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Vitamin
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For other uses, see Vitamin (disambiguation).
Vitamin
Drug class
A bottle of B-complex vitamin pills
Pronunciation
UK: /ˈvɪtəmɪn, ˈvaɪ-/
US: /ˈvaɪtəmɪn/[1]
In Wikidata
A vitamin is an organic molecule (or related set of molecules) which is an essential micronutrient—that is, a substance which an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism but cannot synthesize, either at all or in sufficient quantities, and therefore must obtain through its diet. The term vitamin does not include the three other essential nutrients: essential mineral (nutrient)s, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.[2] Some substances can be synthesized by a certain organism, but not by another: that substance is not a vitamin in the first instance, but it is in the second. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. Vitamins are classified by their biological/chemical activity, not their structure. The thirteen vitamins required by human metabolism are: vitamin A (retinols and carotenoids), vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B7 (biotin), vitamin B9 (folic acid or folate), vitamin B12 (cobalamins), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D (calciferols), vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), and vitamin K (quinones).
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some forms of vitamin A function as regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The B complex vitamins function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them. Vitamin D has a hormone-like function as a regulator of mineral metabolism, and is anti-proliferative. Vitamin E (and sometimes vitamin C), functions as an antioxidant.[3] Both deficient and excess intake of a vitamin can potentially cause clinically significant illness; although excess intake of a water-soluble vitamin is least likely to do so. All vitamins were discovered (identified) between 1913 and 1948.
Before 1935, the only source of vitamins for humans was from food. Since food sources and availability inevitably fluctuated, so did the amount of vitamins ingested: sometimes with resulting vitamin deficiency. Then commercially produced tablets of yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C became available. This was followed in the 1950s by the mass production, and promotion, of vitamin supplements, including multivitamins, to prevent vitamin deficiencies in the general population, but is thought to be of little value in healthy people.[4] The addition of vitamins to staple foods (food fortification) has prevented folic acid and vitamin B12 vitamin deficiencies. The oral administration of certain vitamins during pregnancy prevents both maternal and fetal vitamin deficiencies.
The term vitamin is derived from the word vitamine, coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients essential to life, all of which he presumed to be amines. When this presumption was later determined not to be true, the "e" was dropped from the name.[5]
Contents
1 List
2 Sources
3 Classification by solubility
4 Biochemical functions
5 Effects
5.1 On fetal growth and childhood development
5.2 On adult health maintenance
5.3 Of cooking
6 Deficient intake
7 Excess intake
7.1 Symptoms
7.2 Toxic levels
7.3 Incidence
8 Supplements
8.1 Commercial production
8.2 Governmental regulation
9 Naming
10 Promotion
11 Anti-vitamins
12 History
13 Etymology
14 See also
15 References
16 External links
List[edit]
Vitamin generic
descriptor name
Vitamer chemical name(s) (list not complete)
Solubility
United States Recommended dietary allowances
(male/female, age 19–70)[6]
Deficiency disease
Upper Intake Level
(UL/day)[6]
Overdose syndrome/symptoms
Food sources
Vitamin A
Retinol, retinal, and
four carotenoids
including beta carotene Fat 900 µg/700 µg Night blindness, hyperkeratosis, and keratomalacia[7] 3,000 µg Hypervitaminosis A Liver, orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach, fish, soy milk, milk
Vitamin B1
Thiamine Water 1.2 mg/1.1 mg Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome N/D[8] Drowsiness and muscle relaxation[9] Pork, oatmeal, brown rice, vegetables, potatoes, liver, eggs
Vitamin B2
Riboflavin Water 1.3 mg/1.1 mg Ariboflavinosis, glossitis, angular stomatitis N/D Dairy products, bananas, popcorn, green beans, asparagus
Vitamin B3
Niacin, niacinamide, Nicotinamide riboside Water 16 mg/14 mg Pellagra 35 mg Liver damage (doses > 2g/day)[10] and other problems Meat, fish, eggs, many vegetables, mushrooms, tree nuts
Vitamin B5
Pantothenic acid Water 5 mg/5 mg[11] Paresthesia N/D Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.[12] Meat, broccoli, avocados
Vitamin B6
Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal Water 1.3–1.7 mg/1.2–1.5 mg Anemia[13] peripheral neuropathy 100 mg Impairment of proprioception, nerve damage (doses > 100 mg/day) Meat, vegetables, tree nuts, bananas
Vitamin B7
Biotin Water AI: 30 µg/30 µg Dermatitis, enteritis N/D Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, leafy green vegetables
Vitamin B9
Folates Water 400 µg/400 µg Megaloblastic anemia and deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such as neural tube defects 1,000 µg May mask symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency; other effects. Leafy vegetables, pasta, bread, cereal, liver
Vitamin B12
Cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, methylcobalamin, adenosylcobalamin Water 2.4 µg/2.4 µg Pernicious anemia[14] N/D None proven Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk
Vitamin C
Ascorbic acid Water 90 mg/75 mg Scurvy 2,000 mg None known Many fruits and vegetables, liver
Vitamin D
Cholecalciferol (D3), Ergocalciferol (D2) Fat 15 µg/15 µg[15] Rickets and osteomalacia males and females 15 µg/ >70 years 20 µg Hypervitaminosis D Lichen, eggs, liver, certain fish species such as sardines, certain mushroom species such as shiitake
Vitamin E
Tocopherols, tocotrienols Fat 15 mg/15 mg Deficiency is very rare; sterility in males and miscarriage in females, mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants[16] 1,000 mg Possible increased incidence of congestive heart failure.[17] Many fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds
Vitamin K
Phylloquinone, menaquinones Fat AI: 110 µg/120 µg Bleeding diathesis N/D Decreased anticoagulation effect of warfarin.[18] Leafy green vegetables such as spinach; egg yolks; liver
Sources[edit]
For the most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength of ultraviolet light present in sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume: for example, vitamin A is synthesized from beta carotene; and niacin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan.[6]
Classification by solubility[edit]
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption.[19] Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important.[20]
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.[21]
Biochemical functions[edit]
Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions.[22]
Effects[edit]
On fetal growth and childhood development[edit]
Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.[23]
On adult health maintenance[edit]
Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for cellular respiration.[3]
Of cooking[edit]
The USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods.[24]
Some vitamins may become more "bio-available" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked.[25]
The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.[26]
Vitamin
Soluble in Water
Stable to Air Exposure
Stable to Light Exposure
Stable to Heat Exposure
Vitamin A no partially partially relatively stable
Vitamin C very unstable yes yes yes
Vitamin D no no no no
Vitamin E no yes yes no
Vitamin K no no yes no
Thiamine (B1) highly no ? > 100 °C
Riboflavin (B2) slightly no in solution no
Niacin (B3) yes no no no
Pantothenic Acid (B5) quite stable ? no yes
Vitamin B6 yes ? yes ?
Biotin (B7) somewhat ? ? no
Folic Acid (B9) yes ? when dry at high temp
Vitamin B12 yes ? yes no
Deficient intake[edit]
Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing schedules, to avoid deficiency. The body's stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B12 are stored in significant amounts, mainly in the liver,[16] and an adult's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B12 in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B3 (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks.[7][16] For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores.[27]
Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin.[16] People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.
Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra),[28] vitamin C (scurvy), and vitamin D (rickets).[29] In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods (fortification).[6][16] In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.[30][31]
Excess intake[edit]
Symptoms[edit]
Some vitamins have documented side effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. Acute symptoms can include nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.[7][32]
Toxic levels[edit]
In the United States, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies has established Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for those vitamins which have documented side effects at high intakes. In the European Union the European Food Safety Authority has also set ULs.[33] ULs from the two organizations do not always match.
