text:
Epic of Gilgamesh
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Epic of Gilgamesh
The Deluge tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian
Written
c. 2100 BC
Country
Mesopotamia
Language
Sumerian
Media type
clay tablet
Part of a series on
Ancient
Mesopotamian religion
Primordial beings[show]
Abzu and Tiamat
Lahmu and Lahamu
Anshar and Kishar
Mummu
Seven gods who decree[show]
Four primary
Anu
Enlil
Enki
Ninhursag
Three sky gods
Inanna/Ishtar
Nanna/Sin
Utu/Shamash
Other major deities[show]
Adad
Dumuzid/Tammuz
Enkimdu
Ereshkigal
Kingu
Geshtinanna
Lahar
Marduk
Nergal
Ninurta
Minor deities[show]
Agasaya
Anunnaki
Asaruludu
Ashnan
Bel
Enbilulu
Isimud
Lahar
Mami/Nintu
Mamitu
Nabu
Namtar
Nanshe
Nidaba
Ningal
Ninkasi
Ninlil
Ninshubur
Ninsun
Nusku
Sarpanit
Uttu
Demigods and heroes[hide]
Adapa
Enkidu
Enmerkar
Gilgamesh
Lugalbanda
Shamhat
Siduri
Atra-Hasis
Apkallu (seven sages)
Spirits and monsters[show]
Utukku
Lamassu/Shedu
Asakku
Edimmu
Siris
Anzû
Humbaba
Asag
Hanbi
Kur
Lamashtu
Pazuzu
Rabisu
Tales[show]
Atra-Hasis
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
Enûma Eliš
Epic of Gilgamesh
Related topics
Ancient Near Eastern religions
Sumerian religion
Babylonian religion
v
t
e
For other uses, see Epic of Gilgamesh (disambiguation).
Royal Epics of Uruk
a series in Sumerian Literature
Enmerkar of Uruk[show]
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana
Lugalbanda of Uruk[show]
Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave
Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird
Dumuzid and Gilgamesh of Uruk[show]
Dumuzid of Uruk tablets
Epic of Gilgamesh tablets
v
t
e
The Epic of Gilgamesh (/ˈɡɪlɡəˌmɛʃ/)[1] is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for "Gilgamesh"), king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC). These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the "Old Babylonian" version, dates to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit, Shūtur eli sharrī ("Surpassing All Other Kings"). Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later "standard" version dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru ("He who Saw the Deep", in modern terms: "He who Sees the Unknown"). Approximately two thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.
The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop Gilgamesh from oppressing the people of Uruk. After Enkidu becomes civilized through sexual initiation with a prostitute, he travels to Uruk, where he challenges Gilgamesh to a test of strength. Gilgamesh wins and the two become friends. Together, they make a six-day journey to the legendary Cedar Forest, where they plan to slay the Guardian, Humbaba the Terrible, and cut down the sacred Cedar.[2] Later they kill the Bull of Heaven, which the goddess Ishtar sends to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances. As a punishment for these actions, the gods sentence Enkidu to death.
In the second half of the epic, distress about Enkidu's death causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life. He eventually learns that "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands".[3][4] However, because of his great building projects, his account of Siduri's advice, and what the immortal man Utnapishtim told him about the Great Flood, Gilgamesh's fame survived his death. His story has been translated into many languages, and in recent years has featured in works of popular fiction.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Versions
2.1 Standard Akkadian version
2.1.1 Content of the standard version tablets
2.1.1.1 Tablet one
2.1.1.2 Tablet two
2.1.1.3 Tablet three
2.1.1.4 Tablet four
2.1.1.5 Tablet five
2.1.1.6 Tablet six
2.1.1.7 Tablet seven
2.1.1.8 Tablet eight
2.1.1.9 Tablet nine
2.1.1.10 Tablet ten
2.1.1.11 Tablet eleven
2.1.1.12 Tablet twelve
2.2 Old-Babylonian versions
2.2.1 Pennsylvania tablet
2.2.2 Yale tablet
2.2.3 Philadelphia fragment
2.2.4 Nippur School Tablet
2.2.5 Tell Harmal tablets
2.2.6 Ishchali tablet
2.2.7 Partial fragment in Baghdad
2.2.8 Sippar tablet
2.3 Sumerian poems
3 Later influence
3.1 Relationship to the Bible
3.1.1 Garden of Eden
3.1.2 Advice from Ecclesiastes
3.1.3 Noah's Flood
3.1.4 Other biblical parallels
3.2 Influence on Homer
3.3 In popular culture
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Citations
5.2 Bibliography
5.2.1 Translations
5.2.2 Versions
5.2.3 Analysis
6 External links
History[edit]
Ancient Assyrian statue currently in the Louvre, possibly representing Gilgamesh
Distinct sources exist from over a 2000-year timeframe. The earliest Sumerian poems are now generally considered to be distinct stories, rather than parts of a single epic.[5]:45 They date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC).[5]:41–42 The Old Babylonian tablets (c. 1800 BC),[5]:45 are the earliest surviving tablets for a single Epic of Gilgamesh narrative.[6] The older Old Babylonian tablets and later Akkadian version are important sources for modern translations, with the earlier texts mainly used to fill in gaps (lacunae) in the later texts. Although several revised versions based on new discoveries have been published, the epic remains incomplete.[7] Analysis of the Old Babylonian text has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh.[8] The most recent Akkadian version (c. 1200 BC), also referred to as the standard version, consisting of twelve tablets, was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni and was found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh.
...this discovery is evidently destined to excite a lively controversy. For the present the orthodox people are in great delight, and are very much prepossessed by the corroboration which it affords to Biblical history. It is possible, however, as has been pointed out, that the Chaldean inscription, if genuine, may be regarded as a confirmation of the statement that there are various traditions of the deluge apart from the Biblical one, which is perhaps legendary like the rest
The New York Times, front page, 1872[9]
The Epic of Gilgamesh was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in 1853. The central character of Gilgamesh was initially reintroduced to the world as "Izdubar", before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately. The first modern translation was published in the early 1870s by George Smith.[10] Smith then made further discoveries of texts on his later expeditions, which culminated in his final translation which is given in his book The Chaldaean Account of Genesis (1880).
