text:
Establishment of Grand Teton National Park
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Grand Teton National Park Dedication in 1929
The establishment of Grand Teton National Park took place over a period spanning more than 50 years. Located in the northwestern region of the U.S. state of Wyoming, Grand Teton National Park is 10 miles (16 km) south of Yellowstone National Park which was established in 1872, when Wyoming, Idaho and Montana were still territories and the region was very sparsely settled.[1] By the late 19th century, conservationists were working to provide further protection to surrounding regions, leading President Grover Cleveland to create the Teton Forest Reserve, which included a portion of northern Jackson Hole.[2] By 1902, the reserve had been combined into the Yellowstone Forest Reserve, then was divided again in 1908 by President Theodore Roosevelt, establishing the Teton National Forest, which protected most of the Teton Range.[3] By 1907, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation had constructed a temporary dam at the Snake River outlet of Jackson Lake. This dam failed in 1910 and a new concrete Jackson Lake Dam replaced it by 1911. The dam was further enlarged in 1916, raising lake waters 39 ft (12 m) as part of the Minidoka Project, designed to provide irrigation for agriculture in the state of Idaho.[4][5] Though efforts to protect the Teton Range and Jackson Hole as part of an expanded Yellowstone National Park dated back to the late 19th century, proposals to construct more dams on some of the other lakes in Jackson Hole led Yellowstone National Park superintendent Horace Albright to block such efforts. Albright was originally an advocate of the expanded Yellowstone plan which was very unpopular with local residents. By the mid-1920s local sentiment had changed as a result of proposals for a new national park including only the Teton Range and six lakes at the base of the range.[6] With the general agreement of prominent Jackson Hole residents to this plan, President Calvin Coolidge signed the executive order establishing the 96,000-acre (39,000 ha) Grand Teton National Park on February 26, 1929.[7]
The valley of Jackson Hole remained primarily in private ownership when John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and his wife visited the region in the late 1920s.[2] Horace Albright had hoped to protect the valley of Jackson Hole north of the town of Jackson from commercial exploitation. Rockefeller agreed and through a private enterprise known as the Snake River Land Company by 1927 was buying land in Jackson Hole to be later turned over to the National Park Service. In 1930 this plan was revealed to the residents of the region and was met with strong disapproval.[2] By 1942 John D. Rockefeller, Jr. became increasingly impatient that his land holdings in Jackson Hole might never be part of Grand Teton National Park, so he wrote the Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes and informed him that he was considering selling the land to another party.[8] Secretary Ickes recommended to President Franklin Roosevelt that the Antiquities Act (which permitted Presidents to set aside land for protection without the approval of Congress) be used to establish a National Monument in Jackson Hole.
Ansel Adams photograph (1941)
From property belonging to the Snake River Land Company and adding additional land from Teton National Forest, Roosevelt created the 221,000-acre (89,000 ha) Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943.[9] The monument and park were adjacent to each other and both were administered by the National Park Service, but the monument designation ensured no funding allotment, nor provided a level of resource protection equal to the park. Members of Congress repeatedly attempted to have the new National Monument abolished.[10]
After the end of World War II public sentiment shifted in favor of adding the monument to the park, and though there was still much local disagreement, the monument and park were combined in 1950.[6] In recognition of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.'s efforts to establish and then expand Grand Teton National Park, a 24,000-acre (9,700 ha) parcel of land between Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks was added to the National Park Service in 1972. This land and the road from the southern boundary of Grand Teton National Park to West Thumb in Yellowstone National Park was named the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway.[11] In 2001, the Rockefeller family donated the remnants of its JY Ranch for the establishment of the Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve, dedicated on June 21, 2008.[12]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone Fact Sheet". Plan Your Visit. National Park Service. January 10, 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "Conservationists". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Jump up ^ "The National Forests of the United States" (PDF). Forest History Society. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Jump up ^ "Jackson Lake Dam". U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Jul 13, 2009. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Jump up ^ "The Minidoka Project" (PDF). U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1997. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2012-10-05. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Skaggs, Jackie. "Creation of Grand Teton National Park" (pdf). National Park Service. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Jump up ^ Besser, Brook (March 23, 2010). Wyoming Road Trip by the Mile Marker. NightBlaze Books. p. 35. ISBN 0-9844093-0-0.
Jump up ^ Righter, Robert (June 1982). Crucible for Conservation: The Struggle for Grand Teton National Park. Grand Teton Natural History Association. pp. 105–106. ISBN 0-931895-54-5.
Jump up ^ Congressional Record. 148, Pt. 13 (September 20, 2002 to October 1, 2002 ed.). U.S. Congress. August 16, 2006. p. 17710. ISBN 0-16-076774-1.
Jump up ^ Righter, Robert (June 1982). Crucible for Conservation: The Struggle for Grand Teton National Park. Grand Teton Natural History Association. pp. 114–115. ISBN 0-931895-54-5.
Jump up ^ "John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway". National Park Service. November 25, 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Jump up ^ Skaggs, Jackie (June 21, 2008). "Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve Center Opens to the Public". Grand Teton National Park News Releases. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Establishment_of_Grand_Teton_National_Park&oldid=802065195"
Categories:
Grand Teton National Park
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 23 September 2017, at 19:41.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

value: sup

values:
/wiki/Yellowstone_Forest_Reserve
mw-redirect
Yellowstone Forest Reserve

values:
/wiki/U.S._Bureau_of_Reclamation
mw-redirect
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

values:
/wiki/Horace_Albright
mw-redirect
Horace Albright

values:
/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller,_Jr.
mw-redirect
John D. Rockefeller, Jr.

values:
/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt
mw-redirect
Franklin Roosevelt

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nps.gov/grte/jodr.htm

values:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Establishment_of_Grand_Teton_National_Park rootpage-Establishment_of_Grand_Teton_National_Park skin-vector action-view