Incidence[edit]
The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing (vitamin poisoning) from vitamin supplementation does occur. In 2014, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multi-vitamin/mineral formulations was reported by 68,058 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers with 73% of these exposures in children under the age of five.[34]
Supplements[edit]
Calcium combined with vitamin D (as calciferol) supplement tablets with fillers.
In those who are otherwise healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease.[4][35] Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful.[35][36] Other findings suggest that vitamin E toxicity is limited to only a specific form when taken in excess.[37]
The European Union and other countries of Europe have regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages for their safe use as dietary supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as dietary supplements are not supposed to exceed a maximum daily dosage referred to as the tolerable upper intake level (UL). Vitamin products above these regulatory limits are not considered supplements and should be registered as prescription or non-prescription (over-the-counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. The European Union, United States, Japan and some other countries each set ULs.[38][39]
Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions.[40] In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions.[40] They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.[41]
Commercial production[edit]
Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through the diet. Vitamins have been produced as inexpensive supplements since the 1950s.
Governmental regulation[edit]
Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. As a result, the manufacturer, and not the government, has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994.[42] There is no FDA approval process for dietary supplements, and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994.[28][29] The Food and Drug Administration must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements.[43] In 2007, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in the manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements.[44] In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription.[45] For most vitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market.
Naming[edit]
Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
Previous name
Chemical name
Reason for name change[46]
Vitamin B4 Adenine DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin B8 Adenylic acid DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin BT Carnitine Synthesized in body
Vitamin F Essential fatty acids Needed in large quantities (does
not fit the definition of a vitamin).
Vitamin G Riboflavin Reclassified as Vitamin B2
Vitamin H Biotin Reclassified as Vitamin B7
Vitamin J Catechol, Flavin Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified as Vitamin B2
Vitamin L1[47] Anthranilic acid Non essential
Vitamin L2[47] Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin M Folic acid Reclassified as Vitamin B9
Vitamin P Flavonoids No longer classified as a vitamin
Vitamin PP Niacin Reclassified as Vitamin B3
Vitamin S Salicylic acid Proposed inclusion[48] of salicylate as an essential micronutrient
Vitamin U S-Methylmethionine Protein metabolite; synthesized in body
The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F–J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins.
The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the coagulation of blood following wounding (from the German word Koagulation). At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.[46][49] The table nomenclature of reclassified vitamins lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.
There are other missing B vitamins which were reclassified or determined not to be vitamins. For example, B9 is folic acid and five of the folates are in the range B11 through B16, forms of other vitamins already discovered, not required as a nutrient by the entire population (like B10, PABA for internal use[50]), biologically inactive, toxic, or with unclassifiable effects in humans, or not generally recognised as vitamins by science,[51] such as the highest-numbered, which some naturopath practitioners call B21 and B22. There are also nine lettered B complex vitamins (e.g. Bm). There are other D vitamins now recognised as other substances,[50] which some sources of the same type number up to D7. The controversial cancer treatment laetrile was at one point lettered as vitamin B17. There appears to be no consensus on any vitamins Q, R, T, V, W, X, Y or Z, nor are there substances officially designated as Vitamins N or I, although the latter may have been another form of one of the other vitamins or a known and named nutrient of another type.