The most definitive modern translation is a two-volume critical work by Andrew George, published by Oxford University Press in 2003. A book review by the Cambridge scholar, Eleanor Robson, claims that George's is the most significant critical work on Gilgamesh in the last 70 years.[11] George discusses the state of the surviving material, and provides a tablet-by-tablet exegesis, with a dual language side-by-side translation. In 2004, Stephen Mitchell supplied a controversial version that takes many liberties with the text and includes modernized allusions and commentary relating to the Iraq War of 2003.[12][13]
The first direct Arabic translation from the original tablets was made in the 1960s by the Iraqi archaeologist Taha Baqir.[citation needed]
The discovery of artifacts (c. 2600 BC) associated with Enmebaragesi of Kish, mentioned in the legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.[5]:40–41
Versions[edit]
From the diverse sources found, two main versions of the epic have been partially reconstructed: the standard Akkadian version, or He who saw the deep, and the Old Babylonian version, or Surpassing all other kings. Five earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh have been partially recovered, some with primitive versions of specific episodes in the Akkadian version, others with unrelated stories.
Standard Akkadian version[edit]
The standard version was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh in 1853. It was written in a dialect of Akkadian that was used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by Sin-liqe-unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC from earlier texts.
The standard Akkadian version has different opening words, or incipit, from the older version. The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings", while the standard version has "He who saw the deep" (ša nagba īmuru), "deep" referring to the mysteries of the information brought back by Gilgamesh from his meeting with Uta-Napishti (Utnapishtim) about Ea, the fountain of wisdom.[7] Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, why death was ordained for human beings, what makes a good king, and how to live a good life. The story of Utnapishtim, the hero of the flood myth, can also be found in the Babylonian Epic of Atrahasis.
The 12th tablet is a sequel to the original 11, and was probably added at a later date. It bears little relation to the well-crafted 11-tablet epic; the lines at the beginning of the first tablet are quoted at the end of the 11th tablet, giving it circularity and finality. Tablet 12 is a near copy of an earlier Sumerian tale, a prequel, in which Gilgamesh sends Enkidu to retrieve some objects of his from the Underworld, and he returns in the form of a spirit to relate the nature of the Underworld to Gilgamesh.
Content of the standard version tablets[edit]
This summary is based on Andrew George's translation.[7]
Tablet one[edit]
The story introduces Gilgamesh, king of Uruk. Gilgamesh, two-thirds god and one-third man, is oppressing his people, who cry out to the gods for help. For the young women of Uruk this oppression takes the form of a droit du seigneur, or "lord's right", to sleep with brides on their wedding night. For the young men (the tablet is damaged at this point) it is conjectured that Gilgamesh exhausts them through games, tests of strength, or perhaps forced labour on building projects. The gods respond to the people's pleas by creating an equal to Gilgamesh who will be able to stop his oppression. This is the primitive man, Enkidu, who is covered in hair and lives in the wild with the animals. He is spotted by a trapper, whose livelihood is being ruined because Enkidu is uprooting his traps. The trapper tells the sun-god Shamash about the man, and it is arranged for Enkidu to be seduced by Shamhat, a temple prostitute, his first step towards being tamed. After six days and seven nights of continuous lovemaking she takes Enkidu to a shepherd's camp to learn how to be civilized. Gilgamesh, meanwhile, has been having dreams about the imminent arrival of a beloved new companion.
Tablet two[edit]
Shamhat brings Enkidu to the shepherds' camp, where he is introduced to a human diet and becomes the night watchman. Learning from a passing stranger about Gilgamesh's treatment of new brides, Enkidu is incensed and travels to Uruk to intervene at a wedding. When Gilgamesh attempts to visit the wedding chamber, Enkidu blocks his way, and they fight. After a fierce battle, Enkidu acknowledges Gilgamesh's superior strength and they become friends. Gilgamesh proposes a journey to the Cedar Forest to slay the monstrous demi-god Humbaba in order to gain fame and renown. Despite warnings from Enkidu and the council of elders, Gilgamesh is not deterred.
Tablet three[edit]
The elders give Gilgamesh advice for his journey. Gilgamesh visits his mother, the goddess Ninsun, who seeks the support and protection of the sun-god Shamash for their adventure. Ninsun adopts Enkidu as her son, and Gilgamesh leaves instructions for the governance of Uruk in his absence.
Tablet four[edit]
Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest. Every few days they camp on a mountain, and perform a dream ritual. Gilgamesh has five terrifying dreams about falling mountains, thunderstorms, wild bulls, and a thunderbird that breathes fire. Despite similarities between his dream figures and earlier descriptions of Humbaba, Enkidu interprets these dreams as good omens, and denies that the frightening images represent the forest guardian. As they approach the cedar mountain, they hear Humbaba bellowing, and have to encourage each other not to be afraid.
Tablet five[edit]
Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh
Reverse side of the newly discovered tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh. It dates back to the old Babylonian period, 2003–1595 BC and is currently housed in the Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq
The heroes enter the cedar forest. Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, insults and threatens them. He accuses Enkidu of betrayal, and vows to disembowel Gilgamesh and feed his flesh to the birds. Gilgamesh is afraid, but with some encouraging words from Enkidu the battle commences. The mountains quake with the tumult and the sky turns black. The god Shamash sends 13 winds to bind Humbaba, and he is captured. Humbaba pleads for his life, and Gilgamesh pities him. He offers Gilgamesh to be king of the forest, he will cut the trees for him, and be his slave. Enkidu, however, argues that Gilgamesh should kill Humbaba to establish his reputation forever. Humbaba curses them both and Gilgamesh dispatches him with a blow to the neck. The two heroes cut down many cedars, including a gigantic tree that Enkidu plans to fashion into a gate for the temple of Enlil. They build a raft and return home along the Euphrates with the giant tree and (possibly) the head of Humbaba.
Tablet six[edit]
Gilgamesh rejects the advances of the goddess Ishtar because of her mistreatment of previous lovers like Dumuzi. Ishtar asks her father Anu to send Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven, to avenge her. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the dead who will "outnumber the living" and "devour them". Anu becomes frightened, and gives in to her. Ishtar leads Gugalanna to Uruk, and it causes widespread devastation. It lowers the level of the Euphrates river, and dries up the marshes. It opens up huge pits that swallow 300 men. Without any divine assistance, Enkidu and Gilgamesh attack and slay it, and offer up its heart to Shamash. When Ishtar cries out, Enkidu hurls one of the hindquarters of the bull at her. The city of Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has an ominous dream about his future failure.
Tablet seven[edit]
In Enkidu's dream, the gods decide that one of the heroes must die because they killed Humbaba and Gugalanna. Despite the protestations of Shamash, Enkidu is marked for death. Enkidu curses the great door he has fashioned for Enlil's temple. He also curses the trapper and Shamhat for removing him from the wild. Shamash reminds Enkidu of how Shamhat fed and clothed him, and introduced him to Gilgamesh. Shamash tells him that Gilgamesh will bestow great honors upon him at his funeral, and will wander into the wild consumed with grief. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamhat. In a second dream, however, he sees himself being taken captive to the Netherworld by a terrifying Angel of Death. The underworld is a "house of dust" and darkness whose inhabitants eat clay, and are clothed in bird feathers, supervised by terrifying beings. For 12 days, Enkidu's condition worsens. Finally, after a lament that he could not meet a heroic death in battle, he dies.
Tablet eight[edit]
Gilgamesh delivers a lamentation for Enkidu, in which he calls upon mountains, forests, fields, rivers, wild animals, and all of Uruk to mourn for his friend. Recalling their adventures together, Gilgamesh tears at his hair and clothes in grief. He commissions a funerary statue, and provides grave gifts from his treasury to ensure that Enkidu has a favourable reception in the realm of the dead. A great banquet is held where the treasures are offered to the gods of the Netherworld. Just before a break in the text there is a suggestion that a river is being dammed, indicating a burial in a river bed, as in the corresponding Sumerian poem, The Death of Gilgamesh.
Tablet nine[edit]
Tablet nine opens with Gilgamesh roaming the wild wearing animal skins, grieving for Enkidu. Fearful of his own death, he decides to seek Utnapishtim ("the Faraway"), and learn the secret of eternal life. Among the few survivors of the Great Flood, Utnapishtim and his wife are the only humans to have been granted immortality by the gods. Gilgamesh crosses a mountain pass at night and encounters a pride of lions. Before sleeping he prays for protection to the moon god Sin. Then, waking from an encouraging dream, he kills the lions and uses their skins for clothing. After a long and perilous journey, Gilgamesh arrives at the twin peaks of Mount Mashu at the end of the earth. He comes across a tunnel, which no man has ever entered, guarded by two scorpion monsters, who appear to be a married couple. The husband tries to dissuade Gilgamesh from passing, but the wife intervenes, expresses sympathy for Gilgamesh, and (according to the poem's editor Benjamin Foster) allows his passage. He passes under the mountains along the Road of the Sun. In complete darkness he follows the road for 12 "double hours", managing to complete the trip before the Sun catches up with him. He arrives at the Garden of the gods, a paradise full of jewel-laden trees.
Tablet ten[edit]
Gilgamesh meets alewife Siduri, who assumes that he is a murderer or thief because of his disheveled appearance. Gilgamesh tells her about the purpose of his journey. She attempts to dissuade him from his quest, but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman, who will help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh, out of spontaneous rage, destroys the stone charms that Urshanabi keeps with him. He tells him his story, but when he asks for his help, Urshanabi informs him that he has just destroyed the objects that can help them cross the Waters of Death, which are deadly to the touch. Urshanabi instructs Gilgamesh to cut down 120 trees and fashion them into punting poles. When they reach the island where Utnapishtim lives, Gilgamesh recounts his story, asking him for his help. Utnapishtim reprimands him, declaring that fighting the common fate of humans is futile and diminishes life's joys.
Tablet eleven[edit]
George Smith, the man who transliterated and read the so-called "Babylonian Flood Story" of Tablet XI
Gilgamesh observes that Utnapishtim seems no different from himself, and asks him how he obtained his immortality. Utnapishtim explains that the gods decided to send a great flood. To save Utnapishtim the god Ea told him to build a boat. He gave him precise dimensions, and it was sealed with pitch and bitumen. His entire family went aboard together with his craftsmen and "all the animals of the field". A violent storm then arose which caused the terrified gods to retreat to the heavens. Ishtar lamented the wholesale destruction of humanity, and the other gods wept beside her. The storm lasted six days and nights, after which "all the human beings turned to clay". Utnapishtim weeps when he sees the destruction. His boat lodges on a mountain, and he releases a dove, a swallow, and a raven. When the raven fails to return, he opens the ark and frees its inhabitants. Utnapishtim offers a sacrifice to the gods, who smell the sweet savor and gather around. Ishtar vows that just as she will never forget the brilliant necklace that hangs around her neck, she will always remember this time. When Enlil arrives, angry that there are survivors, she condemns him for instigating the flood. Ea also castigates him for sending a disproportionate punishment. Enlil blesses Utnapishtim and his wife, and rewards them with eternal life. This account matches the flood story that concludes the Epic of Atra-Hasis (see also Gilgamesh flood myth).
