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English Mastiff
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English Mastiff
An English Mastiff
Other names
Mastiff
Old English Mastiff
Origin
England
[hide]Traits
Weight
Male 150 to 250 pounds (68 to 113 kg)
Female 120 to 180 pounds (54 to 82 kg)
Height
Male 30 inches (76 cm) minimum
Female 27.5 inches (70 cm) minimum
Coat
Fine, smooth
Color
apricot-fawn, silver-fawn, fawn, or dark fawn-brindle
Life span
7-12+ years
[hide]Classification / standards
FCI
Group 2, Section 2.1 Molossian: Mastiff type #264 standard
AKC
Working standard
ANKC
6 Utility standard
CKC
Group 3 – Working standard
KC (UK)
Working standard
NZKC
Utility standard
UKC
Guardian Dog standard
Domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris)
The English Mastiff is a breed of extremely large dog (often known simply as the Mastiff) perhaps descended from the ancient Alaunt and Pugnaces Britanniae, with a significant input from the Alpine Mastiff in the 19th century. Distinguishable by enormous size, massive head, short coat in a limited range of colours, but always displaying a black mask, the Mastiff is noted for its gentle and loving nature. The lineage of modern dogs can be traced back to the early 19th century, but the modern type was stabilised in the 1880s and refined since. Following a period of sharp decline, the Mastiff has increased its worldwide popularity. Throughout its history, the Mastiff has contributed to the development of a number of dog breeds, some generally known as Mastiff-type dogs, or, confusingly, just as "Mastiffs".
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearance
1.1 Coat colour standards
1.2 Record size
2 Temperament
3 Health
4 History
4.1 From Ancient Times to the Early Nineteenth Century
4.2 From the Early Nineteenth Century to the First World War
4.3 After the First World War
5 Famous Mastiffs
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Appearance[edit]
Fawn English Mastiff
With a massive body, broad skull and head of generally square appearance, it is the largest dog breed in terms of mass. It is on average slightly heavier than the Saint Bernard, although there is a considerable mass overlap between these two breeds. Though the Irish Wolfhound and Great Dane can be more than six inches taller, they are not nearly as robust.[1]
The body is large with great depth and breadth, especially between the forelegs, causing these to be set wide apart. The length of the body taken from the point of the shoulder to the point of the buttock is greater than the height at the withers. The AKC standard height (per their website) for this breed is 30 inches (76 cm) at the shoulder for males and 27.5 inches (70 cm) (minimum) at the shoulder for females. A typical male can weigh 150–250 pounds (68–113 kg), a typical female can weigh 120–200 pounds (54–91 kg), with very large individuals reaching 130 kg (286 lb) or more.
Coat colour standards[edit]
The former standard specified the coat should be short and close-lying. Long haired Mastiffs, called "Fluffies", are occasionally seen, due to a recessive gene, but this trait is not accepted by any kennel club. The colour is apricot-fawn, silver-fawn, fawn, or dark fawn-brindle, always with black on the muzzle, ears, and nose and around the eyes.
The Mastiff has a distinctive head with dewlap and flews. The black mask is visible even on this brindle.
The colours of the Mastiff coat are differently described by various kennel clubs, but are essentially fawn or apricot, or those colours as a base for black brindle. A black mask should occur in all cases. The fawn is generally a light "silver" shade, but may range up to a golden yellow. The apricot may be a slightly reddish hue up to a deep, rich red. The brindle markings should ideally be heavy, even and clear stripes, but may actually be light, uneven, patchy, faint or muddled. Pied Mastiffs occur rarely. Other non-standard colours include black, blue brindle, and chocolate (brown) mask. Some Mastiffs have a heavy shading caused by dark hairs throughout the coat or primarily on the back and shoulders. This is not generally considered a fault. Brindle is dominant over solid colour. Apricot is dominant over fawn, though that dominance may be incomplete. Most of the colour faults are recessive, though black is so rare in the Mastiff that it cannot be certain if it is recessive, or a mutation that is dominant.[2]
Two Mastiffs: one apricot, one fawn
The genetic basis for the variability of coat in dogs has been much studied, but all the issues have not yet been resolved.[3] On the basis of what is known (and remembering that, as dogs are diploid animals, each gene location (locus) appears twice in every animal, so questions of dominance also must be resolved), the gene possibilities allowed by the Mastiff standard are AyBDEmh(kbr_or_ky)mS. This describes a dog which is fawn with a dark nose, non-dilute, black-masked, non-harlequin, brindled or not brindled, non-merle, and non-spotted. To allow for the rare exceptions we must include "b" (brown mask and possible brown brindling), "d" (blue mask and possible blue brindling), "sp" (pied spotting), and perhaps "a" (recessive black). The possible combination of homozygous brown and homozygous blue is a pale brown referred to as isabella in breeds where it is relatively common. Speculative gene locations may also exist, so a Mastiff may be "I" (apricot) or "i" (non-apricot) and perhaps "cch" (silver lightening) or "C" (without silver lightening).[4] (Note that this "C locus" may not be the same as the one identified in other animals, SLC45A2.)