Promotion[edit]
Once discovered, vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in McCall's, Good Housekeeping, and other media outlets.[28] Marketers enthusiastically promoted cod-liver oil, a source of Vitamin D, as "bottled sunshine", and bananas as a “natural vitality food". They promoted foods such as yeast cakes, a source of B vitamins, on the basis of scientifically-determined nutritional value, rather than taste or appearance.[52] World War II researchers focused on the need to ensure adequate nutrition, especially in processed foods.[28] Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term vitamania, in 1942, to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods. The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle has led to an obsessive consumption of additives the beneficial effects of which are questionable.[29]
Anti-vitamins[edit]
Main article: Antinutrient
Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin; it is deactivated by cooking.[53] Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B1, and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine.[54]
History[edit]
The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources
Year of discovery
Vitamin
Food source
1913 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil
1910 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran
1920 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods
1920 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil
1920 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, dairy products, eggs
1922 Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil,
unrefined vegetable oils
1929 Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Leaf vegetables
1931 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Meat, whole grains,
in many foods
1931 Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meat, dairy products, Eggs
1934 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products
1936 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, grains
1941 Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leaf vegetables
1948[55] Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Meat, organs (Liver), Eggs
The value of eating certain foods to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person may help with night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency.[56] The advancement of ocean voyages during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.[57]
In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.[56] In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname limey for British sailors. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food.[56] As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory at the time was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.[56]
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A"; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D.[58] In 1881, Russian medical doctor Nikolai I. Lunin (ru) studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu .[59] He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life."[59] However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor, Gustav von Bunge, even after other students reproduced his results.[60] A similar result by Cornelius Pekelharing appeared in a Dutch medical journal in 1905, but it was not widely reported.[60]
In East Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B1 was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British-trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but they mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.[61] That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens.[28] The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors" — in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats etc. — that are necessary for the functions of the human body.[56] Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discoveries.[62]
Jack Drummond’s single paragraph paper in 1920 which provided structure and nomenclature used today for vitamins
In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal.[63] When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk, working in London, isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine". It was later to be known as vitamin B3 (niacin), though he described it as "anti-beri-beri-factor" (which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B1). Funk proposed the hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins. Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the "vitamine" name (from "vital amine").[64][65] The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, after researchers began to suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component.[61]
In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene, the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other carotenoids. Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Györgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins, which led to the identification of lactoflavin. For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2, they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.[66]
In 1931, Albert Szent-Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C, and gave a sample to Charles Glen King, who proved its anti-scorbutic activity in his long-established guinea pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process.[62]
In 1938, Richard Kuhn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on carotenoids and vitamins, specifically B2 and B6.[67]
Etymology[edit]
The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine", a compound word coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Casimir Funk[68] when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine of life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary-deficiency diseases might be chemical amines. This was true of thiamine, but after it was found that other such micronutrients were not amines the word was shortened to vitamin in English.
See also[edit]
Food portal
Provitamin
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-052-115255-6.
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^ Jump up to: a b Bender, David A. (2003). Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80388-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Fortmann, SP; Burda, BU; Senger, CA; Lin, JS; Whitlock, EP (12 Nov 2013). "Vitamin and Mineral Supplements in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: An Updated Systematic Evidence Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force". Annals of Internal Medicine. 159 (12): 824–34. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-12-201312170-00729. PMID 24217421.
Jump up ^ Jr, Gerald F. Combs (2007-10-30). The Vitamins. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080561301.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001.
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Jump up ^ "Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins". The National Academies. 2001. Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2013. Amount not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
Jump up ^ "Thiamin, vitamin B1: MedlinePlus Supplements". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
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Jump up ^ Plain type indicates Adequate Intakes (A/I). "The AI is believed to cover the needs of all individuals, but a lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake" (see Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins Archived 17 August 2013 at WebCite. The National Academies, 2001).
Jump up ^ "Pantothenic acid, dexpanthenol: MedlinePlus Supplements". MedlinePlus. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B6. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (15 September 2011). Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
Jump up ^ Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B12. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (24 June 2011). Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
Jump up ^ Value represents suggested intake without adequate sunlight exposure (see Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins Archived 17 August 2013 at WebCite. The National Academies, 2001).
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Jump up ^ Rohde LE; de Assis MC; Rabelo ER (2007). "Dietary vitamin K intake and anticoagulation in elderly patients". Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 10 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328011c46c. PMID 17143047.