The main point seems to be that when Enlil granted eternal life it was a unique gift. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Gilgamesh falls asleep, and Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread on each of the days he is asleep, so that he cannot deny his failure to keep awake. Gilgamesh, who is seeking to overcome death, cannot even conquer sleep. After instructing Urshanabi the ferryman to wash Gilgamesh, and clothe him in royal robes, they depart for Uruk.
As they are leaving, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that at the bottom of the sea there lives a boxthorn-like plant that will make him young again. Gilgamesh, by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom, manages to obtain the plant. Gilgamesh proposes to investigate if the plant has the hypothesized rejuvenation ability by testing it on an old man once he returns to Uruk.
There is a plant that looks like a box-thorn, it has prickles like a dogrose, and will prick one who plucks it. But if you can possess this plant, you'll be again as you were in your youth
This plant, Ur-shanabi, is the "Plant of Heartbeat", with it a man can regain his vigour. To Uruk-the-sheepfold I will take it, to an ancient I will feed some and put the plant to the test![7]:98
Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh stops to bathe, it is stolen by a serpent, who sheds its skin as it departs. Gilgamesh weeps at the futility of his efforts, because he has now lost all chance of immortality. He returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi.
Tablet twelve[edit]
This tablet is mainly an Akkadian translation of an earlier Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh and the Netherworld (also known as "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld" and variants), although it has been suggested that it is derived from an unknown version of that story.[5]:42 The contents of this last tablet are inconsistent with previous ones: Enkidu is still alive, despite having died earlier in the epic. Because of this, its lack of integration with the other tablets, and the fact that it is almost a copy of an earlier version, it has been referred to as an 'inorganic appendage' to the epic.[14] Alternatively, it has been suggested that "its purpose, though crudely handled, is to explain to Gilgamesh (and the reader) the various fates of the dead in the Afterlife" and in "an awkward attempt to bring closure",[15] it both connects the Gilgamesh of the epic with the Gilgamesh who is the King of the Netherworld,[16] and is "a dramatic capstone whereby the twelve-tablet epic ends on one and the same theme, that of "seeing" (= understanding, discovery, etc.), with which it began."[17]
Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that various of his possessions (the tablet is unclear exactly what — different translations include a drum and a ball) have fallen into the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted, Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and must not do in the underworld if he is to return. Enkidu does everything which he was told not to do. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him back his friend. Enlil and Suen don't reply, but Ea and Shamash decide to help. Shamash makes a crack in the earth, and Enkidu's ghost jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld.
Old-Babylonian versions[edit]
This version of the epic, called in some fragments Surpassing all other kings, is composed of tablets and fragments from diverse origins and states of conservation.[7]:101–26 It remains incomplete in its majority, with several tablets missing and big lacunae in those found. They are named after their current location or the place where they were found.
Pennsylvania tablet[edit]
Surpassing all other kings Tablet II, greatly correlates with tablets I-II of the standard version. Gilgamesh tells his mother Ninsun about two dreams he had. His mother explains that they mean that a new companion will soon arrive at Uruk. In the meanwhile the wild Enkidu and the priestess (here called Shamkatum) are making love. She tames him in company of the shepherds by offering him bread and beer. Enkidu helps the shepherds by guarding the sheep. They travel to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh and stop his abuses. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle but Gilgamesh breaks off the fight. Enkidu praises Gilgamesh.
Yale tablet[edit]
Surpassing all other kings Tablet III, partially matches tablets II-III of the standard version. For reasons unknown (the tablet is partially broken) Enkidu is in a sad mood. In order to cheer him up Gilgamesh suggests going to the Pine Forest to cut down trees and kill Humbaba (known here as Huwawa). Enkidu protests, as he knows Huwawa and is aware of his power. Gilgamesh talks Enkidu into it with some words of encouragement, but Enkidu remains reluctant. They prepare, and call for the elders. The elders also protest, but after Gilgamesh talks to them, they agree to let him go. After Gilgamesh asks his god (Shamash) for protection and both equip, they leave with the elder's blessing and counsel.
Philadelphia fragment[edit]
Possibly another version of the contents of the Yale Tablet, practically irrecoverable.
Nippur School Tablet[edit]
In the journey to the cedar forest and Huwawa, Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh's dreams.
Tell Harmal tablets[edit]
Fragments from two different versions/tablets tell how Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh's dreams on the way to the Forest of Cedar, and their conversation when entering the forest.
Ishchali tablet[edit]
After defeating Huwawa, Gilgamesh refrains from slaying him, and urges Enkidu to hunt Huwawa's "seven auras". Enkidu convinces him to smite their enemy. After killing Huwawa and the auras, they chop down part of the forest and discover the gods' secret abode. The rest of the tablet is broken.
