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Employment
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"Personnel" redirects here. For Military service members, see Military personnel. For the film, see Personnel (film).
This article is about work. For the Kaiser Chiefs album, see Employment (album). For the short story by L. Sprague de Camp, see Employment (short story).
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Employment is a relationship between two parties, usually based on a contract where work is paid for, where one party, which may be a corporation, for profit, not-for-profit organization, co-operative or other entity is the employer and the other is the employee.[1] Employees work in return for payment, which may be in the form of an hourly wage, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does or which sector she or he is working in. Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, regulations or legal contracts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Employees and employers
2 Employer–worker relationship
2.1 Labor Acquisition
2.2 Training and development
2.3 Remuneration
2.4 Employee benefits
2.5 Organizational justice
2.6 Workforce organizing
2.7 Ending employment
3 Wage labor
3.1 Wage slavery
4 Employment contract
4.1 Australia
4.2 Bangladesh
4.3 Canada
4.4 Pakistan
4.5 India
4.6 Philippines
4.7 United Kingdom
4.8 United States
4.9 Sweden
5 Age-related issues
5.1 Younger age workers
5.2 Older age workers
6 Working poor
7 Models of the employment relationship
8 Academic literature
9 Globalization and employment relations
10 Alternatives
10.1 Subcultures
10.2 Postsecondary education
10.3 Workplace democracy
10.4 Self-employment
10.5 Social assistance
10.6 Volunteerism
10.7 Indentured servitude and slavery
11 See also
12 Notes and references
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Employees and employers[edit]
Further information: List of largest employers, List of professions, and Tradesman
An employee contributes labor and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU)[2] and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business.[3]
Employer–worker relationship[edit]
Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.
Labor Acquisition[edit]
Further information: Application for employment
The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" sign in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door[4] or placed on a store counter).[3] Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments.[5] Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview.
Training and development[edit]
Training and development refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's job satisfaction.[6]
Remuneration[edit]
There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, or by gratuities (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in stocks or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.
Employee benefits[edit]
Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. The benefits can include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals. Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.[7]
Organizational justice[edit]
Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.[7]
Workforce organizing[edit]
Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the work force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.[8]
Ending employment[edit]
Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures.[8] In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have tenure, which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a layoff.
Wage labor[edit]
Main article: Wage labor
Worker assembling rebar for a water treatment plant in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico.
Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market determined.[6][7] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.[8]
In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor.[9]
Wage slavery[edit]
Main article: Labour economics
Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,[8] especially by both mainstream socialists and anarcho-syndicalists,[9][10][11][12] using the pejorative term wage slavery.[13][14] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labor as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[15]
The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".[16] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.[17]
Employment contract[edit]
Main article: Employment contract
Australia[edit]
Australian employment has been governed by the Fair Work Act since 2009.[18]
Bangladesh[edit]
Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies (BAIRA) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.[9]
Canada[edit]
In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labour. In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des normes du travail.[12]
Pakistan[edit]
Pakistan has Contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.[9]
India[edit]
India has Contract Labor, Minimum Wage, Provident Funds Act and various other acts to comply with. Contract labor in India must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, there is still a large amount of work that remains to be done to fully implement the Act.[12]
Philippines[edit]
In the Philippines, employment is regulated by the Department of Labor and Employment.[19]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorised by the government into the following types:[20]
Fixed-term contract: last for a certain length of time, are set in advance, end when a specific task is completed, ends when a specific event takes place.
Full-time or part-time contract: has no defined length of time, can be terminated by either party, is to accomplish a specific task, specified number of hours.[19]
Agency staff
Freelancers, Consultants and Contractors
Zero-hour contracts
United States[edit]
See also: United States labor law, List of largest employers in the United States, and Labor unions in the United States
All employees, private industries, by branches
For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the Internal Revenue Code:
"For purposes of this chapter, the term “employee” includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term “employee” also includes an officer of a corporation."[21] This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. “Similarly, Latham’s instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of ‘employee’ does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word ‘includes’ is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others.”[22]
Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[19]
In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor.[23]
Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.[19]
Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL-CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL-CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL-CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.[17]
Sweden[edit]
According to Swedish law,[24] there are three types of employment.