Jump up ^ Fukuwatari T; Shibata K (2008). "Urinary water-soluble vitamins and their metabolite contents as nutritional markers for evaluating vitamin intakes among young Japanese women". J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 54 (3): 223–9. doi:10.3177/jnsv.54.223. PMID 18635909.
Jump up ^ Bellows, L. & Moore, R. "Water-Soluble Vitamins". Colorado State University. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Maqbool A; Stallings VA (2008). "Update on fat-soluble vitamins in cystic fibrosis". Curr Opin Pulm Med. 14 (6): 574–81. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283136787. PMID 18812835.
Jump up ^ Kutsky, R.J. (1973). Handbook of Vitamins and Hormones. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-442-24549-1
Jump up ^ Gavrilov, Leonid A. (10 February 2003) Pieces of the Puzzle: Aging Research Today and Tomorrow. fightaging.org
Jump up ^ "USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6" (PDF). USDA. USDA. Dec 2007.
Jump up ^ Comparison of Vitamin Levels in Raw Foods vs. Cooked Foods. Beyondveg.com. Retrieved on 3 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Effects of Cooking on Vitamins (Table). Beyondveg.com. Retrieved on 3 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Pemberton, J. (2006). "Medical experiments carried out in Sheffield on conscientious objectors to military service during the 1939–45 war". International Journal of Epidemiology. 35 (3): 556–8. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl020. PMID 16510534.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wendt, Diane (2015). "Packed full of questions: Who benefits from dietary supplements?". Distillations Magazine. 1 (3): 41–45. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Price, Catherine (2015). Vitamania: Our obsessive quest for nutritional perfection. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1594205040.
Jump up ^ Lakhan, SE; Vieira, KF (2008). "Nutritional therapies for mental disorders". Nutrition journal. 7: 2. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-7-2. PMC 2248201  . PMID 18208598.
Jump up ^ Boy, E.; Mannar, V.; Pandav, C.; de Benoist, B.; Viteri, F.; Fontaine, O.; Hotz, C. (2009). "Achievements, challenges, and promising new approaches in vitamin and mineral deficiency control". Nutr Rev. 67 (Suppl 1): S24–30. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00155.x. PMID 19453674.
Jump up ^ Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.
Jump up ^ Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (PDF), European Food Safety Authority, 2006
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^ Jump up to: a b Moyer, VA (25 Feb 2014). "Vitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplements for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement". Annals of Internal Medicine. 160 (8): 558–64. doi:10.7326/M14-0198. PMID 24566474.
Jump up ^ Bjelakovic, Goran; Nikolova, D; Gluud, LL; Simonetti, RG; Gluud, C (2007). "Mortality in Randomized Trials of Antioxidant Supplements for Primary and Secondary Prevention: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA. 297 (8): 842–57. doi:10.1001/jama.297.8.842. PMID 17327526.
Jump up ^ Sen, Chandan K.; Khanna, Savita; Roy, Sashwati (2006). "Tocotrienols: Vitamin E beyond tocopherols". Life Sciences. 78 (18): 2088–98. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.001. PMC 1790869  . PMID 16458936.
Jump up ^ S. Getman (March 2011). EU Regulations on food supplements, health foods, herbal medicines. US Commercial Service. Retrieved February 2014.
Jump up ^ Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft. Bundesrecht 817.022.104. Verordnung des EDI über Speziallebensmittel vom 23. Nov. 2005 Art. 22 Nahrungsergänzungsmittel. (in German)
^ Jump up to: a b Use and Safety of Dietary Supplements NIH office of Dietary Supplements.
Jump up ^ Higdon, Jane (2011)Vitamin E recommendations at Linus Pauling Institute's Micronutrient Information Center
Jump up ^ Legislation. Fda.gov (15 September 2009). Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
Jump up ^ "Adverse Event Reporting System (AERS)". FDA. 20 August 2009. Retrieved 2010-11-12.