The auras are not referred to in the standard version, but are in one of the Sumerian poems.
Partial fragment in Baghdad[edit]
Partially overlapping the felling of the trees from the Ishchali tablet.
Sippar tablet[edit]
Partially overlapping the standard version tablets IX–X. Gilgamesh mourns the death of Enkidu wandering in his quest for immortality. Gilgamesh argues with Shamash about the futility of his quest. After a lacuna, Gilgamesh talks to Siduri about his quest and his journey to meet Utnapishtim (here called Uta-na'ishtim). Siduri attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh in his quest for immortality, urging him to be content with the simple pleasures of life.[3] After one more lacuna, Gilgamesh smashes the "stone ones" and talks to the ferryman Urshanabi (here called Sur-sunabu). After a short discussion, Sur-sunabu asks him to carve 300 oars so that they may cross the waters of death without needing the "stone ones". The rest of the tablet is missing.
The text on the Old Babylonian Meissner fragment (the larger surviving fragment of the Sippar tablet) has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and it has been suggested that a "prior form of the story – earlier even than that preserved on the Old Babylonian fragment – may well have ended with Siduri sending Gilgamesh back to Uruk..." and "Utnapistim was not originally part of the tale."[18]
Sumerian poems[edit]
There are five extant Gilgamesh stories in the form of older poems in Sumerian.[7]:141–208 These probably circulated independently, rather than being in the form of a unified epic. Some of the names of the main characters in these poems differ slightly from later Akkadian names; for example, "Bilgamesh" is written instead of "Gilgamesh", and there are some differences in the underlying stories such as the fact that Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant in the Sumerian version:
The lord to the Living One's Mountain and Ho, hurrah! correspond to the Cedar Forest episode (standard version tablets II–V). Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel with other men to the Forest of Cedar. There, trapped by Huwawa, Gilgamesh tricks him (with Enkidu's assistance in one of the versions) into giving up his auras, thus losing his power.
Hero in battle corresponds to the Bull of Heaven episode standard version tablet VI) in the Akkadian version. The Bull's voracious appetite causes drought and hardship in the land while Gilgamesh feasts. Lugalbanda convinces him to face the beast and fights it alongside Enkidu.
The envoys of Akka has no corresponding episode in the epic, but the themes of whether to show mercy to captives, and counsel from the city elders, also occur in the standard version of the Humbaba story. In the poem, Uruk faces a siege from a Kish army led by King Akka, whom Gilgamesh defeats and forgives.
In those days, in those far-off days, otherwise known as Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld, is the source for the Akkadian translation included as tablet XII in the standard version, telling of Enkidu's journey to the Netherworld. It is also the main source of information for the Sumerian creation myth and the story of "Inanna and the Huluppu Tree".[19]
The great wild bull is lying down, a poem about Gilgamesh's death, burial and consecration as a semigod, reigning and giving judgement over the dead. After dreaming of how the gods decide his fate after death, Gilgamesh takes counsel, prepares his funeral and offers gifts to the gods. Once deceased, he is buried under the Euphrates, taken off its course and later returned to it.
Later influence[edit]
Relationship to the Bible[edit]
Further information: Panbabylonism
Various themes, plot elements, and characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh have counterparts in the Hebrew Bible—notably, the accounts of the Garden of Eden, the advice from Ecclesiastes, and the Genesis flood narrative.
Garden of Eden[edit]
The parallels between the stories of Enkidu/Shamhat and Adam/Eve have been long recognized by scholars.[20][21] In both, a man is created from the soil by a god, and lives in a natural setting amongst the animals. He is introduced to a woman who tempts him. In both stories the man accepts food from the woman, covers his nakedness, and must leave his former realm, unable to return. The presence of a snake that steals a plant of immortality from the hero later in the epic is another point of similarity.
Advice from Ecclesiastes[edit]
Several scholars suggest direct borrowing of Siduri's advice by the author of Ecclesiastes.[22]
A rare proverb about the strength of a triple-stranded rope, "a triple-stranded rope is not easily broken", is common to both books.
Noah's Flood[edit]
Andrew George submits that the Genesis flood narrative matches that in Gilgamesh so closely that "few doubt" that it derives from a Mesopotamian account.[23] What is particularly noticeable is the way the Genesis flood story follows the Gilgamesh flood tale "point by point and in the same order", even when the story permits other alternatives.[24] In a 2001 Torah commentary released on behalf of the Conservative Movement of Judaism, rabbinic scholar Robert Wexler stated: "The most likely assumption we can make is that both Genesis and Gilgamesh drew their material from a common tradition about the flood that existed in Mesopotamia. These stories then diverged in the retelling."[25] Ziusudra, Utnapishtim and Noah are the respective heroes of the Sumerian, Akkadian and biblical flood legends of the ancient Near East.
Other biblical parallels[edit]
Matthias Henze suggests that Nebuchadnezzar's madness in the biblical Book of Daniel draws on the Epic of Gilgamesh. He claims that the author uses elements from the description of Enkidu to paint a sarcastic and mocking portrait of the king of Babylon.[26]
While not directly discussed in the Epic itself, many of the characters in the Epic also have myths associated with them with close biblical parallels, notably Ninti, the Sumerian goddess of life, was created from Enki's rib to heal him after he had eaten forbidden flowers. Some scholars suggest that this served as the basis for the story of Eve created from Adam's rib in the Book of Genesis.[27] Esther J. Hamori, in Echoes of Gilgamesh in Jacob Story, also claims that the myth of Jacob and Esau is paralleled with the wrestling match between Gilgamesh and Enkidu.
Influence on Homer[edit]