text:
Charon (mythology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the ancient Greek god. For other uses, see Charon.
Attic red-figure lekythos attributed to the Tymbos painter showing Charon welcoming a soul into his boat, c. 500-450 BC
In Greek mythology, Charon or Kharon (/ˈkɛərɒn/ or /ˈkɛərən/; Greek Χάρων) is the ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the rivers Styx and Acheron that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. A coin to pay Charon for passage, usually an obolus or danake, was sometimes placed in or on the mouth of a dead person.[1] Some authors say that those who could not pay the fee, or those whose bodies were left unburied, had to wander the shores for one hundred years. In the catabasis mytheme, heroes – such as Aeneas, Dionysus, Heracles, Hermes, Odysseus, Orpheus, Pirithous, Psyche, Theseus and Sisyphus – journey to the underworld and return, still alive, conveyed by the boat of Charon.
Contents
[hide]
1 Genealogy
2 Etymology of name
3 Appearance and demeanor
4 Underworld geography
5 In astronomy
6 "Haros" and modern usage
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Genealogy[edit]
Charon is the son of Erebus. He was also the brother of, among many others, Thanatos and Hypnos.
Etymology of name[edit]
The name Charon is most often explained as a proper noun from χάρων (charon), a poetic form of χαρωπός (charopós), "of keen gaze", referring either to fierce, flashing, or feverish eyes, or to eyes of a bluish-gray color. The word may be a euphemism for death.[2] Flashing eyes may indicate the anger or irascibility of Charon as he is often characterized in literature, but the etymology is not certain. The ancient historian Diodorus Siculus thought that the ferryman and his name had been imported from Egypt.[3]
Appearance and demeanor[edit]
Charon as depicted by Michelangelo in his fresco The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel
Charon is depicted frequently in the art of ancient Greece. Attic funerary vases of the 5th and 4th centuries BC are often decorated with scenes of the dead boarding Charon’s boat. On the earlier such vases, he looks like a rough, unkempt Athenian seaman dressed in reddish-brown, holding his ferryman's pole in his right hand and using his left hand to receive the deceased. Hermes sometimes stands by in his role as psychopomp. On later vases, Charon is given a more "kindly and refined" demeanor.[4]
In the 1st century BC, the Roman poet Virgil describes Charon, manning his rust-colored skiff, in the course of Aeneas's descent to the underworld (Aeneid, Book 6), after the Cumaean Sibyl has directed the hero to the golden bough that will allow him to return to the world of the living:
There Charon stands, who rules the dreary coast –
A sordid god: down from his hairy chin
A length of beard descends, uncombed, unclean;
His eyes, like hollow furnaces on fire;
A girdle, foul with grease, binds his obscene attire.[5]
Other Latin authors also describe Charon, among them Seneca in his tragedy Hercules Furens, where Charon is described in verses 762–777 as an old man clad in foul garb, with haggard cheeks and an unkempt beard, a fierce ferryman who guides his craft with a long pole. When the boatman tells Hercules to halt, the Greek hero uses his strength to gain passage, overpowering Charon with the boatman's own pole.[6]
In the second century, Lucian employed Charon as a figure in his Dialogues of the Dead, most notably in Parts 4 and 10 ("Hermes and Charon" and "Charon and Hermes").[7]
In the Divine Comedy, Charon forces reluctant sinners onto his boat by beating them with his oar. (Gustave Doré, 1857).
In the 14th century, Dante Alighieri described Charon in his Divine Comedy, drawing from Virgil's depiction in Aeneid 6. Charon is the first named mythological character Dante meets in the underworld, in Canto III of the Inferno. Dante depicts him as having eyes of fire. Elsewhere, Charon appears as a mean-spirited and gaunt old man or as a winged demon wielding a double hammer, although Michelangelo's interpretation, influenced by Dante's depiction in the Inferno, shows him with an oar over his shoulder, ready to beat those who delay (“batte col remo qualunque s'adagia”, Inferno 3, verse 111).[8] In modern times, he is commonly depicted as a living skeleton in a cowl, much like the Grim Reaper. The French artist, Gustave Dore, depicted Charon in two of his illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy. The Flemish painter, Joachim Patinir, depicted Charon in his Crossing the River Styx. And the Spanish painter, Jose Benlliure y Gil, portrayed Charon in his La Barca de Caronte.
Underworld geography[edit]
A 19th-century interpretation of Charon's crossing by Alexander Litovchenko
Greek underworld
Residents
Aeacus
Angelos
Arae
Ascalaphus
Cerberus
Ceuthonymus
Charon
Erinyes
Eurynomos
Hades/Pluto
Hecate
Hypnos
Macaria
Melinoe
Menoetius
Minos
Moirai
Mormolykeia
Persephone
Rhadamanthus
Thanatos
Geography
Acheron
Asphodel
Fields
Cocytus
Elysium
Erebus
Lethe
Phlegethon
Styx
Tartarus
Famous Tartarus inmates
The Danaides
Ixion
Salmoneus
Sisyphus
Tantalus
The Titans
Tityus
Visitors
Aeneas
Dionysus
Heracles
Hermes
Odysseus
Orpheus
Pirithous
Psyche
Theseus
v
t
e
Most accounts, including Pausanias (10.28) and later Dante's Inferno (3.78), associate Charon with the swamps of the river Acheron. Ancient Greek literary sources – such as Pindar, Aeschylus, Euripides, Plato, and Callimachus – also place Charon on the Acheron. Roman poets, including Propertius, Ovid, and Statius, name the river as the Styx, perhaps following the geography of Virgil’s underworld in the Aeneid, where Charon is associated with both rivers.[9]
In astronomy[edit]
Charon, the largest moon of the dwarf planet Pluto, is named after him.[10]
"Haros" and modern usage[edit]
"Haros" is the modern Greek equivalent of Charon, and usage includes the curse "you will be eaten (i.e., taken) by Haros", or "I was in the teeth of Haros" (i.e., "I was near death/very sick/badly injured"). During the Korean War, the Greek Expeditionary Force defended an outpost called Outpost Harry.[11] The Greek soldiers referred to it as "Outpost Haros".[12]
See also[edit]
Charon's obol - a coin placed in the mouth of the dead
Charun - an Etruscan counterpart to Charon
Isle of the Dead - a painting
Manannán mac Lir - Ferryman from Irish mythology
Manunggul Jar - Early depiction similar figure on burial jar from Tabon Caves on Palawan
Phlegyas - another god often associated with ferrying the dead
Psychopomp - the general word for a guide of the dead
Urshanabi - Ferryman from Mesopotamian mythology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Not on the eyes; all literary sources specify the mouth. Callimachus, Hecale fragment 278 in R. Pfeiffer's text Callimachus (Oxford UP, 1949), vol.2, p. 262; now ordered as fragment 99 by A.S.D. Hollis, in his edition, Callimachus: Hecale (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990), pp. 284f., from the Suidas, English translation online, specifying the mouth, also Etymologicum Graecum ("Danakes"). See also Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, entry on "Charon" online for placement in the mouth, though archaeology disproves Smith's statement that every corpse was given a coin; see article on Charon's obol.
Jump up ^ Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entries on χαροπός and χάρων, pp. 1980–1981; Brill’s New Pauly (Leiden and Boston 2003), vol. 3, entry on “Charon,” pp. 202–203.
Jump up ^ Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, "Reading" Greek Death (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 359 online and p. 390 online.
Jump up ^ Grinsell, L. V. (1957). "The Ferryman and His Fee: A Study in Ethnology, Archaeology, and Tradition". Folklore. 68 (1): 257–269 [p. 261]. JSTOR 1258157. doi:10.1080/0015587x.1957.9717576.
Jump up ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.298–301, as translated by John Dryden.
Jump up ^ See Ronnie H. Terpening, Charon and the Crossing: Ancient, Medieval, and Renaissance Transformations of a Myth (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1985 and London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1985), pp. 97–98.
Jump up ^ For an analysis of these dialogues, ss Terpening, pp. 107–116.)
Jump up ^ For an analysis of Dante's depiction of Charon and other appearances in literature from antiquity through the 17th century in Italy, see Terpening, Charon and the Crossing.
Jump up ^ See Kharon at theoi.com for collected source passages with work and line annotations, as well as images from vase paintings.
Jump up ^ Dennis, Overbye (2013-07-02). "Two of Pluto’s Moons Get Names From Greek Mythology’s Underworld". The New. The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
Jump up ^ War History Compilation Committee (1977), The History of the United Nations Forces in the Korean War, 6, Seoul: Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense, OCLC 769331231
Jump up ^ "The soldiers of the Greek Expeditionary Forces called it Outpost "Haros" the Greek name for Death. It was classic wartime humor, a dark pun borne of a hopeless mission". outpostharry.org.
Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Charon"
External links[edit]
Media related to Charon (mythology) at Wikimedia Commons
The Theoi Project, "KHARON"
Images of Charon in the Warburg Institute Iconographic Database
[hide]
v
t
e
Ancient Greek religion and mythology
Classical religious forms
Ancient Greek religion
Gnosticism
Paleo-Balkan mythology
Hellenistic religion
Magic
Alchemy
Orphism
Pythagoreanism
Mystery religions
and Sacred mysteries
Dionysian Mysteries
Eleusinian Mysteries
Imbrian Mysteries
Mithraism
Samotracian Mysteries
Main beliefs
Apotheosis
Euhemerism
Greek Heroic Age
Paganism
Paradoxography
Monism
Polytheism
Mythology
Theism
Mythical beings
Greek mythological creatures
Greek mythological figures
List of minor Greek mythological figures
Mythical tribes
Amazons
Anthropophage
Atlantians
Bebryces
Curetes
Dactyls
Gargareans
Halizones
Korybantes
Lapiths
Lotus-eaters
Myrmidons
Pygmies
Telchines
Primordial deities
Aether
Aion
Ananke
Chaos
Chronos
Erebus
Eros
Gaia
Hemera
Nyx
Phanes
Pontus
Thalassa
Tartarus
Uranus
Titans
First generation
Coeus
Crius
Cronus
Hyperion
Iapetus
Mnemosyne
Oceanus
Phoebe
Rhea
Tethys
Theia
Themis
Second generation
Asteria
Astraeus
Atlas
Eos
Epimetheus
Helios
Lelantos
Leto
Menoetius
Metis
Pallas
Perses
Prometheus
Selene
Third generation
Hecate
Hesperus
Phosphorus
Olympians
Zeus
Hera
Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Athena
Demeter
Dionysus
Hephaestus
Hermes
Hestia
Poseidon
Aquatic deities
Poseidon
Amphitrite
Alpheus
Ceto
Glaucus
Nereus
Phorcys
Potamoi
Potamides
Proteus
Scamander
Styx
Thaumas
Thetis
Triton
Oceanids
Love deities
Erotes
Anteros
Eros
Hedylogos
Hermaphroditus
Himeros
Hymen/Hymenaeus
Pothos
Aphrodite
Aphroditus
Philotes
Peitho
War deities
Adrestia
Alala
Alke
Amphillogiai
Androktasiai
Ares
Athena
Bia
Deimos
Enyalius
Enyo
Eris
Gynaecothoenas
Homados
Hysminai
Ioke
Keres
Kratos
Kydoimos
Makhai
Nike
Palioxis
Pallas
Perses
Phobos
Phonoi
Polemos
Proioxis
Other major deities
Asclepius
Circe
Eileithyia
Harmonia
Hebe
Iris
Momus
Morpheus
Nemesis
Paean
Pan
Zelus
Heroes/Heroines
Achilles
Actaeon
Argonauts
Ajax the Great
Ajax the Lesser
Atalanta
Autolycus
Bellerophon
Cadmus
Daedalus
Diomedes
Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux)
Echetlus
Heracles
Icarus
Iolaus
Jason
Meleager
Odysseus
Oedipus
Orpheus
Peleus
Perseus
Theseus
Triptolemus
Storage containers/ Cups
Amphora
Chalice
Ciborium
Cotyla
Hydria
Hydriske
Kalathos
Kalpis
Kylix
Kantharos
Lebes
Lekythos
Loutrophoros
Oenochoe
Pelike
Pithos
Skyphos
Stamnos
Musical Instruments
Aulos
Barbiton
Chelys
Cithara
Cochilia
Crotalum (Castanets)
Epigonion
Lyre
Pan flute
Pandura
Phorminx
Psaltery
Salpinx
Sistrum
Tambourine
Trigonon
Tympanum
Water organ
Rites and practices
Amphictyonic League
Amphidromia
Animal sacrifice
Apotheosis
Apotropaic magic
Baptes
Curse tablet
Daduchos
Delphinion
Funeral and burial practices
Hymns
Hero cult
Heroon
Hierophany
Hierophant
Hierophylakes
Hieros gamos
Iatromantis
Interpretatio graeca
Libations
Mystagogue
Nekyia
Necromancy
Necromanteion
Nymphaeum
Panegyris
Pharmakos
Prayers
Sacrifices
Temenos
Temples
Votive offerings
Games
Panhellenic Games
Olympic Games
Pythian Games
Nemean Games
Isthmian Games
Agon
Panathenaic Games
Rhieia
Festivals/Feasts
Actia
Adonia
Agrionia
Amphidromia
Anthesteria
Apellai
Apaturia
Aphrodisia
Arrhephoria
Ascolia
Bendidia
Boedromia
Brauronia
Buphonia
Chalceia
Diasia
Delphinia
Dionysia
Ecdysia
Elaphebolia
Gamelia
Haloa
Heracleia
Hermaea
Hieromenia
Iolaia
Kronia
Lenaia
Lykaia
Metageitnia
Munichia
Oschophoria
Pamboeotia
Pandia
Plynteria
Pyanopsia
Skira
Synoikia
Soteria
Tauropolia
Thargelia
Theseia
Thesmophoria
Sacred places
Athenian sacred ships
Cave of Zeus
Cretea
Delphi
Delos
Dodona
Eleusis
Hiera Orgas
Olympia
Olympus
Psychro Cave
Sacred Way
Texts/ Epic poems
Argonautica
Bibliotheca
Cyranides
Derveni papyrus
Ehoiai
Greek Magical Papyri
Homeric Hymns
Iliad
Odyssey
Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis
Telegony
Theogony
Works and Days
Epic Cycle
Theban Cycle
Oracles/Seers
Aesacus
Aleuas
Amphiaraus
Amphilochus
Ampyx
Anius
Asbolus
Bakis
Branchus
Calchas
Carnus
Carya
Cassandra
Elatus
Ennomus
Halitherses
Helenus
Iamus
Idmon
Manto
Melampus
Mopsus
Munichus
Phineus
Polyeidos
Polypheides
Pythia
Sibyl
Telemus
Theiodamas
Theoclymenus
Tiresias
Mythical realms
Atlantis
Hyperborea
Panchaea
Themiscyra
Underworld
Entrances to the underworld
Rivers
Acheron
Cocytus
Eridanos
Lethe
Phlegethon
Styx
Lakes/ Swamps
Acherusia
Avernus Lake
Lerna Lake
Caves
Cave at Cape Matapan
Cave Charonium
Cave at Lake Avernus
Cave at Heraclea Pontica
Ploutonion
Pluto's Gate
Places
Elysium
Erebus
Fields of Asphodel
Fields of Punishment
Isles of the Blessed
Tartarus
Judges of the underworld
Aeacus
Minos
Rhadamanthus
Guards
Cerberus
Ferryman
Charon
Charon's obol
Chthonic deities
Psychopomps
Hermes
Thanatos
Hades / Pluto
Persephone
Achlys
Angelos
Hecate
Hypnos
Keres
Lampad
Macaria
Melinoe
Symbols-Objects
Bident
Cap of invisibility
Animals-Daemons/Spirits
Ascalaphus
Ceuthonymus
Eurynomos
Hade's cattle
Mythological wars
Amazonomachy
Attic War
Centauromachy
Gigantomachy
Theomachy
Titanomachy
Trojan War
Mythological and
Religious objects
Adamant
Aegis
Ambrosia
Apple of Discord
Ara
Argo
Baetylus
Caduceus
Cornucopia
Dragon's teeth
Galatea
Golden apple
Golden Fleece
Gorgoneion
Greek terracotta figurines
Harpe
Ichor
Lotus tree
Minoan sealstone
Moly
Necklace of Harmonia
Omphalos
Orichalcum
Palladium
Panacea
Pandora's box
Petasos (Winged helmet)
Philosopher's stone
Ring of Gyges
Rod of Asclepius
Sacrificial tripod
Sceptre
Shield of Achilles
Shirt of Nessus
Sword of Damocles
Talaria
Thunderbolt
Thymiaterion
Thyrsus
Trident
Trojan Horse
Winnowing Oar
Wheel of Fortune
Xoanon
Symbols
Labrys
Ouroboros
Owl of Athena
Mythological powers
Anthropomorphism
Divination
Eternal youth
Evocation
Fortune-telling
Immortality
Language of the birds
Nympholepsy
Magic
Shamanism
Shapeshifting
Weather modification
Modern offshoot religions
Discordianism
Gaianism
Hellenismos
Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism
Modern popular culture
Greek mythology in popular culture
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 47562307
GND: 119009129
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charon_(mythology)&oldid=802302552"
Categories:
Greek death gods
Greek underworld
Hidden categories:
Use dmy dates from June 2013
Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Latina
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Magyar
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 25 September 2017, at 08:51.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Charon_(disambiguation)
mw-redirect mw-disambig
Charon (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: /wiki/Red-figure mw-redirect Red-figure