Jump up ^ U.S. Food and Drug Administration. CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
Jump up ^ not EUR-Lex – 32002L0046 – EN. Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved on 12 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett, David. Every Vitamin Page. All Vitamins and Pseudo-Vitamins.
^ Jump up to: a b Davidson, Michael W. (2004) Anthranilic Acid (Vitamin L) Florida State University. Retrieved 20-02-07.
Jump up ^ Abbasi, Kamran (2003). "Rapid Responses to: Aspirin protects women at risk of pre-eclampsia without causing bleeding". British Medical Journal. 327 (7424): 7424. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7424.0-h. PMC 261797  .
Jump up ^ Vitamins and minerals – names and facts. pubquizhelp.34sp.com
^ Jump up to: a b B Vitamins[permanent dead link]. NeuroSoup (2013-04-15). Retrieved on 2015-11-30.
Jump up ^ Vitamins: What Vitamins Do I Need?. Medical News Today. Retrieved on 2015-11-30.
Jump up ^ Price C (Fall 2015). "The healing power of compressed yeast". Distillations Magazine. 1 (3): 17–23. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Roth KS (1981). "Biotin in clinical medicine—a review". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34 (9): 1967–74. PMID 6116428.
Jump up ^ Rindi G; Perri V (1961). "Uptake of pyrithiamine by tissue of rats". Biochem. J. 80 (1): 214–6. PMC 1243973  . PMID 13741739.
Jump up ^ McDowell, Lee Russell (2012). Vitamins in Animal Nutrition: Comparative Aspects to Human Nutrition. Elsevier. p. 398. ISBN 9780323139045.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jack Challem (1997)."The Past, Present and Future of Vitamins"
Jump up ^ Jacob, RA (1996). "Three eras of vitamin C discovery". Subcell Biochem. Subcellular Biochemistry. 25: 1–16. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0325-1_1. ISBN 978-1-4613-7998-0. PMID 8821966.
Jump up ^ Bellis, Mary. Production Methods The History of the Vitamins[permanent dead link]. Retrieved 1 February 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b 1929 Nobel lecture. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 3 August 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Gratzer, Walter (2006). "9. The quarry run to earth". Terrors of the table: the curious history of nutrition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199205639. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b Carpenter, Kenneth (22 June 2004). "The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Suzuki, U.; Shimamura, T. (1911). "Active constituent of rice grits preventing bird polyneuritis". Tokyo Kagaku Kaishi. 32: 4–7; 144–146; 335–358.
Jump up ^ Combs, Gerald (2008). The vitamins: fundamental aspects in nutrition and health. ISBN 9780121834937.
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Jump up ^ Iłowiecki, Maciej (1981). Dzieje nauki polskiej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Interpress. p. 177. ISBN 83-223-1876-6.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article Vitamine.
USDA RDA chart in PDF format
Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes Reference Chart for Vitamins
NIH Office of Dietary Supplements: Fact Sheets
show
v
t
e
Vitamins (A11)
Fat soluble
A
α-Carotene
β-Carotene
Retinol#
Tretinoin
D
D2
Ergosterol
Ergocalciferol#
D3
7-Dehydrocholesterol
Previtamin D3
Cholecalciferol#
25-hydroxycholecalciferol
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)
Calcitroic acid
D4
Dihydroergocalciferol
D5
D analogues
Alfacalcidol
Dihydrotachysterol
Calcipotriol
Tacalcitol
Paricalcitol
E
Tocopherol
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Tocotrienol
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Tocofersolan
K
Naphthoquinone
Phylloquinone (K1)
Menaquinones (K2)
Menadione (K3)‡
Menadiol (K4)