Record size[edit]
The greatest weight ever recorded for a dog, 343 pounds (155.6 kg), was that of an English Mastiff from England named Aicama Zorba of La Susa, although claims of larger dogs, including Saint Bernards, Tibetan Mastiffs, and Caucasian ovcharkas exist.[5] According to the 1989 edition of the Guinness Book of Records, in March 1989, when he was 7 years old, Zorba stood 37 inches (94 cm) at the shoulder and was 8 ft 3 in (251 cm) from the tip of his nose to the tip of his tail, about the size of a small donkey.[6] After 2000, the Guinness Book of World Records stopped accepting largest or heaviest pet records.[7]
Temperament[edit]
The Mastiff breed has a desired temperament, which is reflected in all formal standards and historical descriptions. Sydenham Edwards, wrote in 1800 in the Cynographia Britannica:
What the Lion is to the Cat the Mastiff is to the Dog, the noblest of the family; he stands alone, and all others sink before him. His courage does not exceed his temper and generosity, and in attachment he equals the kindest of his race. His docility is perfect; the teazing of the smaller kinds will hardly provoke him to resent, and I have seen him down with his paw the Terrier or cur that has bit him, without offering further injury. In a family he will permit the children to play with him, and suffer all their little pranks without offence. The blind ferocity of the Bull Dog will often wound the hand of the master who assists him to combat, but the Mastiff distinguishes perfectly, enters the field with temper, and engages in the attack as if confident of success: if he overpowers, or is beaten, his master may take him immediately in his arms and fear nothing. This ancient and faithful domestic, the pride of our island, uniting the useful, the brave and the docile, though sought by foreign nations and perpetuated on the continent, is nearly extinct where he probably was an aborigine, or is bastardized by numberless crosses, everyone of which degenerate from the invaluable character of the parent, who was deemed worthy to enter the Roman amphitheatre, and, in the presence of the masters of the worlds, encounter the pard, and assail even the lord of the savage tribes, whose courage was sublimed by torrid suns, and found none gallant enough to oppose him on the deserts of Zaara or the plains of Numidia.[8]
The American Kennel Club sums up the Mastiff breed as:
a combination of grandeur and good nature as well as courage and docility. Domesticated Mastiffs are powerful yet gentle and loyal dogs, but due to their physical size and need for space, are best suited for country or suburban life.[9]
Health[edit]
Even at four weeks, a Mastiff should seem massive.
The Mastiff should at all stages of development show the breed characteristics of massiveness and sound, if cumbersome, movement. The Mastiff is a particularly large dog demanding correct diet and exercise. Excessive running is not recommended for the first two years of the dog's life, in order not to damage the growth plates in the joints of this heavy and fast-growing dog, which in some weeks may gain over 5 lb. However, regular exercise must be maintained throughout the dog's life to discourage slothful behaviour and to prevent a number of health problems. A soft surface is recommended for the dog to sleep on to prevent the development of calluses, arthritis, and hygroma (an acute inflammatory swelling). Due to the breed's large size, puppies may potentially be smothered or crushed by the mother during nursing. A whelping box, along with careful monitoring can prevent such accidents. The average lifespan of the Mastiff is about 7 years although it's not uncommon for some to live to 10–11 years.[10][11]
Major problems can include hip dysplasia and gastric torsion. Minor problems include obesity, osteosarcoma, and cystinuria. Problems only occasionally found include cardiomyopathy, allergies, vaginal hyperplasia, cruciate ligament rupture, hypothyroidism, OCD, entropion, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), and persistent pupillary membranes (PPM).
When purchasing a purebred Mastiff, experts often suggest that the dog undergo tests for hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, thyroid, and DNA for PRA.