Test employment (swe: Provanställning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and employee combination. Usually a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.[25]
Time limited employment (swe: Tidsbegränsad anställning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
Normal employment (swe: Tillsvidareanställning / Fast anställning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or lack of work tasks (swe: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.[25]
There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.
There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (swe: Timanställning), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.[25]
Age-related issues[edit]
Younger age workers[edit]
Youth employment rate in the US, i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total labor force (15–24Y).[26]
Main article: Young worker safety and health
Young workers are at higher risk for occupational injury and face certain occupational hazards at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.[27] These workers are also at higher risk for motor vehicle accidents at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seatbelts, and higher rates of distracted driving.[28][29] To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.[28]
High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.[27][28] In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the Fair Labor Standards Act.[28]
Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.[30]
In the conversation of employment among younger aged workers, youth unemployment has also been monitored. Youth unemployment rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in every country in the world.[citation needed]
Older age workers[edit]
Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.[31] Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.[32]
Working poor[edit]
Worker, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[25] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[25] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[25] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.[25] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[25] In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[25] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[25]
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[25] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, such as manufacturing.[25] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.[25]
Growth, employment and poverty[25]
Number of
episodes Rising
agricultural
employment Rising
industrial
employment Rising
services
employment
Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates 18 6 10 15
Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates 6 2 3 1
Models of the employment relationship[edit]
Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.[33] A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.[34] In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In human resource management theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label “unitarism”). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label “pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and working classes in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:[35]
Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[25]
Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.
These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.[36] For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers’ interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.[37]
Academic literature[edit]
Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.[38]
Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.[25] The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In agri-business and food processing, they found impact growth to be positive.[38]
They found that most available literature focuses on OECD and middle-income countries somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in LDCs despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.[38]
Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.[39]
Globalization and employment relations[edit]
The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of employment relations.[40] By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.[40]
Globalization has effected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:
International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[40]
Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[40]
Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.
What also results from Lee’s (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving workforce, and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).[40]
Alternatives[edit]
Subcultures[edit]
Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the hippie subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the punk subculture, in which some members live in anarchist squats (illegal housing).
Postsecondary education[edit]
One of the alternatives to work is engaging in postsecondary education at a college, university or professional school. One of the major costs of obtaining a postsecondary education is the opportunity cost of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get postsecondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.
Workplace democracy[edit]
Main article: Workplace democracy
Workplace democracy is the application of democracy in all its forms (including voting systems, debates, democratic structuring, due process, adversarial process, systems of appeal) to the workplace.[41][42]
Self-employment[edit]
When an individual entirely owns the business for which they labor, this is known as self-employment. Self-employment often leads to incorporation. Incorporation offers certain protections of one's personal assets.[40] Individuals who are self-employed may own a small business. They may also be considered to be an entrepreneur.
Social assistance[edit]
In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive social assistance support (e.g., welfare or food stamps) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.
Volunteerism[edit]
Workers who are not paid wages, such as volunteers who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an internship, an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.[41]
Indentured servitude and slavery[edit]
Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as an indentured servant, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as a slave, do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history. Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with human rights and democracy.[41]
See also[edit]
Alternative employment arrangements
Automation
Basic income
Domestic inquiry
Employer branding
Employment gap
Employment rate
Employment website
Equal opportunity employment
Equal pay for equal work
Ethnic Penalty
Job analysis
Job description
Jobless recovery
Labor economics
Labor power
List of largest employers
Lump of labor fallacy
Onboarding
Payroll
Personnel selection
Protestant work ethic
Reserve army of labor (Marxism)
Staffing models
Tenure
The End of Work
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Dakin, Stephen; Armstrong, J. Scott (1989). "Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings" (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 5: 187–194. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1.
Jump up ^ Archer, Richard; Borthwick, Kerry; Travers, Michelle; Ruschena, Leo (2017). WHS: A Management Guide (4 ed.). Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9780170270793. Retrieved 2016-03-30. The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert A. Ristau (2010). Intro to Business. Cengage Learning. p. 74. ISBN 0538740663.
