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Colonial shipbuilding
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Early American colonial shipbuilders constructing their own ship by the water.
Between America’s vast natural resources, excellent location in relation to the world market, capital flow and plentiful skilled labor; the American colonies had a comparative advantage in shipbuilding. The American colonies also had other incentives to improve their shipbuilding process and produce more ships than any other country. World trade was increasingly being conducted by way of the sea and British trade restrictions on other goods from the colonies decreased trade flows. This caused the colonies to turn to shipbuilding and many American colonists found they could make a viable living within the shipbuilding industry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Resources and Reasons for Colonial Shipbuilding Growth
1.1 Resources
1.2 Reasons
2 Trade With Other Countries
2.1 Transatlantic Triangular Trade
3 Shipbuilding Process
3.1 How the Process Formed the Colonies
4 Source Materials and Methods
4.1 Wood Process
4.2 Tools
4.3 Uses of Ships
5 Economic Impact
5.1 Impact of Wealthy Boston Merchants
5.2 Skilled Labor
5.3 Natural Resources
6 Demand
6.1 Key Drivers
7 References
Resources and Reasons for Colonial Shipbuilding Growth[edit]
Resources[edit]
Timber was critical for the development of the shipbuilding industry. It has been stated, “For every ton of shipping a vessel held, at least one and half loads of timber were required, with a load of timber being approximately equivalent to one tree’s worth of wood.”[1] More specifically, British war vessels required two thousand trees for construction.[2] The abundance of timber and lumber made shipbuilding highly economical in the colonies. Woods like Pine, oak, maple, beech, birch, hickory, ash and cypress trees were plentiful in Colonial America.[3]
Reasons[edit]
The rapid growth in commercial agriculture increased the demand for slaves. As a result of the demand, there was increased pressure for supply. The source of slave labor was the African continent. Trans-Atlantic trade became an important part of the American colonies because of the rise in demand for raw materials in industrialized Europe.[4] The Atlantic slave trade relied on slaves, raw materials and industrial goods from Europe.[5] As a result of increased demand for raw materials in Europe the American colonial shipbuilding industry boomed.[5] In 1710 there was a boom in the shipbuilding business. At first, it was out of necessity of fishing and traveling, but as more families became experts in shipbuilding craftsmanship, they began building new ships each winter. As the demand for fishing and traveling increased, so did the need of boats. By 1845, the Essex company was only building boats to supply to fishing companies. By the 1850s it was manufacturing up to 50 boats a year. Colonial ships began to play a large part in the Transatlantic trade, by the end of the century about a fifth of the plantation trade was carried in colonial ships. Because of the growth of manufacturing in America due to an abundance of materials and low labor costs, many British authorities supported the growth of the colonial shipbuilding industry. The Navigation Acts gave colonial built ships the same status and protection as those made in England. This allowed the shipbuilding industry to prosper even more.
Trade With Other Countries[edit]
In the colonial period European powers were the economic powerhouses of the world. They heavily influenced commerce and trade in both North and South America.[6] In particular, the British and the Spanish exerted their influence over the colonial economies. This influence helped determine the direction of economic advancement on the American continents. In Europe, there was an influx in the demand for products that required tropical climates. For example, tobacco and sugarcane were major items of trading.[7] The climate in the two American continents was conducive to the growth of these products, hence the increased European interest in that part of the world in the period. The increased demand resulted in increased efforts of production and consequently an influx in investment.[7]
A dock for small ships.
Some areas in the colonies were not conducive to the development of agriculture. This was the case in the New England colonies which consisted of the present day New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, Maine and Massachusetts. These areas have poorly developed soils and are susceptible to poor climatic conditions. Nevertheless, New England did have prime access to the Atlantic Ocean. New England was able to create a thriving fishing industry to increase their shipbuilding market. New England’s ideal placement and the demand that existed for water transport implied that they were involved in the shipping industry as a function of their agricultural impotence, their locations and the development of a fishing industry.[8]
Transatlantic Triangular Trade[edit]
The Transatlantic Triangular Trade involved three journeys each with the promise of a large profit and a full cargo. In reality, the journey was more complicated with ships traveling from all over Europe carrying manufactured goods to different ports along the African coast to trade for slaves. The ships from Africa then sailed across the Atlantic to the Caribbean and Americas to trade the slaves for raw materials. Finally the ships from America returned to Europe with raw materials such as sugar, tobacco, rice and cotton. The system of Triangular Trade allowed for goods to be traded for other goods, rather than being bought or sold.
Ships from England would go to Africa carrying iron products, cloth, trinkets and beads, guns and ammunition. The ships traded these goods for slaves, gold and spices (pepper). Ships from Africa would go to the American Colonies via the route known as the 'Middle Passage'. The slaves were exchanged for goods from the Americas, destined for the slave plantations. Ships from the Americas would then take raw materials back to England. The British would use the raw materials to make 'finished goods'.[9]
Shipbuilding Process[edit]
Boston, the hub of colonial shipbuilding.