A Mastiff may be kept in an apartment, but care must be taken to give it enough exercise. Mastiffs should be fed 2 or 3 times a day; it is believed that one large meal per day can increase the chance of gastric torsion.[12]
History[edit]
From Ancient Times to the Early Nineteenth Century[edit]
The large dogs depicted in figurines and in bas-reliefs from the sixth century BC in Assyria during the reign of King Ashurbanipal[13] may have some part in the ancestry of modern Mastiffs, but without genetic evidence or a clear historical link, this is speculative. There is a similar figurine from the same region during the Kassite period almost a thousand years earlier.[14] These dogs may be related to the dogs that fought lions, tigers, bears, and gladiators in Roman arenas.[15]
Certainly an element in the formation of the English Mastiff was the Pugnaces Britanniae that existed at the time of the Roman conquest of Britain. The ancient Roman poet Grattius (or Grattius Faliscus) wrote of British dogs, describing them as superior to the ancient Greek Molossus, saying:
"What if you choose to penetrate even among the Britons? How great your reward, how great your gain beyond any outlays! If you are not bent on looks and deceptive graces (this is the one defect of the British whelps), at any rate when serious work has come, when bravery must be shown, and the impetuous War-god calls in the utmost hazard, then you could not admire the renowned Molossians so much."[16]
The turn-of-the-millennium Greek historian Strabo reported that dogs were exported from Britain for the purpose of game hunting, and that these dogs were also used by the Celts as war dogs.[17] As far as the origin of the Pugnaces Britanniae is concerned, there is unproven speculation that they were descended from dogs brought to Britain by the Phoenicians in the 6th century BC.[18]
The Alaunt is likely to have been another genetic predecessor to the English Mastiff. Introduced by the Normans, these dogs were developed by the Alans, who had migrated into France (then known as Gaul) due to pressure by the Huns at the start of the fifth century. Intriguingly they were known from the Romans to live in a region (the Pontic-Caspian Steppe) about 700 km to the north of the region where the Assyrians once lived. Again, any canine connections are speculative.[19]
The linguistic origin of the name "Mastiff" is unclear. Many claim that it evolved from the Anglo-Saxon word "masty", meaning "powerful".[20] Other sources, such as the Oxford English Dictionary, say the word originated from the Old French word mastin (Modern French mâtin), the word being itself derived from Vulgar Latin *ma(n)suetinus "tame", see Classical Latin mansuetus with same meaning. The first list of dog breed names in the English language, contained within The Book of Saint Albans, published in 1465, includes "Mastiff ".[21] This work is attributed to Prioress Juliana Berners, but in part may be translated from the early 14th century Norman-French work Le Art de Venerie, by Edward II's Huntmaster Guillaume Twici.[22]
In 1570, Conrad Heresbach, in Rei Rusticae Libri Quatuor, referred to "the Mastie that keepeth the house".[23] Heresbach was writing in Latin; his work was translated a few years later into English by Barnabe Googe as Foure Bookes of Husbandrie.[24] This work is adapted from De Re Rustica by 1st century Roman writer Columella, which highlights the Roman connection. Certainly from Roman to Medieval times, Mastiff-like dogs were used in the blood sports of bear-baiting, bull-baiting, lion-baiting, and dog fighting, as well as for hunting and guarding.
A painting of about 1650 by Abraham Hondius of a bear-baiting with dogs including at least one apparent Mastiff.
Dogs known as Bandogs, who were tied (bound) close to houses, were of Mastiff type.
A picture of 1804 by Philip Reinagle, engraved by John Scott, showing a Mastiff of the Bandog type.
They were described by John Caius[25] in 1570 as vast, huge, stubborn, ugly, and eager, of a heavy and burdensome body.
The naturalist Christopher Merret in his 1666 work Pinax Rerum Naturalium Brittanicarum has a list of British mammals, including 15 kinds of dog, one of which is "Molossus, Canis bellicosus Anglicus, a Mastif".[26] Literally, "Molossus, warlike English dog, a Mastiff", and perhaps the first conflation of the breeds Molossus and Mastiff.
Alpine Mastiff (1805), contributor to the modern Mastiff along with his contemporaries of English stock.
When in 1415 Sir Peers Legh was wounded in the Battle of Agincourt, his Mastiff stood over and protected him for many hours through the battle. The Mastiff was later returned to Legh's home and was the foundation of the Lyme Hall Mastiffs. Five centuries later this pedigree figured prominently in founding the modern breed.[27] Other aristocratic seats where Mastiffs are known to have been kept are Elvaston Castle (Charles Stanhope, 4th Earl of Harrington and his ancestors) and Chatsworth House. The owner of the Chatsworth Mastiffs (which were said to be of Alpine Mastiff stock) was William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, known to his family as Canis.[28] Mastiffs were also kept at Hadzor Hall, owned by members of the Galton family, famous for industrialists and scientists, including Charles Darwin. Some evidence exists that the Mastiff first came to America on the Mayflower,[29] but the breed's further documented entry to America did not occur until the late 19th century.