Jump up ^ J. Mayhew Wainwright (1910). Report to the Legislature of the State of New York by the Commission appointed under Chapter 518 of the laws of 1909 to inquire into the question of employers' liability and other matters (Report). J. B. Lyon Company. pp. 11,50,144.
Jump up ^ Industrial & Organizational Assessment
^ Jump up to: a b Deakin & Wilkinson 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marx 1847, Chapter 2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ellerman 1992.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lazonick 1990, p. 37.
Jump up ^ "wage slave". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "wage slave". dictionary.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [1]
Jump up ^ "As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163
^ Jump up to: a b Ferguson 1995.
Jump up ^ "House of Reps seals 'death' of WorkChoices". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc., No. 08-2713 (3d Cir. Sept. 11, 2009)". Retrieved 2010-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Contract types and employer responsibilities". gov.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c)
Jump up ^ United States v. Latham, 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).
Jump up ^ "Termination". United States Department of Labor. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know? Archived May 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20141117072912/http://www.bluenomics.com/data#!data/labour_market/employment/employment_rate_15_24y_/employment_rate_15_24y_annual_both_genders_in_%7Cchart/line$countries=usa&sorting=list//title
^ Jump up to: a b "Young Worker Safety and Health". www.cdc.gov. CDC NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-153. NIOSH. September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-152. NIOSH. September 2013.
Jump up ^ Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891
Jump up ^ Chosewood, L. Casey (May 3, 2011). "When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH.
Jump up ^ Baert, Stijn (February 20, 2016). "Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination". Journal of Economic Psychology. 57: 86–101. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Bruce E. (2004) Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship, Industrial Relations Research Association.
Jump up ^ Fox, Alan (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations, Farber and Farber.
Jump up ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations, Sage.
Jump up ^ Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus, Stanford University Press.
Jump up ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management, Sage.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4
Jump up ^ Blattman, Christopher; Annan, Jeannie (2016-02-01). "Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State". American Political Science Review. 110 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0003055415000520. ISSN 0003-0554.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Budd, John W. (2004) Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice, Cornell University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rayasam, Renuka (24 April 2008). "Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Wolff, Richard D. (2012). Democracy at Work: A Cure for Capitalism. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1608462476.
Bibliography[edit]
Acocella, Nicola (2007). Social pacts, employment and growth: a reappraisal of Ezio Tarantelli’s thought. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-790-81915-1.
Anderson, Elizabeth (2017). Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don't Talk about It). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691176512.
Dubin, Robert (1958). The World of Work: Industrial Society and Human Relations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall. p. 213. OCLC 964691.
Freeman, Richard B.; Goroff, Daniel L. (2009). Science and Engineering Careers in the United States: An Analysis of Markets and Employment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-26189-8.
Lee, Eddy (January 1996). "Globalization and Employment: Is Anxiety Justified?". International Labour Review. 135 (5): 485–98 – via Questia.
Markey, Raymond; Hodgkinson, Ann; Kowalczyk, Jo (2002). "Gender, part-time employment and employee participation in Australian workplaces". Employee Relations. 24 (2): 129–50. doi:10.1108/01425450210420884.
Stone, Raymond J. (2005). Human Resource Management (5th ed.). Milton, Qld: John Wiley. pp. 412–14. ISBN 978-0470804032.
Wood, Jack M. (2004). Organisational Behaviour: A Global Perspective (3rd ed.). Milton, Qld: Wiley. pp. 355–57. ISBN 978-0470802625.
External links[edit]
Look up employee or employment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Employment.
"Business Link". Businesslink.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 2012-09-29.
"Labor and Employment". Government Information Library. University of Colorado at Boulder.
"Overview and topics of labour statistics". Statistics and databases. International Labour Organization.