Water soluble
B
B1
Thiamine#
B1 analogues
Acefurtiamine
Allithiamine
Fursultiamine
Octotiamine
Prosultiamine
Sulbutiamine
B2
Riboflavin#
B3
Niacin
Nicotinamide#
B5
Pantothenic acid
Dexpanthenol
Pantethine
B6
Pyridoxine#, Pyridoxal phosphate
Pyridoxamine
Pyritinol
B7
Biotin
B9
Folic acid
Dihydrofolic acid
Folinic acid
Levomefolic acid
B12
Adenosylcobalamin
Cyanocobalamin
Hydroxocobalamin
Methylcobalamin
Choline
C
Ascorbic acid#
Dehydroascorbic acid
Combinations
Multivitamins
#WHO-EM
‡Withdrawn from market
Clinical trials:
†Phase III
§Never to phase III
show
v
t
e
Food chemistry
Additives
Carbohydrates
Coloring
Enzymes
Essential fatty acids
Flavors
Fortification
Lipids
"Minerals" (Chemical elements)
Proteins
Vitamins
Water
show
v
t
e
Malnutrition or nutrition disorders (E40–E68, 260–269)
Malnutrition
Protein-energy
malnutrition
Kwashiorkor
Marasmus
Catabolysis
Vitamin deficiency
B vitamins
B1: Beriberi / Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (Wernicke's encephalopathy
Korsakoff's syndrome)
B2: Riboflavin deficiency
B3: Pellagra (Niacin deficiency)
B6: Pyridoxine deficiency
B7: Biotin deficiency
B9: Folate deficiency
B12: Vitamin B12 deficiency
Other
vitamins
A: Vitamin A deficiency/Bitot's spots
C: Scurvy
D: Vitamin D deficiency/Rickets/Osteomalacia
E: Vitamin E deficiency
K: Vitamin K deficiency
Mineral
deficiency
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Iron
Zinc
Manganese
Copper
Iodine
Chromium
Molybdenum
Selenium (Keshan disease)
Overnutrition
Overweight
Obesity
Childhood obesity
Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
Abdominal obesity
Vitamin poisoning
Hypervitaminosis A
Hypervitaminosis D
Hypervitaminosis E
Mineral overload
see inborn errors of metal metabolism, toxicity
show
v
t
e
Dietary supplements
Types
Amino acids
Bodybuilding supplement
Energy drink
Energy bar
Fatty acids
Herbal supplements
Minerals
Prebiotics
Probiotics (Lactobacillus
Bifidobacterium)
Protein bar
Vitamins
Vitamins and
chemical elements ("minerals")
Retinol (Vitamin A)
B vitamins: Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Pantothenic acid (B5)
Pyridoxine (B6)
Biotin (B7)
Folic acid (B9)
Cyanocobalamin (B12)
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)
Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
Naphthoquinone (Vitamin K)
Calcium
Choline
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
Other common ingredients
AAKG
β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate
Carnitine
Chondroitin sulfate
Cod liver oil
Copper gluconate
Creatine/Creatine supplements
Dietary fiber
Echinacea
Elemental calcium
Ephedra
Fish oil
Folic acid
Ginseng
Glucosamine
Glutamine
Grape seed extract
Guarana
Iron supplements
Japanese Honeysuckle
Krill oil
Lingzhi
Linseed oil
Lipoic acid
Milk thistle
Melatonin
Red yeast rice
Royal jelly
Saw palmetto
Spirulina
St John's wort
Taurine
Wheatgrass
Wolfberry
Yohimbine
Zinc gluconate
Related articles
Codex Alimentarius
Enzyte
Hadacol
Herbal tea
Nutraceutical
Multivitamin
Nutrition
Authority control
GND: 4063635-5
LCCN: sh85144006
NDL: 00560693
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text:
Your Arms Too Short to Box with God
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Your Arms Too Short
to Box with God
A Soaring Celebration in Song and Dance
1976 Broadway Playbill
Music
Alex Bradford
Micki Grant
Lyrics
Alex Bradford
Micki Grant
Book
Vinnette Carroll
Basis
The Book of Matthew
Productions
1976 Broadway
1980 Broadway revival
1982 Broadway revival
Your Arms Too Short to Box with God: A Soaring Celebration in Song and Dance is a Broadway musical based on the Biblical Book of Matthew, with music and lyrics by Alex Bradford and a book by Vinnette Carroll, who also directed. Micki Grant was credited for "additional music and lyrics."