Numerous scholars have drawn attention to various themes, episodes, and verses, indicating that the Epic of Gilgamesh had a substantial influence on both of the epic poems ascribed to Homer. These influences are detailed by Martin Litchfield West in The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth.[28] According to Tzvi Abusch of Brandeis University, the poem "combines the power and tragedy of the Iliad with the wanderings and marvels of the Odyssey. It is a work of adventure, but is no less a meditation on some fundamental issues of human existence."[29]
In popular culture[edit]
Main article: Gilgamesh in popular culture
The Epic of Gilgamesh has inspired many works of literature, art, and music, as Theodore Ziolkowski points out in his book Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic (2011).[30][31] It was only after the First World War that the Gilgamesh epic reached a wide audience, and only after the Second World War that it began to feature in a variety of genres.[31]
See also[edit]
Ancient Near East portal
Literature portal
Mythology portal
List of artifacts in biblical archaeology
List of characters in Epic of Gilgamesh
Babylonian literature
The Book of Giants
Cattle in religion
Sumerian creation myth
Sumerian literature
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "Gilgamesh". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Krstovic, Jelena O., ed. (2005). Epic of Gilgamesh Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism. 74. Detroit, MI: Gale. ISBN 9780787680213. OCLC 644697404.
^ Jump up to: a b Thrower, James (1980). The Alternative Tradition: A Study of Unbelief in the Ancient World. The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton Publishers.
Jump up ^ Frankfort, Henri (1974) [1949]. "Chapter VII: Mesopotamia: The Good Life". Before Philosophy: The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man, an essay on speculative thought in the ancient near East. Penguin. p. 226. OCLC 225040700.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dalley, Stephanie (ed.). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953836-2.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, T.C. (1988). The Bible in the British Museum. The British Museum Press. p. 70.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f George, Andrew R. (2003) [1999, 2000]. The Epic of Gilgamesh: the Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. Penguin Classics (Third ed.). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044919-1. OCLC 901129328. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Abusch, T. (1993). "Gilgamesh's Request and Siduri's Denial. Part I: The Meaning of the Dialogue and Its Implications for the History of the Epic". The Tablet and the Scroll; Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo. CDL Press. pp. 1–14.
Jump up ^ "The New York Times". The New York Times. front page. 22 December 1872.
Jump up ^ Smith, George (3 December 1872). "The Chaldean Account of the Deluge". Sacred-Texts.com.
Jump up ^ Mawr, Bryn (21 April 2004). "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2004.04.21". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Jarman, Mark (1 January 2005). Mitchell, Stephen, ed. "When the Light Came on: The Epic Gilgamesh". The Hudson Review. 58 (2): 329–34. doi:10.2307/30044781 (inactive 2018-04-11). JSTOR 30044781.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Stephen (24 January 2006). Gilgamesh: A New English Version. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-6169-2. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Maier, John R. (1997). Gligamesh: A reader. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-86516-339-3.
Jump up ^ Patton, Laurie L.; Doniger, Wendy (1996). Myth and Method. University of Virginia Press. p. 306. ISBN 978-0-8139-1657-6.
Jump up ^ Kovacs, Maureen (1989). The Epic of Gilgamesh. University of Stanford Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-8047-1711-3.
Jump up ^ van Driel, G.; Krispijn, Th. J. H.; Stol, M.; Veenhof, K. R., eds. (1982). Zikir Šumim: Assyriological Studies Presented to F.R. Kraus on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday. p. 131. ISBN 978-90-6258-126-9.
Jump up ^ Abusch, T. Gilgamesh's Request and Siduri's Denial. Part I: The Meaning of the Dialogue and Its Implications for the History of the Epic. |11.05 MB The Tablet and the Scroll; Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo, 1–14. Retrieved 2013-09-09.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah (1961). Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.: Revised Edition. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 30–41. ISBN 0-8122-1047-6. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Gmirkin, Russell (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Continuum. p. 103.
Jump up ^ Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2004). Treasures old and new. Eerdmans. pp. 93–95.
Jump up ^ Van Der Torn, Karel (February 2000). "Did Ecclesiastes copy Gilgamesh?". Bible Review. 16. p. 22ff. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ George, A. R. (2003). The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–. ISBN 978-0-19-927841-1. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Rendsburg, Gary. "The Biblical flood story in the light of the Gilgamesh flood account," in Gilgamesh and the world of Assyria, eds Azize, J & Weeks, N. Peters, 2007, p. 117
Jump up ^ Wexler, Robert (2001). Ancient Near Eastern Mythology.
Jump up ^ Leiden, Brill (1999). The Madness of King Nebuchadnezzar...
Jump up ^ Meagher, Robert Emmet (1995). The meaning of Helen: in search of an ancient icon. United States: Bolchazy-Carducci Pubs (IL). ISBN 0-86516-510-6.
Jump up ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2003) [1997]. The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 334–402. ISBN 0198152213. OCLC 441880596.
Jump up ^ Abusch, Tzvi (Dec 2001). "The Development and Meaning of the Epic of Gilgamesh: An Interpretive Essay". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 121 (4): 614–22. doi:10.2307/606502. JSTOR 606502.
Jump up ^ Ziolkowski, Theodore (December 8, 2011). Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic. Cornell Univ Pr. ISBN 978-0-8014-5035-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Ziolkowski, Theodore (November 1, 2011). "Gilgamesh: An Epic Obsession". Berfrois. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Bibliography[edit]
Translations[edit]