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Disclosure and Barring Service
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Coordinates: 53°24′28.1″N 2°59′21.3″W / 53.407806°N 2.989250°W / 53.407806; -2.989250
Disclosure and Barring Service
Agency overview
Formed
1 December 2012
Preceding agencies
Independent Safeguarding Authority
Criminal Records Bureau
Agency executive
Adele Downey, Chief Executive
Website
www.gov.uk/dbs
The Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) is a non-departmental public body of the Home Office of the United Kingdom. The DBS enables organisations in the public, private and voluntary sectors to make safer recruitment decisions by identifying candidates who may be unsuitable for certain work, especially that involving children or vulnerable adults, and provides wider access to criminal record information through its disclosure service for England and Wales.
The DBS was formed in 2012 by merging the functions of the Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) and the Independent Safeguarding Authority (ISA) under the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012. DBS started operating on 1 December 2012.[1] It operates from Liverpool[2] and Darlington. Its equivalent agencies are Disclosure Scotland in Scotland and Access Northern Ireland in Northern Ireland.
It is a legal requirement in the UK for regulated activity employers to refer safeguarding concerns to the DBS. It is an offence for any person who has been barred by the DBS to work or apply to work with the group (children or adults) from which they are barred.[3] It is also an offence for an employer to knowingly employ a barred person in regulated activity with the group from which they are barred.
On 17 June 2013, a DBS update service was launched, intended to improve the ease of applying for criminal record checks and create significant savings.
On 1st February 2018, the National Audit Office published an investigation report that was highly critical of the DBS.
In 2009, the Home Office launched a programme to increase the efficiency of safeguarding services. Key aims of the programme were to reduce the cost of running the disclosure service, through customers using a new and cheaper update service rather than continuing to use existing types of disclosure certificates. The Home Office expected 2.8 million paying users to be using the new update service by 2017–18, but it was not market tested and the actual number of users is around one million.
According to the National Audit Office investigation, the modernisation programme is now running three and a half years late and expected costs have increased by £229 million. DBS is currently negotiating with its contractor, Tata Consultancy Services, over the delays.
The modernisation programme and the update service were expected to increase the ease and frequency with which people were checked, thereby improving safeguarding. But the Home Office and DBS do not know how many people have been prevented from working with children or vulnerable adults through use of this information.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 DBS application process
2.1 Basic DBS check
2.2 Standard DBS check
2.3 Enhanced DBS check
2.4 Enhanced with Barred List checks
2.5 Filtering
2.6 Timeframe and accuracy
3 Reviews
4 References
5 External links
Overview[edit]
An organisation which is entitled to ask exempted questions (under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974) must register with the DBS, or a registered DBS Umbrella Body before they can request a DBS check on an applicant. The applicant applies to the DBS with their application countersigned by the DBS Registered Organisation or Umbrella Body. The applicant's criminal record is then accessed from the Police National Computer (PNC), as well as checked, if appropriate, against lists of people considered unsuitable to work with children and vulnerable people maintained by the DBS (formerly maintained by the Independent Safeguarding Authority. A Copy of the completed certificate is sent to the applicant's home address.[4]
If an individual or organisation has safeguarding concerns regarding a member of staff, they can make a safeguarding referral to the DBS who will work with multiple agencies to assess whether that individual should be Barred from working in regulated activity with children and/or vulnerable groups.[5]
Logo of the Criminal Records Bureau.