From the Early Nineteenth Century to the First World War[edit]
In 1835, the Parliament of the United Kingdom implemented an Act called the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835, which prohibited the baiting of animals. This may have led to decline in the aggressive Mastiffs used for this purpose, but Mastiffs continued to be used as guards for country estates and town businesses.
Systematic breeding began in the 19th century,[30] when J.W. (John Wigglesworth) Thompson purchased a bitch, Dorah, from John Crabtree, the head gamekeeper of Kirklees Hall, whose dogs were often held in the name of his employer, Sir George Armitage. Dorah was descended in part from animals owned by Thompson's grandfather Commissioner Thompson at the beginning of the century, as well as a Mastiff of the Bold Hall line (recorded from 1705), a bitch purchased from canal boat men, another caught by Crabtree in a fox trap, a dog from Nostal priory and another dog from Walton Hall, owned by the naturalist, Charles Waterton. J. W. Thompson's first stud dog, Hector, came from crossing a bitch, Juno, bought from animal dealer Bill George, to a dog, Tiger, owned by a Captain Fenton. Neither of these had any pedigree, as was normal for the period. Between 1830 and 1850 he bred the descendants of these dogs and some others to produce a line with the short, broad head and massive build he favoured.
In 1835, T.V.H. Lukey started his operations by breeding an Alpine Mastiff bitch of the Chatsworth line, Old Bob-Tailed Countess (bought from dog dealer Bill White), to Pluto, a large black Mastiff of unknown origin belonging to the Marquis of Hertford. The result was a bitch called Yarrow, who was mated to Couchez, another Alpine Mastiff belonging (at the time) to White and later mated to a brindle dog also in White's possession. Lukey produced animals that were taller but less massive than Thompson's. After 1850, Thompson and Lukey collaborated, and the modern Mastiff was created, though animals without pedigree or of dubious pedigree continued to be bred from into the 20th century.
Marquis of Hertford's crop-eared black Mastiff Pluto (1830)
Another important contribution to the breed was made by a dog called Lion, owned by Captain (later Colonel) John Garnier of The Royal Engineers.[31] He bought two Mastiffs from the previously mentioned dealer Bill George. The bitch, Eve, bought by George at Leadenhall Market, was old enough to be grey-muzzled, but of good type. The dog, Adam, was of reputed Lyme Hall origin, but bought at Tattersalls and suspected by Garnier of containing a "dash of Boarhound", an ancestral form of Great Dane. Garnier took them with him when he was assigned to Canada and brought back their puppy, Lion. He was bred to Lukey's Countess to produce Governor, the source of all existing male Mastiff lines. (Lion was also mated to Lufra, a Scottish Deerhound, and their puppy Marquis appears in the pedigrees of both Deerhounds and Irish Wolfhounds.)
Lukey's Governor, born 1861, a six generation ancestor of Ch. Crown Prince
The controversial Ch. Crown Prince, pictured in old age.
In the 1880s soundness was sacrificed for type, which was widely attributed to the short-headed, massive, but straight-stifled and chocolate-masked Ch. Crown Prince. This dog dominated all of his contemporaries in terms of the number of offspring. Subsequently, the Mastiff lost popularity but gained a consistency of type, with leaner, longer-headed specimens becoming relatively less common.
John Paul's 1867 painting showing a typical mid-19th century longer-headed apricot brindle.
Prominent among the breeders of this era who began to restore soundness were Edgar Hanbury and his relation, the politician and philanthropist Mark Hanbury Beaufoy, later Chairmen of The Kennel Club, who reaching his peak as a breeder with the Crown Prince grandson, Ch. Beaufort, eventually exported to America.
Beaufort, acclaimed 19th century champion, grandson of Crown Prince.
Despite such imports, Mastiff numbers in the US declined steadily through the 1890s and the early 20th century. From 1906 to 1918, only 24 Mastiffs were registered in the United States. After 1910, none of these were bred in America. By the time the First World War ended, other than a few exports to North America, the breed was extinct outside of Great Britain.
After the First World War[edit]
In 1918, a dog called Beowulf, bred in Canada from British imports Priam of Wingfied and Parkgate Duchess, was registered by the American Kennel Club, starting a slow re-establishment of the breed in North America. Priam and Duchess, along with fellow imports Ch Weland, Thor of the Isles, Caractacus of Hellingly and Brutus of Saxondale, ultimately contributed a total of only two descendants who would produce further offspring: Buster of Saxondale and Buddy. There were, however, a number of other imports in the period between the wars and in the early days of the Second World War Those who can still be found in modern pedigrees were 12 in number,[32] meaning the North American contribution to the gene pool after 1945 (including Buster and Buddy) consisted of 14 Mastiffs.