A 1980 revival was the Broadway debut of star Jennifer Holliday, then billed as Jennifer-Yvette Holliday.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Original production
2 Revival
3 Legacy
4 Awards and nominations
5 References
6 External links
Original production[edit]
Produced by Frankie Hewitt and the Shubert Organization, it opened December 22, 1976, at Broadway's Lyceum Theatre in New York City. It moved to the Eugene O'Neill Theatre on November 16, 1977, and closed January 1, 1978, after 429 performances.[1]
Revival[edit]
Your Arms Too Short to Box with God was revived twice on Broadway, first at the Ambassador Theatre and the Belasco Theatre (June 2–October 12, 1980), then at the Alvin Theatre (September 9–November 7, 1982). During the 1982 run, Al Green appeared with Patti Labelle in the show.[1]
Legacy[edit]
The phrase first appeared in James Weldon Johnson's poem "The Prodigal Son," which was published in his 1927 book of poems God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse.[2] The passage — which refers to an arm singular rather than arms plural — reads:
Young man—
Young man—
Your arm's too short to box with God.
But Jesus spake in a parable, and he said:
A certain man had two sons.
Jesus didn't give this man a name,
But his name is God Almighty.
And Jesus didn't call these sons by name,
But ev'ry young man,
Ev'rywhere,
Is one of these two sons.[3]
This section below does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section below by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The title phrase has been used in other contexts. "Your lungs is too small to hotbox with God" is a line used by rapper Xzibit in Eminem's "Bitch Please 2". Xzibit later used a variation of the line ("Your little lungs is too weak to hotbox with God") on "Down for the Count" by Reflection Eternal. The phrase also appears in the Black Star song "Thieves in the Night", in the line "Your firearms are too short to box with God". GZA of the Wu-Tang Clan also used a variation ("Rhymes too short to box with God") on his track "Paper Plates" from Pro Tools. Killah Priest, also of Wu-Tang Clan, opened his hip-hop album, Heavy Mental, with it. It is in "It's All Real" by Pitch Black and "Mortal Combat" by Big Daddy Kane. Nas used the line in his song "You're Da Man" from his 2001 album Stillmatic. The line also appears in "Drunk Daddy" by the Cherry Poppin' Daddies, and in "F.I.F.A." by Pusha T. This line is also used in Dumbfoundead's song, "Korean Jesus" with the lyrics "Buddha blessed, with Muhammad, trying to hotbox with Gods." Ralph Ellison uses the phrase in Invisible Man: "Your arms are too short to box with me, son."
Awards and nominations[edit]
Delores Hall won the 1977 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. Carroll earned Tony nominations for Best Book of a Musical and Best Direction of a Musical, with Talley Beatty nominated for Best Choreography.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Your Arms Too Short to Box with God at the Internet Broadway Database (The Broadway League) Archived from the original November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Dr. Sondra Kathryn. An Introduction to Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson. Grace and James Weldon Johnson (official site). Retrieved August 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ Johnson, James Weldon. "The Prodigal Son". God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse: Electronic Edition. Documenting the American South, University Library, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. p. 21. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
External links[edit]
Your Arms Too Short to Box with God at Playbill.com. Retrieved on February 25, 2017.
'Your Arms Too Short to Box with God at BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved on February 25, 2017.
Playbill for Your Arms Too Short to Box with God. Smithsonian Institution Transcription Center. Retrieved on February 25, 2017. Archived from the original on February 25, 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Your_Arms_Too_Short_to_Box_with_God&oldid=792133948"
Categories:
1976 musicals
All-Black cast Broadway shows
Broadway musicals
Musicals based on the Gospels
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