While the demand for these ships was high, there were new ways needed to meet the demand with supply. There were many shipyards being built, and more and more materials were needed. In the beginning of the colonial period, people built their own boats for fishing and transportation.[10] By the end of the 18th century though, there were many shipyards, and many of these had been passed down in families. Many of the ships were used for fishing and transporting small goods, but they were eventually used for trading of more goods, and also for passengers and transport.[11]
One of the sources of labor to build these ships was slaves. A lot of the work was specialty work and required skilled labor. This was considered good work during this time. While shipbuilders did not become wealthy, they did earn good livings; in 1815 one New York shipbuilder earned $30,000. American shipbuilders earned a reputation for producing the world’s best ships in this period. Many different types of work and jobs related to the shipbuilding industry included carpenters, joiners, sail makers, barrel makers, painters, caulkers and blacksmiths.[12]
How the Process Formed the Colonies[edit]
Shipbuilding began as an industry because of fishing in the colonies which provided coastal commerce between the colonies themselves. With plenty of forests and skilled labor around the local towns the colonies thrived. The towns themselves were an important part of the shipbuilding process because they provided a local economy of skilled labor. Towns became formed by labor groups to build ships. These labor groups included carpenters, joiners, borers, coppers, caulkers, dubbers and an assortment of young boys charged with menial tasks. Shipbuilding knowledge was passed down between generations of the town and handing down knowledge continually made the shipbuilding process more efficient.
A town of workers made the process more efficient because a 150-ton ship required 200 workers, and the shipbuilding process could take 60–100 days. Local governments supported the shipbuilding industry because it provided wealth for the local economy. Relative to other laborers, shipwrights earned a higher standard of living with their acquired skills. During the colonial period shipbuilding became the major source of employment; even slaves helped to build ships.
Source Materials and Methods[edit]
The east coast of the United States provided a specifically dense area for raw materials especially around Massachusetts. There was an abundance of oak forests that provided wood for the ships.[13] In the late 1680s “there were more than 2 dozen sawmills around the Maine and Massachusetts areas[14] These sawmills, along with a dense supply of wood, helped to increase the business of colonial shipbuilding. The wood was usually white oak, but “cedars, chestnuts, and black oaks were perfect for the underwater portion of the ships.”[15] Demand was high for wood, colonial Americans needed faster ways of producing more wood. This led to inventions of different types of sawmills. One of the first types of sawmills was the water sawmill. This process allowed for faster, more efficient wood to be made for shipbuilding. “Early sawmills simply adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the process.”[16]
Wood Process[edit]
The shipbuilding process began with the frame and then heating the hull of the ship. This was done using steamers and wood as fuel. Planks were heated to be able to bend with the curve of the ship.[17] Once all the framing and planking was completed, caulking waterproofed the ship. Ships made of wood required a flexible material, insoluble in water, to seal the spaces between planks. Pine pitch was often mixed with fibers like hemp to caulk spaces which might otherwise leak. Crude gum or oleoresin could be collected from the wounds of living pine trees.[18]
Tools[edit]
Tools that are used in colonial ship building times.
Tools used included the mallets and irons. Mallets were usually 16 inches from end to end with the handle bar usually being about 16 inches. The material that was hammered in between each of the planks was typically oakum, a kind of hemp fiber. There were oftentimes 2-3 layers of this oakum fiber placed in between the planks. Putty would be put on afterwards to finish off the waterproofing. Tar, which also came from the thousands of trees available, was oftentimes spread over the top of these planks and they were covered with copper plating. Copper was used because without it the ship’s hull would often get infected with worms. The copper was fastened to the ship with bronze nails. The ships were oftentimes painted yellow, to help make the ship appear faster and newer.
Uses of Ships[edit]
The early wooden vessels worked for business angling and remote exchange likewise offered ascend to an assortment of subordinate exchanges and commercial enterprises in the zone, including sail making, chandleries, rope strolls and marine railroads. Shipyards in Essex and Suffolk regions are credited with the development of the conventional American dory and constructed those that included the prestigious Gloucester, Massachusetts angling armada, freed the settlements from British guideline, reinforced the vendor and maritime armadas that made the United States a force to be reckoned with and assumed essential parts in World War I and World War II. Numerous vessels incorporated into this schedule were either developed in Massachusetts or are illustrative of the sorts of vessels manufactured and repaired in Massachusetts shipyards.[19]
Economic Impact[edit]
The U.S.S. Constitution was built in 1794 and still sits in Boston Harbor today.
In the American colonies shipbuilding had an immense impact on the economy. The colonies had a comparative advantage in shipbuilding with their vast natural resources, skilled craftsmen and capital infused from the British empire. The colonies' ability to build ships with their large timber stock flooded the economy with capital from Britain it had not previously seen. Boston, Massachusetts became the central point for the boom of shipbuilding because it was the main distribution point for most of the shipping tonnage.[20] The shipbuilding industry needed plenty of skilled labor to support it and with America's large forest industry many craftsmen already had skills working with wood. These skills transitioned to the shipbuilding industry.