In the British Isles during the Second World War virtually all Mastiff breeding stopped due to the rationing of meat. After the war, such puppies as were produced mostly succumbed to canine distemper, for which no vaccine was developed until 1950.[33] Only a single bitch puppy produced by the elderly stock that survived the war reached maturity, Nydia of Frithend. Her sire had to be declared a Mastiff by the Kennel Club, as his parentage was unknown, and he was thought by some to be a Bullmastiff.
After the war, animals from North America (predominantly from Canada) were imported into Britain. Therefore, all Mastiffs in the late 1950s were descended from Nydia and the 14 Mastiffs previously mentioned, with each all-male bloodline going back to Ch. Crown Prince. It has been alleged that the Mastiff was bred with other more numerically significant giant breeds such as Bullmastiffs and St. Bernards, with the justification that these were considered close relatives to the Mastiff. In 1959, a Dogue de Bordeaux, Fidelle de Fenelon, was imported from France to the USA, registered as a Mastiff, and became the 16th animal in the post-war gene pool.[34] Since that time, the breed has gradually been restored in Britain, has reached 28th most popular breed in the USA,[35] and is now found worldwide.
Famous Mastiffs[edit]
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"Crown Prince", progenitor of the modern breed, owned by psychiatrist L. Forbes Winslow[30]
"Leo", owned by Richard Ansdell, RA, and the model for his painting "The Poacher", aka "The Poacher at Bay"[30]
"Lady Marton", owned by Victorian industrialist Henry Bolckow, and claimed by some to have been a St. Bernard[30]
"Hercules" (a.k.a. "the Beast"), from the film The Sandlot (played by Ch. Mtn. Oaks Gunner)
"Goliath" (a.k.a. "the Great Fear"), from the film The Sandlot 2
"Carlo" from "The Adventure of the Copper Beeches", a Sherlock Holmes story
"Kazak", owned by Winston Niles Rumfoord, a wealthy space traveller in Kurt Vonnegut's novel The Sirens of Titan
An English Mastiff also named "Kazak" appears in the fourth-season episode Un Chien Tangerine of Archer.
"Moss" and "Jaguar", of the Japanese series Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin and its sequel Ginga Densetsu Weed
"Mason The Mastiff", in the 2007 film Transformers[36]
Mudge – Henry and Mudge (children's books)[37][38]
"Chupadogra" A.K.A. "Buster" is an elderly English Mastiff, voiced by Sam Elliott from in the 2010 film, Marmaduke.
"Lenny" is a brindled English Mastiff from the 2009 movie, Hotel for Dogs
"Ch. Semper Fi Groppetti Gargoyle" Best of Breed 2 years in a row at the Westminster Kennel Club Show at the Madison Square Garden show in New York City. He also took a Group 4 there making him the only mastiff ever to win a group placement there that was owner handled.[39]
"Zorba", officially recognised as the world's longest and heaviest dog.
See also[edit]
Mastiff-type
List of Mastiff-type dog breeds
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Dog Coat Color Genetics". Homepage.usask.ca. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Sheila M. Schmutz (27 December 2008). "Coat Color Alleles in Dogs". Retrieved 12 September 2010
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Jump up ^ "Breeds of Livestock – Miniature Donkey". Ansi.okstate.edu. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Sydenham EdwardsCynographia Britannica, 1800 London: C. Whittingham
Jump up ^ "American Kennel Club – Mastiff". The American Kennel Club. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Health Survey Statistics". Mastiff Club of America. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
Jump up ^ O'Neill, D. G.; Church, D. B.; McGreevy, P. D.; Thomson, P. C.; Brodbelt, D. C. (2013). "Longevity and mortality of owned dogs in England". The Veterinary Journal. 198: 638–43. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.020. PMID 24206631. "n=35 median=7.1 IQR=2.01–9.01"
Jump up ^ "Gastric Torsion in Dogs - Vet Help Direct".
Jump up ^ "Stone panel from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal (Room E, no. 13)". British Museum. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
Jump up ^ ""He has a wife you know"". Tumblr. Mastiff
Period: Kassite
Date: ca. mid-2nd millennium B.C.
Geography: Mesopotamia
Culture: Kassite Medium: Ceramic, paint
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Jump up ^ mastiff. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Chicago, 2012. Accessed 3 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Grattius – Cynegeticon". Retrieved 7 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Strabo's Geography". Retrieved 7 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Leighton, R. (1907). The New Book of the Dog. Cassell.