Jastrow, Morris; Clay, Albert Tobias (2016). An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic: On the Basis of Recently Discovered Texts. Cambridge Library Collection – Archaeology. ISBN 978-1108081276.
Jastrow, M.; Clay, A. (1920). An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic: On the Basis of Recently Discovered Texts.
Sandars, N. K. (2006). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Penguin Epics, Penguin Classics. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-102628-6. : re-print of the Penguin Classic translation (in prose) by N. K. Sandars 1960 (ISBN 0-14-044100-X) without the introduction.
Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, transl. with intro. (1985). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1711-7. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) Glossary, Appendices, Appendix (Chapter XII=Tablet XII). A line-by-line translation (Chapters I-XI).
Parpola, Simo (1997). The Standard Babylonian, Epic of Gilgamesh. Mikko Luuko and Kalle Fabritius. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. ISBN 951-45-7760-4. : (Volume 1) in the original Akkadian cuneiform and transliteration; commentary and glossary are in English
Foster, Benjamin R., trans. & edit. (2001). The Epic of Gilgamesh. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97516-9. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
George, Andrew R. (2003). George, Andrew R., ed. The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts. translated by Andrew R. George. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814922-0.
Versions[edit]
Ferry, David (1993). Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-52383-5.
Jackson, Danny (1997). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 0-86516-352-9.
Mason, Herbert (2003) [1970, 1972]. Gilgamesh: A Verse Narrative. Boston: Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-618-27564-9. First published in 1970 by Houghton Mifflin; Mentor Books paperback published 1972.
Mitchell, Stephen (2004). Gilgamesh: A New English Version. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-6164-X.
Analysis[edit]
Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976). The Treasures of Darkness, A History of Mesopotamian Religion. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01844-4.
Tigay, Jeffrey H. (1982). The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-7805-4.
Kluger, Rivkah (1991). The Gilgamesh Epic: A Psychological Study of a Modern Ancient Hero. Daimon. ISBN 3-85630-523-8.
West, Martin Litchfield (1991). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815042-3.
Best, Robert (1999). Noah's Ark and the Ziusudra Epic. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 0-9667840-1-4.
Damrosch, David (2007). The Buried Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Great Epic of Gilgamesh. Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-8029-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Epic of Gilgamesh.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Epic of Gilgamesh
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Epic of Gilgamesh.
Translations of the legends of Gilgamesh in the Sumerian language can be found in Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998–
Gilgamesh and Huwawa, version A
Gilgamesh and Huwawa, version B
Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven
Gilgamesh and Aga
Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world
The death of Gilgamesh
The 1901 full text translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh by William Muss-Arnolt
An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic by Anonymous at Project Gutenberg, edited by Morris Jastrow, translated by Albert T. Clay
Gilgamesh by Richard Hooker (wsu.edu)
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Complete Academic Translation by R. Campbell Thompson
The Epic of Gilgamesh by Kovacs, M.G.
He Who Saw Everything: Verse Translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh by Temple, R.K.G.
[hide]
v
t
e
Epic of Gilgamesh
Characters
Humans
Gilgamesh
Aga
Enmebaragesi
Enkidu
Shamhat
Siduri
Utnapishtim
Scorpion man
Deities
Anunnaki
Enlil
Gugalanna
Ishtar (Inanna)
Ninsun
Shamash (Utu)
Silili
Derivative works
Literature
The Great American Novel (1973)
Gilgamesh the King (1984)
Gilgamesh in the Outback (1986)
Timewyrm: Genesys (1991)
The Sorceress: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel (2009)
Classical music
The Epic of Gilgamesh (1955 Czech oratorio)
Gilgamesh (Kodallı) (1962–1964 Turkish opera)
Gilgamesh (Saygun) (1970 Turkish opera)
Gilgamesh (Nørgård) (1972 Danish opera)
Gilgamesh (Brucci) (1986 Serbian opera)
Stage
Turn Left at Gilgamesh
Film
The Epic of Gilgamesh, or This Unnameable Little Broom (1985)
Television
"Darmok"
"Demon with a Glass Hand"
"The Tower of Druaga"
Gilgamesh
Comics
Gilgamesh II
Gilgamesh the immortal
Forgotten One
Video games
The Tower of Druaga
Seminal use
Literature
Bullfighting
Zombie
Vitis vinifera
Other
Popular culture
Gilgamesh flood myth
Uruk
Mashu
The Preserver of Life
Sîn-lēqi-unninni
Slaves of the Shinar
George Smith
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb120083188 (data)
GND: 4138528-7
LCCN: n80080430
NDL: 00628430
SELIBR: 336803
SUDOC: 02819960X
VIAF: 183878181
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epic_of_Gilgamesh&oldid=842700441"
Categories:
21st-century BC books
3rd millennium BC in fiction
1853 archaeological discoveries
Epic poems
Epic of Gilgamesh
Flood myths
Immortality in fiction
Lost poems
Mesopotamian literature
Prostitution in literature
Sumer in fiction
Sumerian literature
Works about monarchs
Hidden categories:
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
Pages with DOIs inactive since 2018
Use dmy dates from January 2011
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Articles with Project Gutenberg links
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Français
Frysk
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Kaszëbsczi
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Mirandés
Nederlands
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Нохчийн
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Piemontèis
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Sardu
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
ייִדיש
粵語
Zazaki
Žemaitėška
中文
82 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 May 2018, at 03:04.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: span