attrs: href title

value: b

value: span

values:
/wiki/Psyche_(mortal)
mw-redirect
Psyche (mortal)

values:
/wiki/Art_in_ancient_Greece
mw-redirect
Art in ancient Greece

values:
/wiki/Descent_to_the_underworld
mw-redirect
Descent to the underworld

values:
/wiki/Lucian_of_Samosata
mw-redirect
Lucian of Samosata

values:
/wiki/Grim_Reaper
mw-redirect
Grim Reaper

values:
/wiki/Gustave_Dore
mw-redirect
Gustave Dore

values:
/wiki/Jose_Benlliure_y_Gil
mw-redirect
Jose Benlliure y Gil

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:150px;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology
mw-redirect
Mesopotamian mythology

values:
/wiki/A_Greek-English_Lexicon
mw-redirect
A Greek-English Lexicon

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1258157

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/769331231

values:
/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world
mw-redirect
Magic in the Greco-Roman world

values: List of minor Greek mythological figures

values: Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices

values:
/wiki/Themiscyra_(mythology)
mw-redirect
Themiscyra (mythology)

values:
/wiki/Pluto%27s_Gate
mw-redirect
Pluto's Gate

values:
/wiki/Fields_of_Asphodel
mw-redirect
Fields of Asphodel

values:
/wiki/Fields_of_Punishment
mw-redirect
Fields of Punishment

values:
/wiki/Isles_of_the_Blessed
mw-redirect
Isles of the Blessed

values:
/wiki/Angelos_(Greek_mythology)
mw-redirect
Angelos (Greek mythology)

values:
/wiki/Sword_of_Damocles
mw-redirect
Sword of Damocles

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/47562307

values:
nofollow
external text
http://d-nb.info/gnd/119009129

values: Category:Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Charon_(mythology)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: خارون – Arabic

values: Харон (митология) – Bulgarian

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%27haron
C'haron – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caronti
Caronti – Corsican
co
co
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charon
Charon – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Χάρων (μυθολογία) – Greek

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karon
Karon – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Carón (Miotaseolaíocht na Gréige) – Irish

values: Քարոն (դիցաբանություն) – Armenian

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharon
Kharon – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: כארון – Hebrew

values: ქარონი (მითოლოგია) – Georgian

values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caronte
Caronte – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karon
Karon – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karon
Karon – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caronte
Caronte – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charon
Charon – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Харон (мифология) – Russian