Jump up ^ Hancock, David (2001). The Mastiffs: The Big Game Hunters
Jump up ^ "Mastiff Breed Standard – Club – Old English Mastiff Club". Mastiffclub.com. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "The history of the dog in Britain".
Jump up ^ Twiti,, William. The Art of Hunting translator/editor Danielson, B.. Cynegetica Anglica 1. Stockholm Studies in English XXXVII. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell Int. 1977.
Jump up ^ Andersson, D. D. (1999). The Mastiff: Aristocratic Guardian. Doral Publishing. ISBN 978-0-944875-51-3
Jump up ^ Foure bookes of husbandrie, collected by M. Conradus Heresbachius, councellour to the high and mightie prince, the Duke of Cleue: containing the whole art and trade of husbandry, gardening, graffing, and planting, with the antiquitie, and commendation thereof. Newly Englished, and increased by Barnabe Googe, Esquire, Conrad Heresbach, [Rei rusticae libri quatuor. English] London : Printed by T. Este, for Thomas Wight, 1596
Jump up ^ "BC Museum: Caius". Gis.net. 18 August 2010. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Ford, E. B. (1977) [1945]. Butterflies. Collins (New Naturalist).
Jump up ^ Homan, M. (2000). A Complete History of Fighting Dogs (Pg.10) Howell Book House Inc. ISBN 1-58245-128-1
Jump up ^ "Regency Personalities – Georgiana – Duchess of Devonshire". Homepages.ihug.co.nz. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "The story of the Mayflower dogs - Dogtime". 22 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d The History of the Mastiff, M. B. Wynn 1885. William Loxley.
Jump up ^ "The chronicles of the Garniers of Hampshire during four centuries, 1530–1900" (https://archive.org/stream/chroniclesofgarn00garn/chroniclesofgarn00garn_djvu.txt)
Jump up ^ (1)Roxbury Boy, (2)Millfold Lass, (3)Buzzard Pride (survived only by Merle's Brunhilda of Lyme Hall, who was in turn survived only by Shanno of Lyme Hall), (4)Gyn of Hammercliffe, (5)Duke of Hellingly, (6)Kathleen of Hellingly, (7)King of Hellingly (survived only by Eric of Altnacraig), (8)Maude of Hellingly, (9)Crusader of Goring (survived only by Blythe of Hampden), (10)Goldhawk Elsie, (11)Broomcourt Nell, (12)Rolanda, The History & Management of the Mastiff, Author(s): Baxter, Elizabeth J; Hoffman, Patricia B., Dogwise 2004
Jump up ^ Pomeroy, L.W.; Bjørnstad, O.N; Holmes, E.C. (2008). "The Evolutionary and Epidemiological Dynamics of the Paramyxoviridae" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 66 (2): 98–106. doi:10.1007/s00239-007-9040-x. PMC 3334863  . PMID 18217182. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
Jump up ^ The History & Management of the Mastiff, Author(s): Baxter, Elizabeth J; Hoffman, Patricia B., Dogwise 2004 ISBN 1-929242-11-5
Jump up ^ "AKC Dog Registration Statistics". Akc.org. Archived from the original on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Mason Rock Bay". IMDb.
Jump up ^ ReadWriteThink: Lesson Plan: Word Study With Henry and Mudge
Jump up ^ Henry and Mudge
Jump up ^ Westminster Kennel Club
External links[edit]
English Mastiff at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
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Apocrypha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Apocryphal" redirects here. For the section found in some Bibles called Apocrypha, see Biblical apocrypha. For The X-Files episode, see Apocrypha (The X-Files).