Impact of Wealthy Boston Merchants[edit]
The introduction of British credit and complicated account balancing during King William's War, in the 1690s, changed how Boston merchants financed the shipbuilding industry. As British credit flowed into the community, Boston merchants began creating long-term credit arrangements with waterfront tradesmen and other skilled laborers. Local labor and exchanges of goods could be sustained across scores of people linked with myriad small amounts of credit and debit without cash. But the shipbuilding industry generated the labor and capital necessary for merchants to create far larger and more intricate financial networks that solidified their position of power within both the local and the Atlantic economy. The extension of credit to a large portion of society helped spur the shipbuilding boom period from 1700-1717.
In 1717, Boston learned that disaster had struck in the West Indies. The Spanish attacked and destroyed the British settlement at Trist in the Bay of Campeche, where Boston merchants had long extracted log wood for sale in England and Europe. Boston's economy was sent into a tailspin. Ship orders decreased and confidence in long-term credit arrangements plummeted triggering an unprecedented amount of lawsuits. Boston's economic catastrophe in 1717 led to the creation of new currency and credit laws that directly affected how merchants and tradesmen in the shipbuilding industry conducted business.[21] This meant more stringent lending practices to trustworthy tradesmen and a stronger, more transparent industry that continued to dominate the Atlantic economy.
Skilled Labor[edit]
Much of the skills required of shipwrights or shipbuilders were obtained through on-the-job-training. Many of the earliest shipyards and boat shops operated as family businesses passed down from generation to generation.[13] The town of Essex, Massachusetts became the center for skilled craftsmen and produced the best boats. In 1794, Tenche Coxe described America's shipbuilding experiences as an art for which the United States is peculiarly qualified by their skill in construction and vast natural resources.[22] Skilled shipbuilding craftsmen were always in demand during the colonial period because shipbuilding pertained to many areas of the economy. The uses of ships in trade, fishing and travel meant there was a continual supply and demand for shipbuilding skills.
Natural Resources[edit]
Until the mid-nineteenth century, forests were the basis of sea power in all its military and commercial aspects, and each nation strove to maintain its independence by protecting timber supply routes that often extended over great distances. This drove the British to encourage shipbuilding in the American colonies. Over 1,000 vessels were launched out of the American colonies during the seventeenth century. Boston, Massachusetts was the distribution hub of natural resources that included cedar, maple, white pine, spruce and oak timber cut in New England. By the mid seventeenth century shipwrights were beginning to take advantage of oak, mulberry, cedar and laurel in Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. During the seventeenth century iron became increasingly used by shipwrights for bracing, bolts, anchors and ordinance. The American colonies were able to meet their demand for iron by utilizing their expansive charcoal reserves.[20] These vast natural resources made American colonial ships cost 25 Mexican dollars per ton versus English ships' 60 Mexican dollars per ton according to a 1794 account by Tenche Coxe.[22]
Demand[edit]
The shipbuilding industry was extremely important, especially to the New England Colonies in Colonial Times. The first ships were built for fishing, but trade was also conducted by water, which eventually led to the real demand in shipbuilding. Shipyards rose up all along the coast of New England. The abundance of timber and lumber made shipbuilding cheap in the colonies. Many different types of work were related to the shipbuilding industry including carpenters, joiners, sail makers, barrel makers, painters, caulkers and blacksmiths. There were 125 colonial shipyards by the year 1750.
Shipbuilding was a particularly successful and profitable industry in Massachusetts, with its miles of coastline featuring protected harbors and bays. Mass quantities of lumber and other raw materials were found in abundance. The early wooden vessels built for commercial fishing and foreign trade also gave rise to a variety of supporting industries in the area, including sail making, chancelleries, rope walks and marine railways.[23] Due to the booming shipbuilding industry some colonies such as Maryland experienced deforestation and in turn a depleted stock of available timber.
Beginning in roughly 1760, it became necessary for Maryland to import timber from other colonies. However, in New England the shipbuilding industry continued to boom. In fact, in New England the abundance of good timber enabled colonists to produce ships thirty percent cheaper than the English, making it the most profitable manufactured export during the colonial period.[24]
Even with the forests closest to New York and Boston depleted, the country still had vast timber reserves, making the cost of construction much lower.”[25] An American vessel made of more expensive live oak and cedar would cost thirty-six dollars to thirty-eight dollars per ton, while a similar vessel made of oak in England, France, or Holland would cost fifty-five dollars to sixty dollars per ton.[25]
Key Drivers[edit]
One of the main drivers of demand Naval architecture changed gradually in the eighteenth century. Of five classes of seventeenth-century vessels, only ship continued to be built after the early 1700s. The others were replaced by four new types: sloop, schooner, brigantine, and snow. Given the constant emigration of shipwrights from England and the limited advances in technology, it is not surprising that eighteenth-century Americans were usually familiar with trends abroad. Sloop and schooner were more manageable and could operate with fewer men. Smaller sails meant lighter masts and rigging, which in turn reduced expenses for the owners.[26]
In addition, availability alone fails to explain the general popularity of New England-built tonnage in other colonies. Cost may have been the decisive factor. After all, among the American colonies, New England shipyards produced the most tonnage and often had the lowest building rates. Convenience must have been an important attraction also. Surplus goods and ships could be exchange for mutual benefit[27]
The sale of colonial ships built on the British market enabled English merchants to secure cheap tonnage and gave American merchants an important source of income to pay for their imports. All the colonies exported shipping, but once again, New England was the chief contributor.