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haron
Haron – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Харон (митологија) – Serbian

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charon
Charon – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: แครอน – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharoon
Kharoon – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Харон (міфологія) – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Charon_mythology rootpage-Charon_mythology skin-vector action-view


text:
Multicollinearity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In statistics, multicollinearity (also collinearity) is a phenomenon in which one predictor variable in a multiple regression model can be linearly predicted from the others with a substantial degree of accuracy. In this situation the coefficient estimates of the multiple regression may change erratically in response to small changes in the model or the data. Multicollinearity does not reduce the predictive power or reliability of the model as a whole, at least within the sample data set; it only affects calculations regarding individual predictors. That is, a multivariate regression model with collinear predictors can indicate how well the entire bundle of predictors predicts the outcome variable, but it may not give valid results about any individual predictor, or about which predictors are redundant with respect to others.
In the case of perfect multicollinearity (in which one independent variable is an exact linear combination of the others) the design matrix X {\displaystyle X} has less than full rank, and therefore the moment matrix X T X {\displaystyle X^{\mathsf {T}}X} cannot be inverted. Under these circumstances, for a general linear model y = X β + ϵ {\displaystyle y=X\beta +\epsilon } , the ordinary least-squares estimator β ^ O L S = ( X T X ) − 1 X T y {\displaystyle {\hat {\beta }}_{OLS}=(X^{\mathsf {T}}X)^{-1}X^{\mathsf {T}}y} does not exist.
Note that in statements of the assumptions underlying regression analyses such as ordinary least squares, the phrase "no multicollinearity" is sometimes used to mean the absence of perfect multicollinearity, which is an exact (non-stochastic) linear relation among the regressors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Detection of multicollinearity
3 Consequences of multicollinearity
4 Remedies for multicollinearity
5 Examples of contexts in which multicollinearity arises
5.1 Survival analysis
5.2 Interest rates for different terms to maturity
6 Extension
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Definition[edit]
Collinearity is a linear association between two explanatory variables. Two variables are perfectly collinear if there is an exact linear relationship between them. For example, X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} and X 2 {\displaystyle X_{2}} are perfectly collinear if there exist parameters λ 0 {\displaystyle \lambda _{0}} and λ 1 {\displaystyle \lambda _{1}} such that, for all observations i, we have
X 2 i = λ 0 + λ 1 X 1 i . {\displaystyle X_{2i}=\lambda _{0}+\lambda _{1}X_{1i}.}
Multicollinearity refers to a situation in which two or more explanatory variables in a multiple regression model are highly linearly related. We have perfect multicollinearity if, for example as in the equation above, the correlation between two independent variables is equal to 1 or −1. In practice, we rarely face perfect multicollinearity in a data set. More commonly, the issue of multicollinearity arises when there is an approximate linear relationship among two or more independent variables.
Mathematically, a set of variables is perfectly multicollinear if there exist one or more exact linear relationships among some of the variables. For example, we may have
λ 0 + λ 1 X 1 i + λ 2 X 2 i + ⋯ + λ k X k i = 0 {\displaystyle \lambda _{0}+\lambda _{1}X_{1i}+\lambda _{2}X_{2i}+\cdots +\lambda _{k}X_{ki}=0}
holding for all observations i, where λ k {\displaystyle \lambda _{k}} are constants and X k i {\displaystyle X_{ki}} is the ith observation on the kth explanatory variable. We can explore one issue caused by multicollinearity by examining the process of attempting to obtain estimates for the parameters of the multiple regression equation
Y i = β 0 + β 1 X 1 i + ⋯ + β k X k i + ε i . {\displaystyle Y_{i}=\beta _{0}+\beta _{1}X_{1i}+\cdots +\beta _{k}X_{ki}+\varepsilon _{i}.}
The ordinary least squares estimates involve inverting the matrix
X T X {\displaystyle X^{T}X}
where
X = [ 1 X 11 ⋯ X k 1 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 1 X 1 N ⋯ X k N ] {\displaystyle X={\begin{bmatrix}1&X_{11}&\cdots &X_{k1}\\\vdots &\vdots &&\vdots \\1&X_{1N}&\cdots &X_{kN}\end{bmatrix}}}
is an N × (k+1) matrix, where N is the number of observations and k is the number of explanatory variables (with N required to be greater than or equal to k+1). If there is an exact linear relationship (perfect multicollinearity) among the independent variables, at least one of the columns of X is a linear combination of the others, and so the rank of X (and therefore of XTX) is less than k+1, and the matrix XTX will not be invertible.
Perfect multicollinearity is fairly common when working with raw datasets, which frequently contain redundant information. Once redundancies are identified and removed, however, nearly multicollinear variables often remain due to correlations inherent in the system being studied. In such a case, instead of the above equation holding, we have that equation in modified form with an error term v i {\displaystyle v_{i}} :
λ 0 + λ 1 X 1 i + λ 2 X 2 i + ⋯ + λ k X k i + v i = 0. {\displaystyle \lambda _{0}+\lambda _{1}X_{1i}+\lambda _{2}X_{2i}+\cdots +\lambda _{k}X_{ki}+v_{i}=0.}
In this case, there is no exact linear relationship among the variables, but the X j {\displaystyle X_{j}} variables are nearly perfectly multicollinear if the variance of v i {\displaystyle v_{i}} is small for some set of values for the λ {\displaystyle \lambda } 's. In this case, the matrix XTX has an inverse, but is ill-conditioned so that a given computer algorithm may or may not be able to compute an approximate inverse, and if it does so the resulting computed inverse may be highly sensitive to slight variations in the data (due to magnified effects of either rounding error or slight variations in the sampled data points) and so may be very inaccurate or very sample-dependent.
Detection of multicollinearity[edit]
Indicators that multicollinearity may be present in a model include the following:
Large changes in the estimated regression coefficients when a predictor variable is added or deleted
Insignificant regression coefficients for the affected variables in the multiple regression, but a rejection of the joint hypothesis that those coefficients are all zero (using an F-test)
If a multivariable regression finds an insignificant coefficient of a particular explanator, yet a simple linear regression of the explained variable on this explanatory variable shows its coefficient to be significantly different from zero, this situation indicates multicollinearity in the multivariable regression.
Some authors have suggested a formal detection-tolerance or the variance inflation factor (VIF) for multicollinearity:
t o l e r a n c e = 1 − R j 2 , V I F = 1 t o l e r a n c e , {\displaystyle \mathrm {tolerance} =1-R_{j}^{2},\quad \mathrm {VIF} ={\frac {1}{\mathrm {tolerance} }},}
where R j 2 {\displaystyle R_{j}^{2}} is the coefficient of determination of a regression of explanator j on all the other explanators. A tolerance of less than 0.20 or 0.10 and/or a VIF of 5 or 10 and above indicates a multicollinearity problem.[1]
Condition number test: The standard measure of ill-conditioning in a matrix is the condition index. It will indicate that the inversion of the matrix is numerically unstable with finite-precision numbers (standard computer floats and doubles). This indicates the potential sensitivity of the computed inverse to small changes in the original matrix. The condition number is computed by finding the square root of the maximum eigenvalue divided by the minimum eigenvalue of the design matrix. If the condition number is above 30, the regression may have significant multicollinearity; multicollinearity exists if, in addition, two or more of the variables related to the high condition number have high proportions of variance explained. One advantage of this method is that it also shows which variables are causing the problem.[2]
Farrar–Glauber test:[3] If the variables are found to be orthogonal, there is no multicollinearity; if the variables are not orthogonal, then at least some degree of multicollinearity is present. C. Robert Wichers has argued that Farrar–Glauber partial correlation test is ineffective in that a given partial correlation may be compatible with different multicollinearity patterns.[4] The Farrar–Glauber test has also been criticized by other researchers.[5][6]
Perturbing the data.[7] Multicollinearity can be detected by adding random noise to the data and re-running the regression many times and seeing how much the coefficients change.
Construction of a correlation matrix among the explanatory variables will yield indications as to the likelihood that any given couplet of right-hand-side variables are creating multicollinearity problems. Correlation values (off-diagonal elements) of at least 0.4 are sometimes interpreted as indicating a multicollinearity problem. This procedure is, however, highly problematic and cannot be recommended. Intuitively, correlation describes a bivariate relationship, whereas collinearity is a multivariate phenomenon.
Consequences of multicollinearity[edit]
One consequence of a high degree of multicollinearity is that, even if the matrix X ⊤ X {\displaystyle X^{\top }X} is invertible, a computer algorithm may be unsuccessful in obtaining an approximate inverse, and if it does obtain one it may be numerically inaccurate. But even in the presence of an accurate X ⊤ X {\displaystyle X^{\top }X} matrix, the following consequences arise.
In the presence of multicollinearity, the estimate of one variable's impact on the dependent variable Y {\displaystyle Y} while controlling for the others tends to be less precise than if predictors were uncorrelated with one another. The usual interpretation of a regression coefficient is that it provides an estimate of the effect of a one unit change in an independent variable, X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} , holding the other variables constant. If X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} is highly correlated with another independent variable, X 2 {\displaystyle X_{2}} , in the given data set, then we have a set of observations for which X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} and X 2 {\displaystyle X_{2}} have a particular linear stochastic relationship. We don't have a set of observations for which all changes in X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} are independent of changes in X 2 {\displaystyle X_{2}} , so we have an imprecise estimate of the effect of independent changes in X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} .