The Criminal Records Bureau was established under Part V of the Police Act 1997 and was launched in March 2002, following public concern about the safety of children, young people and vulnerable adults. It was found that the British police forces did not have adequate capability or resources to routinely process and fulfil the large number of criminal record checks requested in a timely fashion, so a dedicated agency was set up to administer this function.[6]
Employers and temporary staff agencies have bemoaned the time it takes for a worker to be cleared by the DBS and in an effort to cut waiting times the government allowed the establishment of "Adult First" .[citation needed]
In May 2002, the Department for Education began maintaining a list of individuals who are not suitable to work with children. This list was originally named List 99, later named the ISA Children's Barred List (maintained by the Independent Safeguarding Authority) and finally, the DBS Children's Barred List (maintained by the Disclosure and Barring Service.[7]
Under the Care Standards Act (2000), the Department for Health introduced an adult version of List 99 named 'POVA first' on 26 July 2004,[8] this was later renamed 'ISA Adult First' and finally; 'DBS Adult First'. The Adult first and List 99 services allow registered bodies (when eligible) to check whether an applicant appears on the DBS Adults' or Children's Barred List through the online checking system, this takes around two working days to turn around.[9] If the check is clean the organisation may provisionally employ the applicant, subject to an increased level in supervision, until the return by post of the full disclosure.[citation needed]
DBS application process[edit]
The process by which the DBS provides criminal record data is called DBS Certificate or a DBS check (previously CRB check). There are three levels of DBS checks, Standard, Enhanced and Enhanced with barred list checks (for Basic Disclosures, see Disclosure Scotland). DBS checks cannot be obtained by members of the public directly but are only available to organisations and only for those professions, offices, employments, work and occupations listed in the Exceptions Order (1975) to the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974[10] as amended by the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012.[11] On 17 June 2013, a DBS update service was launched, intended to improve the ease of applying for criminal record checks and create significant savings. At a fee of £13 a year, applicants may use a certificate more than once within a sector where the disclosure level, workforce details, barring list checks and volunteer status are the same; an employer with consent to run a DBS update check can check that the existing certificate is up to date, and should check the applicant's identity and the certificate's authenticity. In January 2018 "Basic" DBS checks were introduced which will disclose details of any cautions or convictions deemend to be unspent in the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974.[12]
Basic DBS check[edit]
The basic DBS check will disclose any cautions, reprimands, warnings and convictions deemed to be unspent according to the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974. This service is provided by DBS in England and Wales and Disclosure Scotland for applicants in Scotland. Applications can also be done online. An employer's reference to "a DBS check" could be taken as a requirement for a standard or enhanced check, which meant the disclosure of cautions and convictions, even once spent. However, with the introduction of the basic check, employers will now have to specify which check is required when advertising a job. The aim is that this service will reduce the need for unnecessary and ineligible Standard or Enhanced checks. You can apply for one through "Responsible Organisations" which is a list of organisations and websites who will apply for a check with you.[13]
Standard DBS check[edit]
The standard DBS check is primarily for positions of high responsibility (for example, accountancy and security).[14] Standard certificates reveal details of any convictions, cautions, reprimands and warnings the applicant has received, that do not qualify for filtering. A standard check may only be applied for if the applicant's job role is specified in the Police Act 1997, as amended by the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012.[15]
Enhanced DBS check[edit]
Enhanced DBS checks are for positions involving certain activities such as teaching children or treating adults and can also be obtained for certain other professions (for example, judicial appointments, RSPCA officers). An enhanced check may only be applied for if the applicant's job role is specified in both the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (Exception) order 1975 and the Police Act 1997.[14]
In addition to the information provided on a Standard certificate, the Enhanced certificate involves an additional check with the police,[15] who check if any other information is held on file that may be relevant (for instance, information that has not led to a criminal conviction but may indicate a danger to vulnerable groups). The police decide what (if any) additional information will be added to the certificate using the Quality Assurance Framework.[16]
The involvement of local police forces can mean an enhanced check may take significantly longer than a standard check to be completed.[original research?]
Enhanced with Barred List checks[edit]
This includes all that Enhanced certificate does, plus a check of the appropriate DBS Barred List. There are two DBS Barred Lists: one for adults, and one for children. The lists contain information on whether the applicant is barred from working with either of the two groups.[15] An individual may only be checked against one or both barred lists if their job role is classified as a "Regulated Activity" with children and/or adults under the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2006. Other roles from which they might be barred include work within people's homes, or areas such as postal work, in which they would have access to personal documents.
Filtering[edit]
As of 29 May 2013[update], the DBS began to "filter" certain criminal information from a DBS certificate if it met the guidelines laid out in The Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (Exceptions) Order 1975 (Amendment) (England and Wales) Order 2013[17]
Timeframe and accuracy[edit]
The DBS work to a number of standards for the criminal record checking service and barring case accuracy.
Performance service standards are also agreed between the DBS and Police disclosure units.
Reviews[edit]
The CRB had been due to partner with the ISA in administering the newly created Vetting and Barring Scheme from 2009. This was suspended in 2010 pending a review following the 2010 General Election.