Apocryphal letter of Sultan Mohammed II to the Pope ("Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades au XVe siècle") / published by Nicolas Jorga. Series 4: 1453–1476, Paris; Bucarest, 1915, pages 126–127
Apocrypha are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin.[1] Biblical apocrypha is a set of texts included in the Latin Vulgate and Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. While Catholic tradition considers the texts to be deuterocanonical, Protestants consider them apocryphal. Thus, Protestant bibles do not include the books within the Old Testament but have often included them in a separate section. Other non-canonical apocryphal texts are generally called pseudepigrapha, a term that means "false writings".[2]
The word's origin is the Medieval Latin adjective apocryphus, "secret, or non-canonical", from the Greek adjective ἀπόκρυφος (apokryphos), "obscure", from the verb ἀποκρύπτειν (apokryptein), "to hide away".[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Examples
2.1 Esoteric writings and objects
2.2 Writings of questionable value
2.3 Spurious writings
2.4 Other
2.5 Metaphorical usage
3 Texts
3.1 Judaism
3.2 Intertestamental
3.3 Christianity
3.3.1 Disputes over canonicity
3.3.2 New Testament apocrypha
3.3.3 List of Sixty
3.4 Confucianism and Taoism
3.5 Buddhism
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links
Introduction[edit]
Apocrypha is commonly applied in Christian religious contexts involving certain disagreements about biblical canonicity. Apocryphal writings are a class of documents rejected by some as being either pseudepigraphical and/or unworthy to be properly called Scripture, though, as with other writings, they may sometimes be referenced for support, such as the Book of Jasher. While writings that are now accepted by Christians as Scripture were recognized as being such by various believers early on, the establishment of a largely settled uniform canon was a process of centuries, and what the term "canon" (as well as "apocrypha") precisely meant also saw development. The canonical process took place with believers recognizing writings as being inspired by God from known or accepted origins, subsequently being followed by official affirmation of what had become largely established through the study and debate of the writings.[4] The Roman Catholic church provided its first dogmatic definition of her entire canon in 1546, which put a stop to doubts and disagreements about the status of the Apocrypha, as well as certain other books, which had continued from the beginning of the NT church.[5] The leader of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther, like the Catholic church father Jerome (and certain others), favored the Masoretic canon for the Old Testament, excluding apocryphal books in his non-binding canon as being worthy to properly be called Scripture, but included most of them in a separate section, as per Jerome.[6] Luther also doubted the canonicity of four New Testament books (Hebrews, James and Jude, and Revelation), which judgment Protestantism did not follow, but he did not title them Apocrypha.
Explaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Today Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon.
Examples[edit]
Esoteric writings and objects[edit]
The word "apocryphal" (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied[by whom?] to writings which were kept secret[citation needed] because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered too profound or too sacred to be disclosed to anyone other than the initiated. For example, the disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted that they possessed the secret (ἀπόκρυφα) books of Zoroaster. The term in general enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (see Acts of Thomas, pp. 10, 27, 44).[7]
Sinologist Anna Seidel refers to texts and even items produced by ancient Chinese sages as apocryphal and studied their uses during Six Dynasties China (A.D. 220 to 589). These artifacts were used as symbols legitimizing and guaranteeing the Emperor's Heavenly Mandate. Examples of these include talismans, charts, writs, tallies, and registers. The first examples were stones, jade pieces, bronze vessels and weapons, but came to include talismans and magic diagrams.[8] From their roots in Zhou era China (1066 to 256 B.C.) these items came to be surpassed in value by texts by the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 220). Most of these texts have been destroyed as Emperors, particularly during the Han dynasty, collected these legitimizing objects and proscribed, forbade and burnt nearly all of them to prevent them from falling into the hands of political rivals.[8] It is therefore fitting with the Greek root of the word, as these texts were obviously hidden away to protect the ruling Emperor from challenges to his status as Heaven's choice as sovereign.
Writings of questionable value[edit]
"Apocrypha" was also applied to writings that were hidden not because of their divinity but because of their questionable value to the church. Many in Protestant traditions cite Revelation 22:18–19 as a potential curse for those who attach any canonical authority to extra-biblical writings such as the Apocrypha. However, a strict explanation of this text would indicate it was meant for only the Book of Revelation. Rv.22:18–19f. (KJV) states: "For I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book: And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are written in this book." In this case, if one holds to a strict hermeneutic, the "words of the prophecy" do not refer to the Bible as a whole but to Jesus' Revelation to John. The early Christian theologian Origen, in his Commentaries on Matthew, distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings: γραφὴ μὴ φερομένη μέν ἒν τοῖς κοινοῖς καὶ δεδημοσιευμένοις βιβλίοις εἰκὸς δ' ὅτι ἒν ἀποκρύφοις φερομένη (writing not found on the common and published books in one hand, actually found on the secret ones on the other).[9] The meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to "excluded from the public use of the church", and prepares the way for an even less favourable use of the word.[7]
Spurious writings[edit]
In general use, the word "apocrypha" came to mean "false, spurious, bad, or heretical." This meaning also appears in Origen's prologue to his commentary on the Song of Songs, of which only the Latin translation survives: De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem.[7] "Concerning these scriptures, which are called apocryphal, for the reason that many things are found in them corrupt and against the true faith handed down by the elders, it has pleased them that they not be given a place nor be admitted to authority."