attrs: class title

value: caption

value: img

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Deluge_(mythology)
mw-redirect
Deluge (mythology)

attrs: href title

value: td

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: th

value: abbr

values: padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding:0.5em 0.25em;

values: font-size: 105%; text-align: center; padding: 0.3em 0.3em 0.6em; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Dumuzid_the_Shepherd
mw-redirect
Dumuzid the Shepherd

values:
/wiki/Tammuz_(deity)
mw-redirect
Tammuz (deity)

values: font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;

values:
/wiki/Anz%C3%BB_(mythology)
mw-redirect
Anzû (mythology)

values:
/wiki/Sumerian_Literature
mw-redirect
Sumerian Literature

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;font-size:smaller;

values:
NavToggle
NavToggle8
#
color: rgb(119, 119, 119);

values: font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;color:#777; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: left; display: none;

values:
NavToggle
NavToggle9
#
color: rgb(119, 119, 119);

values:
NavToggle
NavToggle10
#
color: rgb(119, 119, 119);

values: Template talk:Uruk Epics (page does not exist)

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:25.75em

values:
/wiki/Assyrian_king
mw-redirect
Assyrian king

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Sumerian_poetry
mw-redirect
Sumerian poetry

values: float: right; clear: right; margin: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em; width:25%; padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa; font-size: 88%; background-color: #F9F9F9;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Content of the standard version tablets

values: Edit section: Partial fragment in Baghdad

values:
/wiki/Sumerian_goddess
mw-redirect
Sumerian goddess

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: List of artifacts in biblical archaeology

values:
/wiki/Babylonian_literature
mw-redirect
Babylonian literature

values:
/wiki/Cattle_in_religion
mw-redirect
Cattle in religion

values: Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/644697404

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/225040700

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/901129328

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F30044781

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/30044781

values:
nofollow
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/441880596

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F606502

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/606502

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
https://lccn.loc.gov/2003269516

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values: wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gilgamesh, Epic of

values:
nofollow
http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/
external text

values: Hero lion Dur-Sharrukin Louvre AO19862.jpg

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/The_Preserver_of_Life
mw-redirect
The Preserver of Life

values:
/wiki/George_Smith_(assyriologist)
mw-redirect
George Smith (assyriologist)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4138528-7

values:
nofollow
external text
https://libris.kb.se/auth/336803

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.idref.fr/02819960X

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/183878181

values: Category:Pages with DOIs inactive since 2018

values: Category:Use dmy dates from January 2011

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017

values: Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: ملحمة جلجامش – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: গিলগামেশের মহাকাব্য – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values: Гилгәмеш эпосы – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Эпас пра Гільгамеша – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Эпас пра Гільгамэша – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values: Епос за Гилгамеш – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values: Гильгамеш тухай үльгэр – Russia Buriat

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Έπος του Γκιλγκαμές – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: حماسه گیلگمش – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 길가메시 서사시 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Գիլգամեշ (էպոս) – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: गिलगमेश – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: עלילות גילגמש – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: გილგამეშის ეპოსი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-csb
display: none;

values: Гильгамеш жайлы эпос – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: ഗിൽഗമെഷ് ഇതിഹാസം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: गिल्गमेशया काव्य – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values: ギルガメシュ叙事詩 – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Гильгамешех лаьцна эпос – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesj
Gilgamesj – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesj
Gilgamesj – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: ਗਿਲਗਾਮੇਸ਼ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Эпос о Гильгамеше – Russian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: داستانی گلگامێش – Central Kurdish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Еп о Гилгамешу – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: கில்கமெஷ் காப்பியம் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Гилгәмеш дастаны – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: มหากาพย์กิลกาเมช – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Епос про Гільгамеша – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: رزمیہ گلگامش – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values: גילגאמעש עפאס – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: 吉尔伽美什史诗 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Epic_of_Gilgamesh rootpage-Epic_of_Gilgamesh skin-vector action-view