A foreign market during colonial times.
New England supplied about half of the tonnage in Great Britain at the end of the colonial period. Within New England, Massachusetts and New Hampshire were the leading producers; Pennsylvania; followed by Virginia and Maryland, launched most of the remaining tonnage. British demand for American natural resources provided a foreign market for colonial shipbuilding.[28]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ W. Abell, The shipwrights Trade (New York: Conway Maritime Press, 1981), 96.
Jump up ^ P.H. Spectre and D. Larkin, Wooden Shp (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 179
Jump up ^ http://www.landofthebrave.info/colonial-times.html
Jump up ^ "POLITICS OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT".
^ Jump up to: a b Inikori, J. (2009). The Atlantic slave trade: Effects on economies, societies, and peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Durham: Duke University Press.
Jump up ^ History of North America
^ Jump up to: a b Bruchey, S. (2013). Roots of American Economic Growth 1607-1861 an Essay on Social Causation. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
Jump up ^ Inikori, J. (2009). The Atlantic slave trade: Effects on economies, societies, and peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Durham: Duke University Press
Jump up ^ "Triangular Trade ***".
Jump up ^ "Ships & Shipbuilding, in Maritime History of Massachusetts--A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary".
Jump up ^ http://www.pocanticohills.org/tradesmen/shipbuilder.htm
Jump up ^ "Shipbuilding Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Shipbuilding". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2016-04-18.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/maritime/ships.html
Jump up ^ History of the lumber industry in the United States
Jump up ^ These saw mills, along with the dense supply of wood, helped to increase the business of colonial shipping. The wood was usually white oak, but “Cedars, chestnuts, and black oaks were perfect for the underwater portion of the ships.”
Jump up ^ Sawmill
Jump up ^ "Tea Party Ships Reconstruction - Boston Museum Videos".
Jump up ^ Naval stores
Jump up ^ https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/maritime/ships.htm. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Carroll, Charles (October 1981). "Wooden Ships and American Forests". Journal of Forest History. 25 (4): 213–215. JSTOR 4004612. doi:10.2307/4004612.
Jump up ^ "Building and Outfitting Ships in Colonial Boston". web.b.ebscohost.com. Retrieved April 17, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "American Eras: Shipbuilding". Encyclopedia.com. 1997. Retrieved April 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Continental Navy
Jump up ^ (1) Rutkow, E. (2012). American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation. New York: Scribner.
^ Jump up to: a b "Shipbuilding Facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Shipbuilding".
Jump up ^ Goldenberg, Joseph (1976). Shipbuilding in Colonial America. The United State of America: University Press of Virginia. pp. 77–78. ISBN 0-8139-0588-5.
Jump up ^ Goldenberg, Joseph (1976). Shipbuilding in Colonial America. United State of America: University Press of Virginia. p. 97. ISBN 0-8139-0588-5.
Jump up ^ Goldenberg, Joseph (1976). Shipbuilding in Colonial America. United States of America: University Press of Virginia. p. 99. ISBN 0-8139-0588-5.
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text:
Acre-foot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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An acre-foot volume (not drawn to scale)
The acre-foot is a unit of volume commonly used in the United States in reference to large-scale water resources, such as reservoirs, aqueducts, canals, sewer flow capacity, irrigation water,[1] and river flows.
Contents
1 Definitions
2 Application
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Definitions[edit]
As the name suggests, an acre-foot is defined as the volume of one acre of surface area to a depth of one foot.
Since an acre is defined as a chain by a furlong (i.e. 66 ft × 660 ft or 20.12 m × 201.17 m), an acre-foot is 43,560 cubic feet (1,233 m3).
There are two definitions of an acre-foot (differing by about 0.0006%), depending on whether the "foot" used is an "international foot" or a "U.S. survey foot".
1 acre-foot = 43,560 cubic feet = 75,271,680 cu in
1 international acre-foot = 43,560 international cubic feet
= 1,233.48183754752 m3
≈ 271,328.072596 imp gal
= 325,851 3⁄7 US gal
1 U.S. survey acre-foot = 43,560 U.S. survey cubic feet
≈ 1233.4892384681 m3
≈ 271,329.700571 imp gal
≈ 325,853.383688 U.S. gal[nb 1]
Application[edit]
As a rule of thumb in U.S. water management, one acre-foot is taken to be the planned water usage of a suburban family household, annually.[2] In some areas of the desert Southwest, where water conservation is followed and often enforced, a typical family uses only about 0.25 acre-foot of water per year.[3] One acre-foot/year is approximately 893 gallons (3.38 m3) per day.
The acre-foot (or more specifically the time rate unit of acre-foot per year) has been used historically in the U.S. in many water-management agreements, for example the Colorado River Compact, which divides 15 million acre-feet (MAF) per year (586 m3/s) among seven western U.S. states.