In some sense, the collinear variables contain the same information about the dependent variable. If nominally "different" measures actually quantify the same phenomenon then they are redundant. Alternatively, if the variables are accorded different names and perhaps employ different numeric measurement scales but are highly correlated with each other, then they suffer from redundancy.
One of the features of multicollinearity is that the standard errors of the affected coefficients tend to be large. In that case, the test of the hypothesis that the coefficient is equal to zero may lead to a failure to reject a false null hypothesis of no effect of the explanator, a type II error.
Another issue with multicollinearity is that small changes to the input data can lead to large changes in the model, even resulting in changes of sign of parameter estimates.[2]
A principal danger of such data redundancy is that of overfitting in regression analysis models. The best regression models are those in which the predictor variables each correlate highly with the dependent (outcome) variable but correlate at most only minimally with each other. Such a model is often called "low noise" and will be statistically robust (that is, it will predict reliably across numerous samples of variable sets drawn from the same statistical population).
So long as the underlying specification is correct, multicollinearity does not actually bias results; it just produces large standard errors in the related independent variables. More importantly, the usual use of regression is to take coefficients from the model and then apply them to other data. Since multicollinearity causes imprecise estimates of coefficient values, the resulting out-of-sample predictions will also be imprecise. And if the pattern of multicollinearity in the new data differs from that in the data that was fitted, such extrapolation may introduce large errors in the predictions.[8]
Remedies for multicollinearity[edit]
Make sure you have not fallen into the dummy variable trap; including a dummy variable for every category (e.g., summer, autumn, winter, and spring) and including a constant term in the regression together guarantee perfect multicollinearity.
Try seeing what happens if you use independent subsets of your data for estimation and apply those estimates to the whole data set. Theoretically you should obtain somewhat higher variance from the smaller datasets used for estimation, but the expectation of the coefficient values should be the same. Naturally, the observed coefficient values will vary, but look at how much they vary.
Leave the model as is, despite multicollinearity. The presence of multicollinearity doesn't affect the efficiency of extrapolating the fitted model to new data provided that the predictor variables follow the same pattern of multicollinearity in the new data as in the data on which the regression model is based.[9]
Drop one of the variables. An explanatory variable may be dropped to produce a model with significant coefficients. However, you lose information (because you've dropped a variable). Omission of a relevant variable results in biased coefficient estimates for the remaining explanatory variables that are correlated with the dropped variable.
Obtain more data, if possible. This is the preferred solution. More data can produce more precise parameter estimates (with lower standard errors), as seen from the formula in variance inflation factor for the variance of the estimate of a regression coefficient in terms of the sample size and the degree of multicollinearity.
Mean-center the predictor variables. Generating polynomial terms (i.e., for x 1 {\displaystyle x_{1}} , x 1 2 {\displaystyle x_{1}^{2}} , x 1 3 {\displaystyle x_{1}^{3}} , etc.) or interaction terms (i.e., x 1 × x 2 {\displaystyle x_{1}\times x_{2}} , etc.) can cause some multicollinearity if the variable in question has a limited range (e.g., [2,4]). Mean-centering will eliminate this special kind of multicollinearity. However, in general, this has no effect. It can be useful in overcoming problems arising from rounding and other computational steps if a carefully designed computer program is not used.
Standardize your independent variables. This may help reduce a false flagging of a condition index above 30.
It has also been suggested that using the Shapley value, a game theory tool, the model could account for the effects of multicollinearity. The Shapley value assigns a value for each predictor and assesses all possible combinations of importance.[10]
Ridge regression or principal component regression or partial least squares regression can be used.
If the correlated explanators are different lagged values of the same underlying explanator, then a distributed lag technique can be used, imposing a general structure on the relative values of the coefficients to be estimated.
Note that one technique that does not work in offsetting the effects of multicollinearity is orthogonalizing the explanatory variables (linearly transforming them so that the transformed variables are uncorrelated with each other): By the Frisch–Waugh–Lovell theorem, using projection matrices to make the explanatory variables orthogonal to each other will lead to the same results as running the regression with all non-orthogonal explanators included.
Examples of contexts in which multicollinearity arises[edit]
Survival analysis[edit]
Multicollinearity may represent a serious issue in survival analysis. The problem is that time-varying covariates may change their value over the time line of the study. A special procedure is recommended to assess the impact of multicollinearity on the results.[11]
Interest rates for different terms to maturity[edit]
In various situations it might be hypothesized that multiple interest rates of various terms to maturity all influence some economic decision, such as the amount of money or some other financial asset to hold, or the amount of fixed investment spending to engage in. In this case, including these various interest rates will in general create a substantial multicollinearity problem because interest rates tend to move together. If in fact each of the interest rates has its own separate effect on the dependent variable, it can be extremely difficult to separate out their effects.
Extension[edit]
The concept of lateral collinearity expands on the traditional view of multicollinearity, comprising also collinearity between explanatory and criteria (i.e., explained) variables, in the sense that they may be measuring almost the same thing as each other.[12]
See also[edit]
Linear independence
Ill-conditioned matrix
References[edit]
Jump up ^ O’Brien, R. M. (2007). "A Caution Regarding Rules of Thumb for Variance Inflation Factors". Quality & Quantity. 41 (5): 673. doi:10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Belsley, David (1991). Conditioning Diagnostics: Collinearity and Weak Data in Regression. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-52889-7.
Jump up ^ Farrar, Donald E.; Glauber, Robert R. (1967). "Multicollinearity in Regression Analysis: The Problem Revisited". Review of Economics and Statistics. 49 (1): 92–107. JSTOR 1937887.
Jump up ^ Wichers, C. Robert (1975). "The Detection of Multicollinearity: A Comment". Review of Economics and Statistics. 57 (3): 366–368. JSTOR 1923926.
Jump up ^ Kumar, T. Krishna (1975). "Multicollinearity in Regression Analysis". Review of Economics and Statistics. 57 (3): 365–366. JSTOR 1923925.
Jump up ^ O'Hagan, John; McCabe, Brendan (1975). "Tests for the Severity of Multicolinearity in Regression Analysis: A Comment". Review of Economics and Statistics. 57 (3): 368–370. JSTOR 1923927.
Jump up ^ A package for R is available: "perturb: Tools for evaluating collinearity". R Project.
Jump up ^ Chatterjee, S.; Hadi, A. S.; Price, B. (2000). Regression Analysis by Example (Third ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-31946-5.
Jump up ^ Gujarati, Damodar. "Multicollinearity: what happens if the regressors are correlated?". Basic Econometrics (4th ed.). McGraw−Hill. pp. 363–363.
Jump up ^ Lipovestky; Conklin (2001). "Analysis of Regression in Game Theory Approach". Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis. 17 (4): 319–330. doi:10.1002/asmb.446.
Jump up ^ For a detailed discussion, see Van Den Poel, D.; Larivière, B. (2004). "Customer attrition analysis for financial services using proportional hazard models". European Journal of Operational Research. 157: 196. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00069-9.
Jump up ^ Kock, N.; Lynn, G. S. (2012). "Lateral collinearity and misleading results in variance-based SEM: An illustration and recommendations" (PDF). Journal of the Association for Information Systems. 13 (7): 546–580.
Further reading[edit]
Belsley, David A.; Kuh, Edwin; Welsch, Roy E. (1980). Regression Diagnostics: Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-05856-4.
Goldberger, Arthur S. (1991). "Multicollinearity". A Course in Econometrics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 245–53.
Hill, R. Carter; Adkins, Lee C. (2001). "Collinearity". In Baltagi, Badi H. A Companion to Theoretical Econometrics. Blackwell. pp. 256–278. doi:10.1002/9780470996249.ch13. ISBN 0-631-21254-X.
Johnston, John (1972). Econometric Methods (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 159–168.
Kmenta, Jan (1986). Elements of Econometrics (Second ed.). New York: Macmillan. pp. 430–442. ISBN 0-02-365070-2.
Maddala, G. S.; Lahiri, Kajal (2009). Introduction to Econometrics (Fourth ed.). Chichester: Wiley. pp. 279–312. ISBN 978-0-470-01512-4.
External links[edit]
Thoma, Mark (March 2, 2011). "Econometrics Lecture (topic: multicollinearity)". University of Oregon – via YouTube.
Earliest Uses: The entry on Multicollinearity has some historical information.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multicollinearity&oldid=829468067"
Categories:
Regression analysis
Design of experiments
Hidden categories:
Use dmy dates from November 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Latviešu
Nederlands
Norsk
Português
Русский
Svenska
中文
5 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 March 2018, at 20:42.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Multiple_regression
mw-redirect
Multiple regression