This review was published in February 2011, making recommendations for the merger of the Criminal Records Bureau and Independent Safeguarding Authority into one new non-departmental public body, the Disclosure and Barring Service, responsible for barring individuals and completing criminal record checks. Under the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012, the DBS does not require registration, nor are any details retained on a database.
The procedures of the CRB were tightened following the Soham murders trial. Ian Huntley, a former caretaker, was found guilty of murdering two girls from a Cambridgeshire primary school in 2002. Huntley had been suspected of a string of offences including rape, indecent assault and burglary. His only conviction before the murders was for riding an uninsured and unlicensed motorcycle, but a burglary charge had remained on file. In January 2006, following controversies resulting from cases where staff had been hired by schools before a full CRB check had been carried out, the Department for Education and Skills stated: "Employers should obtain a CRB Enhanced Disclosure in respect of all teachers they recruit before the person is placed in a school." Huntley had been hired in November 2001, before the CRB came into force.[18][19][20]
Sociologist Frank Furedi has stated that CRB checks cannot provide a "cast-iron guarantee that children will be safe with a particular adult", and that their use has created an atmosphere of suspicion and is "poisoning" relationships between the generations, with many ordinary parents finding themselves regarded as "potential child abusers".[6] The restrictions imposed by the CRB check process have contributed to a shortage of adult volunteers in organizations such as Girlguiding UK.[6]
In February 2004, the National Audit Office criticised the CRB for "huge" delays.[21]
In May 2006, the Home Office revealed that about 2,700 people were mislabelled as criminals during checks.[22]
In 2009 the CRB's Enhanced Disclosure was criticised for including details of any minor contact an individual has had with the police, even where no formal action was taken against them.[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Disclosure and Barring Service". Home Office. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Criminal Records Bureau". direct.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/47/section/7
Jump up ^ "About Disclosures". www.ddc.uk.net. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Referral Guide for: Employers and Volunteer Managers" (PDF). Disclosure and Barring Service. Disclsoure and Barring System. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Christopher Hope: A quarter of adults to face 'anti-paedophile' tests. The Daily Telegraph, 26 June 2008
Jump up ^ "History of checks U-turns". BBC News. 4 September 2002. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "POVA referrals - the first 100". Department of Health. Kings College London, Social Care Workforce Research Unit. Archived from the original on 2008-08-14.
Jump up ^ "DBS Adult First". Home Office. Home Office (UK). Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (Exceptions) order 1975". Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Protection of Freedoms Act 2012". Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/basic-checks
Jump up ^ https://www.gov.uk/government/news/dbs-basic-checks-coming-soon
^ Jump up to: a b "Eligibility Guidance" (PDF). Disclosure and Barring Service. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Disclosure and Barring Service FAQ". Disclosure and Barring Service. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Quality Assurance Framework" (PDF). Standards and Compliance Unit.
Jump up ^ The Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (Exceptions) Order 1975 (Amendment) (England and Wales) Order 2013
Jump up ^ "The CRB explained - How the criminal records bureau operates". The Guardian. 17 December 2003. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Concerns about teachers' List 99". BBC News. 14 January 2006. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Morris, Steven (6 November 2003). "Ownership of red Fiesta is key issue in Soham trial". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ BBC News Online. "Criminal checks agency criticised". 12 February 2004.
Jump up ^ BBC News Online. "Criminal records mix-up uncovered". 21 May 2006.
Jump up ^ The Guardian, 15 July 2009, The Criminal Gossip Bureau can ruin your job prospects
External links[edit]
Official website
Disclosure and Barring Service - Update Service now available at www.gov.uk
Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) checks (Disclosure and Barring Service) guide at gov.uk
The CRB explained: How the criminal records bureau operates — Guardian Unlimited, 17 December 2003.
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Muscles of respiration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Muscles of respiration
Respiratory system
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The muscles of respiration are those muscles that contribute to inhalation and exhalation, by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm and, to a lesser extent, the intercostal muscles drive respiration during quiet breathing. Additional 'accessory muscles of respiration' are typically only used under conditions of high metabolic demand (e.g. exercise) or respiratory dysfunction (e.g. an asthma attack).