Water reservoir capacities in the U.S. are commonly given in thousands of acre-feet, abbreviated TAF.
Elsewhere in the world, where the metric system is in common use, water volumes can be expressed in either cubic metres (as in flow rates of cubic metres/second, or "cumecs") or, for water usage, storage or irrigation volumes, in kilolitres (kL = 1 cubic metre), megalitres (ML = 1,000 cubic metres), or gigalitres (GL = 1,000,000 cubic metres). One acre-foot is approximately equivalent to 1.233 megalitres and 1,233 kilolitres. Large bodies of water may be measured in cubic kilometres (1,000,000,000 m3, or 1000 GL), with 1000 TAF or 1 million acre-feet approximately equalling 1.233 km3.
See also[edit]
Science portal
Cubic metres per second
Cubic feet per second
List of unusual units of measurement
United States customary units
Units of measurement
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This conversion assumes the international foot is used to define the U.S. gallon and the U.S. survey foot to define the acre foot. If the same foot is used for both, the result is the 325,851 3⁄7 U.S. gal figure as obtained previously.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "NM OSE Glossary". Archived from the original on 14 November 2005. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
Jump up ^ The state of Montana assumes 1.0 acre-foot per year for a family of five. See Water Rights Bureau; state of Montana (April 13, 2004). "Form No. 627 R8/03 Notice of Water Right" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
Jump up ^ Santa Fe, New Mexico rate averages 0.25 acre-foot per year per household. See Planning Division, Planning & Land Use Department, City of Santa Fe, New Mexico (February 2001). "Water Use in Santa Fe: A survey of residential and commercial water use in the Santa Fe urban area" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-01-30.
This standards- or measurement-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Fetal circulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Fetal circulation
The fetal circulatory system includes three shunts to divert blood from undeveloped and partially functioning organs, as well as blood supply to and from the placenta.
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
In animals that give live birth, the fetal circulation is the circulatory system of a fetus. The term usually encompasses the entire fetoplacental circulation, which includes the umbilical cord and the blood vessels within the placenta that carry fetal blood.
The fetal (prenatal) circulation works differently from normal postnatal circulation, mainly because the lungs are not in use. Instead, the fetus obtains oxygen and nutrients from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.[1] The advent of breathing and the severance of the umbilical cord prompt various neuroendocrine changes that shortly transform fetal circulation into postnatal circulation.
The fetal circulation of humans has been extensively studied by the health sciences. Much is known also of fetal circulation in other animals, especially livestock and model organisms such as mice, through the health sciences, veterinary science, and life sciences generally.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Placenta
1.2 After birth
2 Physiology
2.1 Blood pressure
2.2 Flow
3 Prenatal heartbeat
3.1 Imaging
3.2 Heart rates
4 Additional images
5 References
Structure[edit]
Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the umbilical vein. In humans, less than a third of this enters the fetal ductus venosus and is carried to the inferior vena cava,[2] while the rest enters the liver proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the foramen ovale), and most of the blood flows through this hole directly into the left atrium from the right atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The continuation of this blood flow is into the left ventricle, and from there it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the maternal circulation.[1]
Some of the blood entering the right atrium does not pass directly to the left atrium through the foramen ovale, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the pulmonary artery. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ductus arteriosus, which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which are not being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in amniotic fluid).[1]
Placenta[edit]
The circulatory system of the mother is not directly connected to that of the fetus, so the placenta functions as the respiratory center for the fetus as well as a site of filtration for plasma nutrients and wastes. Water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and inorganic salts freely diffuse across the placenta along with oxygen. The uterine arteries carry blood to the placenta, and the blood permeates the sponge-like material there. Oxygen then diffuses from the placenta to the chorionic villus, an alveolus-like structure, where it is then carried to the umbilical vein.
After birth[edit]
Main article: Adaptation to extrauterine life
At birth, when the infant breathes for the first time, there is a decrease in the resistance in the pulmonary vasculature, which causes the pressure in the left atrium to increase relative to the pressure in the right atrium. This leads to the closure of the foramen ovale, which is then referred to as the fossa ovalis. Additionally, the increase in the concentration of oxygen in the blood leads to a decrease in prostaglandins, causing closure of the ductus arteriosus. These closures prevent blood from bypassing pulmonary circulation, and therefore allow the neonate's blood to become oxygenated in the newly operational lungs.[3]
Sometimes these postnatal closures are incomplete or absent. The vessels or cross-connections remain open (patent), leading to the following conditions:
Patent foramen ovale in the heart
Patent ductus arteriosus in the great vessels
Patent ductus venosus in the great vessels
Physiology[edit]
The core concept behind fetal circulation is that fetal hemoglobin (HbF)[4] has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin, which allows a diffusion of oxygen from the mother's circulatory system to the fetus.
Blood pressure[edit]
It is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal blood pressure to drive its blood through the fetal circulation.