values:
/wiki/Regression_coefficient
mw-redirect
Regression coefficient

value: p

value: i

value: mi

value: mstyle

attrs: displaystyle scriptlevel

value: mrow

value: annotation

value: semantics

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.328ex; height:2.676ex;

values:
/wiki/Matrix_inversion
mw-redirect
Matrix inversion

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.35ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.19ex; height:3.343ex;

values:
/wiki/Explanatory_variable
mw-redirect
Explanatory variable

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.409ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:18.496ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:38.69ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.444ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.58ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:36.134ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.366ex; height:2.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -4.671ex; width:28.694ex; height:10.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.927ex; height:2.009ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:44.105ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.834ex; height:2.843ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;

values: Edit section: Detection of multicollinearity

values: vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:40.313ex; height:5.343ex;

values: {\mathrm  {tolerance}}=1-R_{{j}}^{2},\quad {\mathrm  {VIF}}={\frac  {1}{{\mathrm  {tolerance}}}},

values: vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:2.818ex; height:3.509ex;

values: Edit section: Consequences of multicollinearity

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.488ex; height:2.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;

values:
/wiki/Type_II_error
mw-redirect
Type II error

values:
/wiki/Standard_error_(statistics)
mw-redirect
Standard error (statistics)

values: Edit section: Remedies for multicollinearity

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.384ex; height:3.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.608ex; height:2.009ex;

values:
/wiki/Ridge_regression
mw-redirect
Ridge regression

values: Edit section: Examples of contexts in which multicollinearity arises

values: Edit section: Interest rates for different terms to maturity

values:
/wiki/Ill-conditioned_matrix
mw-redirect
Ill-conditioned matrix

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1937887

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1923926

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1923925

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1923927

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fasmb.446

values: Journal of the Association for Information Systems

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470996249.ch13

values:
nofollow
external text
http://jeff560.tripod.com/m.html

values: Category:Use dmy dates from November 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Multicollinearity
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: هم‌خطی چندگانه – Persian

values: 다중공선성 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Мультиколлинеарность – Russian

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Multicollinearity rootpage-Multicollinearity skin-vector action-view


