 81–104
Stromer, Wolfgang von (1993), "Große Innovationen der Papierfabrikation in Spätmittelalter und Frühneuzeit", Technikgeschichte, 60 (1): 1–6
Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 314: 167–176, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x
Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper and Printing, Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Vol. 5 part 1, Cambridge University Press
Wilkinson, Endymion (2012), Chinese History: A New Manual, Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute

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