Intracardiac pressure remains identical between the right and left ventricles of the human fetus.[5]
The blood pressure in the fetal aorta is approximately 30 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation, and increases to ca 45 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation.[6] The fetal pulse pressure is ca 20 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation, increasing to ca 30 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation.[6]
The blood pressure decreases when passing through the placenta. In the arteria umbilicalis, it is ca 50 mmHg. It falls to 30 mmHg in the capillaries in the villi. Subsequently, the pressure is 20 mm Hg in the umbilical vein, returning to the heart.[7]
Flow[edit]
The blood flow through the umbilical cord is approximately 35 mL/min at 20 weeks, and 240 mL/min at 40 weeks of gestation.[8] Adapted to the weight of the fetus, this corresponds to 115 mL/min/kg at 20 weeks and 64 mL/min/kg at 40 weeks.[8] It corresponds to 17% of the combined cardiac output of the fetus at 10 weeks, and 33% at 20 weeks of gestation.[8]
Endothelin and prostanoids cause vasoconstriction in placental arteries, while nitric oxide causes vasodilation.[8] On the other hand, there is no neural vascular regulation, and catecholamines have only little effect.[8]
Prenatal heartbeat[edit]
See also: Heart development and Persistent fetal circulation
Transvaginal ultrasonography of an embryo at 5 weeks and 5 days of gestational age with discernible cardiac activity
Fetal cardiac activity (also called fetal heartbeat and usually called embryonic cardiac activity before approximately 10 weeks of gestational age) is the rate of contractions during the cardiac cycles of an embryo or fetus. The heart is not fully developed when cardiac activity becomes visible.
In cases of early pregnancy bleeding, the detection of cardiac activity is the main finding that distinguishes a viable pregnancy from a silent miscarriage.
Imaging[edit]
Device for obstetric ultrasonography including usage in 1st trimester.
In the first trimester, heartbeat can be visualized and the heart rate quantified by obstetric ultrasonography. A study of 32 normal pregnancies came to the result a fetal heartbeat was visible at a mean human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) level of 10,000 UI/l (range 8650-12,200).[9] Obstetric ultrasonography can also use doppler technique on key vessels such as the umbilical artery can detect abnormal flow.
Doppler fetal monitor
In later stages of pregnancy, a simple Doppler fetal monitor can quantify the fetal heart rate.
During childbirth, the parameter is part of cardiotocography, which is where the fetal heartbeat and uterine contractions are continuously recorded.
Heart rates[edit]
Starting at week 5 the embryonic heart rate accelerates by 3.3 bpm per day for the next month. Before this, the embryo possesses a tubular heart.
The embryonic heart begins to beat at approximately the same rate as the mother's, which is typically 80 to 85 bpm. The approximate fetal heart rate for weeks 5 to 9 (assuming a starting rate of 80):
Week 5 starts at 80 and ends at 103 bpm
Week 6 starts at 103 and ends at 126 bpm
Week 7 starts at 126 and ends at 149 bpm
Week 8 starts at 149 and ends at 172 bpm
At week 9 the embryonic heart tends to beat within a range of 155 to 195 bpm.
By the end of week 9, the embryonic heart has developed septa and valves, and has all four chambers.
At this point, the fetal heart rate begins to decrease, and generally falls within the range of 120 to 160 bpm by week 12.[10]
Obstetric ultrasonography of an embryo of 8 weeks with visible heartbeat.
Additional images[edit]
Diagram of the human feto-placental circulatory system.
Transvaginal ultrasonography of an embryo at 5 weeks and 5 days of gestational age with discernible heartbeat
Neonatal heart circulation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Whitaker, Kent (2001). "Fetal Circulation". Comprehensive Perinatal and Pediatric Respiratory Care. Delmar Thomson Learning. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-7668-1373-1.
Jump up ^ Kiserud, T.; Rasmussen, S.; Skulstad, S. (2000). "Blood flow and the degree of shunting through the ductus venosus in the human fetus". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 182 (1 Pt 1): 147–153. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(00)70504-7. PMID 10649170.
Jump up ^ Le, Tao; Bhushan, Vikas; Vasan, Neil (2010). First Aid for the USMLE Step 1: 2010 20th Anniversary Edition. USA: McGraw-Hill. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-07-163340-6.
Jump up ^ Edoh D, Antwi-Bosaiko C, Amuzu D (March 2006). "Fetal hemoglobin during infancy and in sickle cell adults". African Health Sciences. 6 (1): 51–54. doi:10.5555/afhs.2006.6.1.51. PMC 1831961  . PMID 16615829.
Jump up ^ Johnson P, Maxwell DJ, Tynan MJ, Allan LD (2000). "Intracardiac pressures in the human fetus". Heart. 84 (1): 59–63. doi:10.1136/heart.84.1.59. ISSN 0007-0769.
^ Jump up to: a b Struijk, P. C.; Mathews, V. J.; Loupas, T.; Stewart, P. A.; Clark, E. B.; Steegers, E. A. P.; Wladimiroff, J. W. (2008). "Blood pressure estimation in the human fetal descending aorta". Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 32 (5): 673–81. doi:10.1002/uog.6137. PMID 18816497.