text:
Race and ethnicity in Latin America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Three Races or Equality before the Law, ca. 1859, Francisco Laso
De español é india. produce mestizo "from a Spanish man and an Indian woman results a Mestizo." (Pintura de castas, ca. 1780), Unknown author
De negro é india sale lobo "from a black man and an Indian woman results a 'wolf' (Zambo)." (Pintura de castas, ca. 1780), Unknown author
De negro é española sale mulato "from a Black man and a Spanish woman results a Mulatto." (Pintura de castas, ca. 1780), Unknown author
There is no single system of races or ethnicities that covers all of Latin America, and usage of labels may vary substantially. In Mexico, for example, the category mestizo[1] is not defined or applied the same as the corresponding category of mestiço in Brazil. In spite of these differences, the construction of race in Latin America can be contrasted with concepts of race and ethnicity in the United States. The ethno-racial composition of modern-day Latin American nations combines diverse indigenous American populations, with influence from Iberian colonizers and equally diverse African groups brought to the Americas as slave labor, and also recent immigrant groups from all over the world.
Racial categories in Latin America are often linked to both continental ancestry or mixture as inferred from phenotypical traits, but also to socio-economic status. Ethnicity is often constructed either as an amalgam national identity or as something reserved for the indigenous groups so that ethnic identity is something that members of indigenous groups have in addition to their national identity. Racial and ethnic discrimination is common in Latin America where socio-economic status generally correlates with perceived whiteness, and indigenous status and perceived African ancestry is generally correlated with poverty and lack of opportunity and social status.
Contents
[hide]
1 Concepts of race and ethnicity
2 Blanqueamiento
3 Mestizaje
3.1 Casta
4 Mexico
4.1 Mestizos
4.2 Indigenous groups
4.3 Mestizaje
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
Concepts of race and ethnicity[edit]
Further information: La Raza and Limpieza de Sangre
In Latin American concepts of race, physiological traits is often combined with social traits such as socio-economic status, so that a person is categorized not only according to physical phenotype, but also according to social standing.[2][3] Ethnicity on the other hand is a system that classifies groups of people according to cultural, linguistic and historic criteria. An ethnic group is normally defined by having a degree of cultural and linguistic similarity and often an ideology of shared roots. Another difference between race and ethnicity is that race is usually conceptualized as a system of categorization where membership is limited to one category, and is externally ascribed by other who are not members of that category without regards to the individuals own feeling of membership. Whereas Ethnicity is often seen as a system of social organization where membership is established through mutual identification between a group and its members.
The construction of race in Latin America is different from, for example, the model found in the United States, possibly because race mixing has been a common practice since the early colonial period, whereas in the US it has generally been avoided.[4]
Blanqueamiento[edit]
Main article: Blanqueamiento
Blanqueamiento, or whitening, is a social, political, and economic practice used to "improve" the race (mejorar la raza) towards whiteness.[5] The term blanqueamiento is rooted in Latin America and is used more or less synonymous with racial whitening. However, blanqueamiento can be considered in both the symbolic and biological sense [6] Symbolically, blanqueamiento represents an ideology that emerged from legacies of European Colonialism, described by Anibal Quijano’s theory of Coloniality of power, which caters to white dominance in social hierarchies [7] Biologically, blanqueamiento is the process of whitening by marrying a lighter skinned individual in order to produce lighter-skinned offspring.[7]
Blanqueamiento was enacted in national policies of many Latin American countries, particularly Brazil, Venezuela and Cuba, at the turn of the 20th century.[8][9][10] In most cases, these policies promoted European immigration as a means to whiten the population.[11]
Mestizaje[edit]
Main article: Mestizaje
An important phenomenon described for some parts of Latin America such as Brazil and Mexico is "Whitening" or "Mestizaje" describing the policy of planned racial mixing with the purpose of minimizing the non-white part of the population.[12][13] This practice was possible as in these countries one is classified as white even with very few white phenotypical traits and it has meant that the percentages of people identifying as fully black or indigenous has increased over the course of the twentieth century as the mixed class expanded.[14][15] It has also meant that the racial categories have been fluid.[16][17][18][19] Unlike the U.S where ancestry is used to define race, Latin American scholars came to agree by the 1970s that race in Latin America could not be understood as the “genetic composition of individuals” but instead “based upon a combination of cultural, social, and somatic considerations. In Latin America, a person's ancestry is quite irrelevant to racial classification. For example, full-blooded siblings can often be classified by different races (Harris 1964).[20][21]
Casta[edit]
Main article: Casta
During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards developed a complex caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's rights in society.[22] There were four main categories of race: (1) Peninsular - a Spaniard born in Spain, (2) Criollo (fem. criolla) - a person of Spanish descent born in Mesoamerica, (3) Indio (fem. India) - a person who is a native of, or indigenous to, Mesoamerica, and (4) Negro (fem. Negra) - a person of African slave descent.[22] There were also other caste groups like the Mestizos/Mestizas that had one Spanish and one Indian parent. The Castizos which had one Mestizo parent and one Spanish parent, the children of a Castizo were generally accepted as a Criollo. Mulatto/Mulatta were usually the ones with one Spanish and one Black parent, if a mulatto was born in slavery they were considered slaves as well unless the mother was free then they would be free too.[23]
Mexico[edit]
Main article: Mexican people § Race and ethnicity
Very generally speaking ethno-racial relations can be arranged on an axis between the two extremes of European and Amerindian cultural and biological heritage, this is a remnant of the colonial Spanish caste system which categorized individuals according to their perceived level of biological mixture between the two groups. Additionally the presence of considerable portions of the population with partly African and Asian heritage further complicates the situation. Even though it still arranges persons along the line between indigenous and European, in practice the classificatory system is no longer biologically based, but rather mixes socio-cultural traits with phenotypical traits, and classification is largely fluid, allowing individuals to move between categories and define their ethnic and racial identities situationally.[24][25]
Generally, it can be said that in scholarship, as well as popular discourse, there has been a tendency of talking about indigenous peoples in terms of ethnicity, about afro-minorities and white socio-economic privilege in terms of race, and about mestizos in tems of national identity. It is now however becoming recognized that processes of identity formation and social stratification in regards to all population groups in Mexico can be analyzed both in terms of race and of ethnicity.
Mestizos[edit]
The large majority of Mexicans classify themselves as "Mestizos", meaning that they neither identify fully with any indigenous culture or with a particular non-Mexican heritage, but rather identify as having cultural traits and heritage that is mixed by elements from indigenous and European traditions. By the deliberate efforts of post-revolutionary governments the "Mestizo identity" was constructed as the base of the modern Mexican national identity, through a process of cultural synthesis referred to as mestizaje. Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of mestizaje (see the section below).[26][27]
The term "Mestizo" is not in wide use in Mexican society today and has been dropped as a category in population censuses, it is however still used in social and cultural studies when referring to the non-indigenous part of the Mexican population. The word has somewhat pejorative connotations and most of the Mexican citizens who would be defined as mestizos in the sociological literature would probably self-identify primarily as Mexicans. In the Yucatán peninsula, the word Mestizo is even used about Maya speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during the caste war of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as mestizos.[28] In Chiapas the word "Ladino" is used instead of mestizo.[29]
Sometimes, particularly outside of Mexico, the word "mestizo" is used with the meaning of a person with mixed Indigenous and European blood. This usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where, like in Brazil, a person of mostly indigenous genetic heritage would be considered Mestizo either by rejecting his indigenous culture or by not speaking an indigenous language,[28] and a person with a very low percentage of indigenous genetic heritage would be considered fully indigenous either by speaking an indigenous language or by identifying with a particular indigenous cultural heritage.[30] Additionally the categories carry additional meanings having to do with social class so that the term indigena or the more pejorative "indio" (Indian) is connected with ideas of low social class, poverty, rural background, superstition, being dominated by traditional values as opposed to reason. Commonly, instead of the term Mestizo, which also has a somewhat pejorative usage, the term "gente de razón" ("people of reason") is used and contrasted with "gente de costumbre" ("people of tradition"), cementing the status of indigeneity being connected to superstition and backwardness. For example, it has been observed that upwards social mobility is generally correlated with "whitening", if persons with indigenous biological and cultural roots rise to positions of power and prestige they tend to be viewed as more "white" than if they belonged to a lower social class.[30]
Indigenous groups[edit]
Prior to contact with Europeans the indigenous peoples of Mexico had not had any kind of shared identity.[31] Indigenous identity was constructed by the dominant Euro-Mestizo majority and imposed upon the indigenous people as a negatively defined identity, characterized by the lack of assimilation into modern Mexico. Indian identity therefore became socially stigmatizing.[32] Cultural policies in early post-revolutionary Mexico were paternalistic towards the indigenous people, with efforts designed to "help" indigenous peoples achieve the same level of progress as the rest of society, eventually assimilating indigenous peoples completely to Mestizo Mexican culture, working toward the goal of eventually solving the "indian problem" by transforming indigenous communities into mestizo communities .[33]
The category of "indigena" (indigenous) can be defined narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only persons that speak one of Mexico's 62 indigenous languages, this is the categorization used by the National Mexican Institute of Statistics. It can also be defined broadly to include all persons who self-identify as having an indigenous cultural background, whether or not they speak the language of the indigenous group they identify with. This means that the percentage of the Mexican population defined as "indigenous" varies according to the definition applied, cultural activists have referred to the usage of the narrow definition of the term for census purposes as "statistical genocide".[34][35]
Mestizaje[edit]
Main article: Mestizaje
In Mexico in the post-revolutionary period, Mestizaje was a racial ideology that combined elements of the Euro-American ideologies of the racial superiority of the "white race" with the social reality of a postcolonial, multiracial setting. It promoted the use of planned miscegenation as a eugenic strategy designed to improve the overall quality of the population by multiplying white genetic material to the entire population. This ideology was very different from the way the eugenics debate was carried out in Europe and North America, where racial "purity" and anti-miscegenation legislation was the eugenic strategy of choice. The ideology of Mestizaje came from the long tradition of tolerance of racial mixing that existed in the Spanish colonies.[12]
The ideology was also a part of the strategy of forging a national identity to serve as the basis of a modern nation state, and for this reason mestizaje also became a way of fusing disparate cultural identities into a single national ethnicity.[36][37]
The ideology was influently worded by José Vasconcelos who in his La Raza Cósmica formulated a vision of how a "race of the future" would be created by mixing the mongoloid, negroid, and caucasian races. As the place where this mixing was already well underway, Mexico, and Latin America in general, was the center of the creation of this new and improved species of human beings, the mestizo.
See also[edit]
Race and ethnicity in Colombia
Ethnic groups in Latin America