Contents
[hide]
1 Diaphragm
2 Intercostal muscles
3 Accessory muscles of respiration
4 Muscles of exhalation
5 References
6 Further reading
Diaphragm[edit]
Main article: Thoracic diaphragm
The diaphragm is the major muscle responsible for breathing. It is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, so that its center moves caudally (downward) and its edges move rostrally (upward). This compresses the abdominal cavity, raises the ribs upward and outward and thus expands the thoracic cavity. This expansion draws air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, elastic recoil of the thoracic wall causes the thoracic cavity to contract, forcing air out of the lungs.[1]
The diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions, helping to expel vomit, faeces, and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.
Intercostal muscles[edit]
Along with the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles are one of the most important groups of respiratory muscles. These muscles are attached between the ribs and are important in manipulating the width of the rib cage. There are three layers of intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles are most significant in respiration. These have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and forward from rib to rib.[2] The contraction of these fibres raises each rib toward the rib above, with the overall effect of raising the rib cage, assisting in inhalation.
Accessory muscles of respiration[edit]
"Accessory muscles" refers to muscles that assist, but do not play a primary role, in breathing. There is some controversy concerning which muscles may be considered accessory muscles of inhalation. However, the sternocleidomastoid and the scalene muscles (anterior, middle and posterior scalene) are typically considered accessory muscles of breathing. Both assist in elevating the rib cage.[3] The involvement of these muscles seems to depend on the degree of respiratory effort. During quiet breathing, the scalenes are consistently phasically active, while the sternocleidomastoids are quiet.[4] With an increase in the respiratory volume, sternocleidomastoids also become active.[5] Both muscles are simultaneously activated when one breathes in at the maximal flow rate.[4]
Apart from the above neck muscles, the following muscles have also been observed contributing to respiration: serratus anterior, pectoralis major and pectoralis minor, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, iliocostalis lumborum, quadratus lumborum, serratus posterior superior, serratus posterior inferior, levatores costarum, transversus thoracis, subclavius (Kendall et al., 2005).
Use of the accessory muscles while at rest is often interpreted as a sign of respiratory distress.[6]
Muscles of exhalation[edit]
During quiet breathing, there is little or no muscle contraction involved in exhalation; this process is simply driven by the elastic recoil of the thoracic wall. When forceful exhalation is required, or when the elasticity of the lungs is reduced (as in emphysema), active exhalation can be achieved by contraction of the abdominal wall muscles (rectus abdominis, transverse abdominis, external oblique muscle and internal oblique muscle). These press the abdominal organs cranially (upward) into the diaphragm, reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity.[1]
The internal intercostal muscles have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and backward from rib to rib.[2] These muscles can therefore assist in lowering the rib cage, adding force to exhalation.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Ratnovsky, Anat (2008). "Mechanics of respiratory muscles". Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology. 163: 82–89. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2008.04.019. PMID 18583200.
^ Jump up to: a b Kim E. Barrett; Susan M. Barman; Scott Boitano; Heddwen Brooks (24 July 2009). "35. Pulmonary Function". Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies,Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-07-160567-0.
Jump up ^ Netter FH. Atlas of Human Anatomy 3rd ed. Icon Learning Systems. Teterboro, New Jersey 2003 - plate 191
^ Jump up to: a b Raper, A. J., Thompson, W. T., Shapiro, W., & Patterson, J. L. (1966). Scalene and sternomastoid muscle function. Journal of Applied Physiology, 21, 497-502.
Jump up ^ Campbell, E. J. M. (1955). The role of the scalene and sternomastoid muscles in breathing in normal subjects. An electromyographic study. Journal of Anatomy, 89, 378.
Jump up ^ Bass, Pat. "Signs of Respiratory Distress in Children". University of Rochester Medical Center. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Kendall, F., McCreary, E., Provance, P., Rodgers, M., Romai, W. (2005). Muscles testing and function with posture and pain (5th ed.). PA, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
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Respiration
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This page was last edited on 11 February 2018, at 23:39.
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//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.resp.2008.04.019

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