Jump up ^ "Fetal and maternal blood circulation systems". Swiss Virtual Campus. Retrieved June 29, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kiserud, Torvid; Acharya, Ganesh (2004). "The fetal circulation". Prenatal Diagnosis. 24 (13): 1049–59. doi:10.1002/pd.1062. PMID 15614842.
Jump up ^ Giacomello F, Magliocchetti P, Loyola G, Giovarruscio M (1993). "[Serum beta hCG levels and transvaginal echography in the early phases of pregnancy]". Minerva Ginecol (in Italian). 45 (7-8): 333–7. PMID 8414139.
Jump up ^ FetalSure. Fetal Heart and Heartbeat Facts. Available at http://www.fetalsure.com/fetal-heart.html. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
[hide]
v
t
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Development of the circulatory system
Heart
Tubular heart
Truncus arteriosus
Bulbus cordis
Primitive ventricle
Primitive atrium
Sinus venosus
Chamber formation
Atrioventricular
Primary interventricular foramen
Endocardial cushions
Septum intermedium
Atrioventricular canal
Atrial
Septum primum
Foramen secundum
Primary interatrial foramen
Septum secundum
Foramen ovale
Other
Aorticopulmonary septum
Protein signalling in heart development
Vessels
Arteries
Dorsal aorta
Aortic arches
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Veins
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Posterior cardinal vein
Common cardinal veins
Lymph vessels
Lymph sacs
Extraembryonic
hemangiogenesis
Blood islands
Chorion
Connecting stalk
Yolk sac
Placenta
Fetal circulation
umbilical cord: Umbilical vein → Ductus venosus → Inferior vena cava → Heart → Pulmonary artery → Ductus arteriosus → Aorta → Umbilical artery
yolk sac: Vitelline veins
Vitelline arteries
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Elliott Randall
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Elliott Randall
Elliott Randall in 1970
Background information
Born
1947 (age 70–71)
Origin
United States
Occupation(s)
Guitarist, session musician
Elliott Randall (born 1947) is an American guitarist, best known for being a session musician with popular artists. Randall played the well-known guitar solos from Steely Dan's song "Reelin' in the Years" and Irene Cara's song "Fame". It was reported that Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page said Randall's solo on "Reelin' in the Years" is his favorite guitar solo of all-time.[1] The solo was ranked as the 40th best guitar solo of all-time by the readers of Guitar World magazine[2] and the eighth best guitar solo by Q4 Music.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Career
2 Gear
3 Discography
3.1 CD
3.2 Soundtracks
3.3 Also appears on (partial list)
3.4 Video
3.5 Books
4 References
5 External links
Career[edit]
Randall began taking piano lessons at age five. At nine, in 1956, he switched to guitar. He attended New York City's High School of Music & Art, where he was classmates with Laura Nyro and Michael Kamen.[4] In 1963, at sixteen, Randall met Richie Havens in Greenwich Village and began gigging. Randall did some early work behind The Capris and The Ronnettes, and by 1964 was recording "small-time" demos.
Between 1966 and 1967, he taught music in Ohio. Returning to New York, he began working as a staff musician for the Musicor record company. During 1968, he recorded with the Druids of Stonehenge with a brief cameo appearance on the Joe Franklin show. He began recording with friends around 1968, including Tim Rose, and made demo recordings with Donald Fagen and Walter Becker—who at the time were with Jay and the Americans. In 1969 he recorded on the album Electric Black Man, featuring Eric Mercury, and toured with the ensemble, which included Bill Lordan on drums, later to perform in the Robin Trower Band and with Sly Stone. In 1969, he joined the band Seatrain, opting for that band rather than joining Wilson Pickett in Muscle Shoals. In 1970, Randall signed with the Robert Stigwood Organization, which managed Cream, The Bee Gees, John Mayall, and The Staple Singers. He formed a band called Randall's Island, which recorded a few albums on Polydor.
In 1972, The Stigwood Organization bought the rights to Jesus Christ Superstar and produced the show on Broadway. They hired Randall's band to perform the music. There, Randall met guitarist Vinnie Bell, who was experimenting with various electronic effects. Randall began to dabble in electronics as well, and whenever Bell couldn't make a gig, he recommended Randall.
In 1972, Randall left New York for California. He reunited with Becker, Fagen, and childhood friend Jeff 'Skunk' Baxter, and recorded the first Steely Dan album, Can't Buy a Thrill. Randall's guitar work on "Reelin' in the Years" became popular as the song became a chart success, and soon, as the solo gained fame and respect, Randall began getting calls from other artists.
Randall has had a history of turning down permanent gigs, instead favoring session work. He did become a touring member of Sha Na Na in 1974, exiting amicably in 1975. Becker and Fagen asked Randall to become a permanent member of Steely Dan, but Randall politely declined, as he felt that the band's dynamics would make the band dissolve after the third album—which happened. Later, Randall played with Steely Dan on their fourth and fifth albums, Katy Lied (1975) and The Royal Scam (1976). In 1980, John Belushi asked Randall to be musical director for The Blues Brothers, a position he also turned down. Jeff Porcaro and David Paich offered Randall the chance to be a founding member of Toto, and he rejected that too.