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. pp. 898–902. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. In sum, most people in Mexico consider themselves to be mestizos, or peoples of mixed cultural and biological descent. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. p. 1096. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. For example, in many parts of Latin America, racial groupings are based less on the biological physical features and more on an intersection between physical features and social features such as economic class, dress, education, and context. Thus, a more fluid treatment allows for the construction of race as an achieved status rather than an ascribed status as is the case in the United States. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Nutini, Hugo; Barry Isaac (2009). Social Stratification in central Mexico 1500–2000. University of Texas Press. p. 55. There are basically four operational categories that may be termed ethnic or even racial in Mexico today: (1) güero or blanco (white), denoting European and Near East extraction; (2) criollo (creole), meaning light mestizo in this context but actually of varying complexion; (3) mestizo, an imprecise category that includes many phenotypic variations; and (4) indio, also an imprecise category. These are nominal categories, and neither güero/blanco nor criollo is a widely used term (see Nutini 1997: 230). Nevertheless, there is a popular consensus in Mexico today that these four categories represent major sectors of the nation and that they can be arranged into a rough hierarchy: whites and creoles at the top, a vast population of mestizos in the middle, and Indians (perceived as both a racial and an ethnic component) at the bottom. This popular hierarchy does not constitute a stratificational system or even a set of social classes, however, because its categories are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. While very light skin is indeed characteristic of the country's elite, there is no "white" (güero) class. Rather, the superordinate stratum is divided into four real classes—aristocracy, plutocracy, political class, and the crème of the upper-middle class—or, for some purposes, into ruling, political, and prestige classes (see Chap. 4). Nor is there a mestizo class, as phenotypical mestizos are found in all classes, though only rarely among the aristocracy and very frequently in the middle and lower classes. Finally, the bottom rungs are not constituted mainly of Indians, except in some localized areas, such as the Sierra Norte de Puebla
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. p. 1096. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. The variation of racial groupings between nations is at least partially explained by an unstable coupling between historical patterns of colonization and miscegenation. First, divergent patterns of colonization may account for differences in the construction of racial groupings, as evidenced in Latin America, which was colonized primarily by the Spanish. The Spanish colonials had a longer history of tolerance of non-White racial groupings through their interactions with the Moors and North African social groups, as well as a different understanding of the rights of colonized subjects and a different pattern of economic development. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Rahier, J.M. “Body politics in black and white: Senoras, Mujeres, Blanqueamiento and Miss Esmeraldes 1997-1998, Ecuador.” Ecuador, Women & Performance: a journal of feminist theory 11.1 (1999): 103-120. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/07407709908571317
Jump up ^ Sawyer, M.Q., and T.S. Paschel. “‘We didn’t cross the color line, the color line crossed us’ Blackness and Immigration in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and the United States.” Du Bois Review 4.2 (2007): 303-315. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=1917568&jid=DBR&volumeId=4&issueId=02&aid=1917560&bodyId=&membershipNumber=&societyETOCSession=
^ Jump up to: a b Montalvo, F. F., and G. E. Codina. "Skin Color and Latinos in the United States." Ethnicities 1.3 (2001): 321-41. Print.http://www.cedla.uva.nl/50_publications/pdf/revista/80RevistaEuropea/80Chaves&Zambrano-ISSN-0924-0608.pdf
Jump up ^ Agier, M. “Racism, Culture, and Black Identity in Brazil.” Bulletin of Latin American Research 14.3 (1995): 245-264. Print.
Jump up ^ Telles, E.E. Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton, NJ/Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2006. 324 pp. ISBN 978-0-691-12792-7 (pbk)
Jump up ^ Cuba: The next revolution [Web series episode]. (2011). In Black in Latin America. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved from http://video.pbs.org/video/1898347038/.
Jump up ^ Andrews, G.R. Afro-Latin America 1800-2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Stern, Alexandra Minna (2003). "From Mestizophilia to Biotypology: Racialization and Science in Mexico, 1920–1960". In Nancy P. Appelbaum. Race and Nation in Modern Latin America. University of North Carolina Press.
Jump up ^ Wade, Peter (2003). "Race and Nation in Latin America: An Anthropological view". In Nancy P. Appelbaum. Race and Nation in Modern Latin American. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 263–283. Homogeneity and diversity exist in tension with each other in discourses and practices of mestizaje. I highlight this in an attempt to nuance the opposition between, on the one hand, the nationalist glorification of mestizaje as a democratic process leading to and symbolic of racial harmony and, on the other, mestizaje as a rhetorical flourish that hides racist and even ethnocidal practices of whitening.
Jump up ^ Skidmore, Thomas E. (1999). Brazil: Five centuries of Change. Oxford University Press. pp. 77–80, 102, 209.
Jump up ^ Skidmore, Thomas E.; Smith, Peter (2005). Modern Latin America (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 152.
Jump up ^ Skidmore, Thomas E.; Smith, Peter (2005). Modern Latin America (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 454.
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. p. 900. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. In New Spain, there was no strict idea of race (something that continued in Mexico). The Indians that had lost their connections with their communities and had adopted different cultural elements could "pass" and be considered mestizos. The same applied to Blacks and castas. Rather, the factor that distinguished the various social groups was their calidad; this concept of "quality" was related to an idea of blood as conferring status, but there were also other elements, such as occupation and marriage, that could have the effect of blanqueamiento (whitening) on people and influence their upward social mobility. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Chambers, Sarah C. (2003). "Little Middle Ground The Instability of a Mestizo Identity in the Andes, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries". In Nancy P. Appelbaum. Race and Nation in Modern Latin America. University of North Carolina Press. This blending of culture and genealogy is also reflected in the use of the terms Spanish and white. For most of the colonial period, Americans of European descent were simply referred to as Spaniards; beginning in the late eighteenth century, the term blanco (white) came into increasing but not exclusive use. Even those of presumably mixed ancestry may have felt justified in claiming to be Spanish (and later white) if they participated in the dominant culture by, for example, speaking Spanish and wearing European clothing.(p. 33)
Jump up ^ Nutini, Hugo; Barry Isaac (2009). Social Stratification in central Mexico 1500–2000. University of Texas Press. p. 10. Members of the upper-middle class consider themselves and are generallyregarded by others as "white," although the class includes some individuals of light mestizo appearance ("mixed," showing some Indian and/or African ancestry) and about 5 percent with dark mestizo features. The solid-middle class presents the obverse phenotypic profile: predominantly mestizo, usually light skinned but including many individuals with noticeable Indian/African or European phenotypes. The lower-middle class, like the adjacent working class in the lower stratum, is overwhelmingly mestizo, and many of its members have very prominent Indian and/ or African features. There are also a few criollos (very light-skinned mestizos) and a sprinkling of individuals with a fully European physical appearance in these two classes. Thus, while there is a very striking increase in the proportion of European features as one goes up the social class scale in Central Mexico, there is sufficient variation within each class to prevent "race" (phenotypic perceptions) from playing a determinant role in interclass relations.
Jump up ^ http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7846.html
Jump up ^ http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4222t703
^ Jump up to: a b Acuña, Rodolfo F. (2011), Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (7th ed.), Boston: Longman, pp. 23–24, ISBN 0-205-78618-9
Jump up ^ "The Spanish Colonial Casta System". www.bellavistaranch.net. Retrieved 2015-12-03.
Jump up ^ Bartolomé (1996:2)"En primer lugar cabe destacar que en México la pertenencia racial no es un indicador relevante ni suficiente para denotar una adscripción étnica específica. El proceso de mestizaje no ha sido sólo biológico sino básicamente social y cultural, por ello personas racialmente indígenas pueden asumirse y definirse culturalmente como mestizas. De esta manera ser o no ser indígena representa un acto de afirmación o de negación lingüística y cultural, que excluye la pertenencia a un fenotipo racial particular. Por lo tanto es relativamente factible realizar el llamado tránsito étnico, es decir que un indígena puede llegar a incorporarse al sector mestizo a través de la renuncia a su cultura tradicional y si sus condiciones materiales se lo permiten. Este acto supone tanto la aceptación de un estilo de vida alterno como la negación del propio, incluyendo la no enseñanza de la lengua a sus hijos. Pero muy difícilmente ocurre lo contrario; esto es que individuos fenotípicamente "blancos", pretendan reivindicar una adscripción indígena. Sin embargo, y con gran frecuencia, esas mismas personas considerarán a los indígenas como sus antepasados, fundadores de una "nación mexicana" que ahora les pertenece en calidad de herederos."
Jump up ^ Knight (1990:74)
Jump up ^ Wade (1981:32)
Jump up ^ Knight (1990:78-85)
^ Jump up to: a b Bartolomé (1996:2)
Jump up ^ Wade (1997:44-47)
^ Jump up to: a b Knight (1990:73)
Jump up ^ Knight (1990:75)
Jump up ^ Friedlander (1971)
Jump up ^ Bartolomé (1996:5)
Jump up ^ Knight (1990:73-74)
Jump up ^ Bartolomé (1996:3-4)
Jump up ^ Wimmer, Andreas (2002). Nationalist exclusion and ethnic conflict: shadows of modernity. Cambridge University Press. p. 115. This new politicisation of ethnicity finally led to the peculiar form of multi-ethnic nationalism that we find in present day Mexico.
Jump up ^ Poole, Deborah (ed.) (2008). Companion to Latin American Anthropology. Blackwell publishing. p. 3. Most notably, by the late 19th and early 20th century, some anthropologists and intellectuals in Latin America began to articulate theories concerning the "vigor" and resilience of their countries’ mixed or mestizo races as a productive counterpoint to the charges of racial inferiority leveled against them by those who believed in the natural superiority of the European or "Anglo-Saxon" races. Although these proponents of mestizaje subscribed to the same doctrines of racial determination that drove European racial theories, they did so in the interests of defending the "civilizational" achievements of their nations and region. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Sources[edit]
Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution and indigenismo: Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. 71–113.
Wade, Peter. 1997. Race and Ethnicity in Latin America. Pluto Press.
Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto. (1996) "Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México". in Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas, Oaxaca, IOC.[1]
Friedlander, Judith. 1975. Being Indian in Hueyapan: A Study of Forced Identity in Contemporary Mexico. New York: Saint Martin's Press.
von Vacano, Diego. 2011. The Color of Citizenship: Race, Modernity and Latin American/Hispanic Political Thought (Oxford University Press).
Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, “Reckoning with Mestizaje,” Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820 (2015). http://www.fordham.edu/vistas.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Race_and_ethnicity_in_Latin_America&oldid=809866227"
Categories:
Race in Latin America
Latin American caste system
Ethnic groups in Latin America
Latin America
Ethnicity
Multiracial affairs in the Americas
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 11 November 2017, at 23:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: /wiki/File:Mestizo.jpg internal Enlarge

values:
/wiki/Pintura_de_castas
mw-redirect
Pintura de castas

values:
/wiki/Native_American_peoples
mw-redirect
Native American peoples

values: Edit section: Concepts of race and ethnicity

values:
/wiki/Limpieza_de_Sangre
mw-redirect
Limpieza de Sangre

values:
/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)
mw-redirect
Race (classification of humans)

values:
/wiki/Anibal_Quijano
mw-redirect
Anibal Quijano

values:
/wiki/Colonial_spain
mw-redirect
Colonial spain

values:
/wiki/Caste_system
mw-redirect
Caste system

values:
/wiki/Mexican_people#Race_and_ethnicity
mw-redirect
Mexican people

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

values: International Standard Book Number (identifier)

values:
nofollow
http://video.pbs.org/video/1898347038/
external free

values:
/wiki/Rodolfo_F._Acu%C3%B1a
mw-redirect
Rodolfo F. Acuña

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Multiracial affairs in the Americas

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Race_and_ethnicity_in_Latin_America rootpage-Race_and_ethnicity_in_Latin_America skin-vector action-view