As a session player, Randall played with artists such as The Doobie Brothers, Tom Rush, Elkie Brooks, Carly Simon, Carl Wilson, Peter Wolf, Peter Frampton, James Galway, Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra, and The American Symphony Orchestra, among many others. He was also a music consultant for the American late-night live television sketch comedy and variety show Saturday Night Live and for American film director, screenwriter, and producer Oliver Stone and did projects with music producers Gary Katz, David Kershenbaum, The Tokens, Steve Lillywhite, Eddie Kramer and Jerry Wexler. A full list of artists and producers with whom Randall has recorded can be found at elliott-randall.com.[5]
In addition to artistic projects, Elliott has also played, produced, and composed myriad advertisements (jingles) for television, radio and cinema, for clients including Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Miller Beer, Budweiser, Cadillac, Ford, McDonald's, Burger King, Wendy's, CitiBank, General Mills, Nabisco, Procter & Gamble, MTV, ESPN, CBS, ABC, BBC-TV and countless others. Since the advent of MIDI in the early 1980s, Randall has worked as independent consultant for a wide range of companies—including Akai, Roland, Korg, and Yamaha—in musical instrument and amplifier development, recording and sampling technology, software design, and education.
Randall's recent projects include recording, production, and consulting on streaming Internet content. He is currently recording a new CD in London, New York, and Ireland that blends Celtic, Afro-Cuban, and other global musical influences. He recorded and plays with his London-based band Posse and NYC-based Randall's Rangers.
Randall appeared as a guest at London's Hammersmith Apollo on July 1, 2009 with Steely Dan to play lead guitar on "Reelin' in the Years".
Gear[edit]
Randall plays a 1963 Fender Stratocaster. The neck pickup is a 1969 Gibson Humbucker. He often plays through a Fender Super Reverb. He was listed as an endorser for Dimarzio pickups in the company's product brochure circa 1981.
In an article in Guitar Player magazine (July 2007) Randall was asked what rig he used to record the solo on "Reelin' in the Years". He states, "That was my '63 Fender Stratocaster with a PAF humbucker in the neck position, straight into an Ampeg SVT bass amp. The SVT wouldn't have been my first choice for an amp--or even my fifth choice--but it worked a storm on that recording!"
Discography[edit]
CD[edit]
Druids of Stonehenge (1968)"Creation"
Eric Mercury "Electric Black Man" 1969 Avco
Randall's Island (1970) Polydor, catalogue number 2489 004
Rock 'n' Roll City (1973) Polydor
Randall's New York (1977) Kirshner
Still Reelin' (2007) Private Collection Records
HeartStrings (2011) Private Collection Records
Virtual Memory (2012) Private Collection Records
Soundtracks[edit]
The Warriors (1979)
The Blues Brothers: Music from the Soundtrack (1980)
Fame (1980)
Heart of Dixie (1989)
Looking for an Echo (2000)
Also appears on (partial list)[edit]
Can't Buy a Thrill (1972) – Steely Dan
Satan – Sonny Stitt (Cadet, 1974)
Katy Lied (1975) – Steely Dan
Royal Scam (1976) – Steely Dan
Gene Simmons (1978) – Gene Simmons
Peter Criss (1978) – Peter Criss
Live and Sleazy (1979) – Village People
Connections (1980) – Richie Havens
It's Alright (I See Rainbows) (1982) – Yoko Ono
Hello Big Man (1983) – Carly Simon
Milk and Honey (1984) – John Lennon
The Animals' Christmas (1986) – Art Garfunkel & Amy Grant
Electric Landlady (1991) – Kirsty MacColl
Walking on Thin Ice (1992) – Yoko Ono
Walk the Dog and Light the Light (1993) – Laura Nyro
Arena (1996) – Asia
Spirit of Christmas (2009) – Northern Light Orchestra
Left, (2016) - Monkey House
Video[edit]
On Guitar, Pt. 1 (1992)
Books[edit]
Foreword of The Artist's Guide to Success in the Music Business, 2nd Edition Loren Weisman (2013) [6][7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ "The 100 Best Guitar Solos of All Time". Guitar.about.com. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Q Magazine | Music news & reviews, music videos, band pictures & interviewsQ Magazine". News.q4music.com. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ "[NO TITLE FOUND] | Berklee College of Music". Berklee.edu. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived May 10, 2004, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-05-25. Retrieved 2006-07-07.
Jump up ^ http://californianewswire.com/2014/01/29/CNW18819_225920.php/the-artists-guide-to-success-in-the-music-business-by-loren-weisman-is-now-available-in-26-different-countries-as-well-as-an-ebook-edition/
External links[edit]
Elliott Randall website
Official MySpace page
Elliott Randall discography
The Berklee Today Interview (May 2010)
Elliott Randall interview with Access Rock
[hide]
v
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Asia
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VIAF: 79644628
LCCN: n92037952
ISNI: 0000 0000 7149 3341
GND: 134491793
MusicBrainz: 1bca0b10-157d-4d42-86c2-d5b42344668c
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elliott_Randall&oldid=824234639"
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