Other[edit]
Other uses of apocrypha developed over the history of Western Christianity. The Gelasian Decree (generally held now as being the work of an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553) refers to religious works by church fathers Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria as apocrypha. Augustine defined the word as meaning simply "obscurity of origin," implying that any book of unknown authorship or questionable authenticity would be considered apocryphal. On the other hand, Jerome (in Protogus Galeatus) declared that all books outside the Hebrew canon were apocryphal.[7] In practice, Jerome treated some books outside the Hebrew canon as if they were canonical, and the Western Church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, instead retaining the word's prior meaning (see: Deuterocanon). As a result, various church authorities labeled different books as apocrypha, treating them with varying levels of regard.
Origen (who stated that "the canonical books, as the Hebrews have handed them down, are twenty-two"),[10] Clement and others cited some apocryphal books as "scripture," "divine scripture," "inspired," and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine and familiar with the Hebrew canon excluded from the canon all of the Old Testament not found there. This view is reflected in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome.[7] A third view was that the books were not as valuable as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, but were of value for moral uses, as introductory texts for new converts from paganism, and to be read in congregations. They were referred to as "ecclesiastical" works by Rufinus.[7]
These three opinions regarding the apocryphal books prevailed until the Protestant Reformation, when the idea of what constitutes canon became a matter of primary concern for Roman Catholics and Protestants alike. In 1546 the Catholic Council of Trent reconfirmed the canon of Augustine, dating to the second and third centuries, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, were declared canonical at Trent.[7] The Protestants, in comparison, were diverse in their opinion of the deuterocanon early on. Some considered them divinely inspired, others rejected them. Anglicans took a position between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Churches; they kept them as Christian intertestamental readings and a part of the Bible, but no doctrine should be based on them. John Wycliffe, a 14th-century Christian Humanist, had declared in his biblical translation that "whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief."[7] Nevertheless, his translation of the Bible included the apocrypha and the Epistle of the Laodiceans.[11]
Martin Luther did not class apocryphal books as being Scripture, but in both the German (1534) and English (1535) translations of the Bible, the apocrypha are published in a separate section from the other books, although the Lutheran and Anglican lists are different. In some editions (like the Westminster), readers were warned that these books were not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings." A milder distinction was expressed elsewhere, such as in the "argument" introducing them in the Geneva Bible, and in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine.[7] Among some other Protestants, the term apocryphal began to take on extra or altered connotations: not just of dubious authenticity, but having spurious or false content,[4] not just obscure but having hidden or suspect motives.[citation needed] Protestants were (and are) not unanimous in adopting those meanings. The Church of England agreed, and that view continues today throughout the Lutheran Church, the worldwide Anglican Communion, and many other denominations.[citation needed] Whichever implied meaning is intended, Apocrypha was (and is) used primarily by Protestants, in reference to the books of questioned canonicity. Catholics and Orthodox sometimes avoid using the term in contexts where it might be disputatious or be misconstrued as yielding on the point of canonicity. Thus the respect accorded to apocryphal books varied between Protestant denominations. Most Protestant published Bibles that include the apocryphal books will relocate them into a separate section (rather like an appendix), so as not to intermingle them with their canonical books.
According to the Orthodox Anglican Church:
On the other hand, the Anglican Communion emphatically maintains that the Apocrypha is part of the Bible and is to be read with respect by her members. Two of the hymns used in the American Prayer Book office of Morning Prayer, the Benedictus es and Benedicite, are taken from the Apocrypha. One of the offertory sentences in Holy Communion comes from an apocryphal book (Tob. 4: 8–9). Lessons from the Apocrypha are regularly appointed to be read in the daily, Sunday, and special services of Morning and Evening Prayer. There are altogether 111 such lessons in the latest revised American Prayer Book Lectionary [The books used are: II Esdras, Tobit, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Three Holy Children, and I Maccabees.] The position of the Church is best summarized in the words of Article Six of the Thirty-nine Articles: "In the name of Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical Books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority there was never any doubt in the Church... And the other Books (as Hierome [St. Jerome] saith) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine.[12]
With few exceptions, the 66 book Protestantism canon (such as listed in the Westminster Confession of 1646)[13] has been well established for centuries, and with many today contending against the Apocrypha using various arguments.[14][15][16]
Metaphorical usage[edit]
The adjective apocryphal is commonly used in modern English to refer to any text or story considered to be of dubious veracity or authority, although it may contain some moral truth. In this broader metaphorical sense, the word suggests a claim that is in the nature of folklore, factoid or urban legend.
Texts[edit]
Judaism[edit]
Main article: Jewish apocrypha
Although Orthodox Jews believe in the exclusive canonization of the current 24 books in the Tanakh, they also consider the Oral Torah to be authoritative, which they believe was handed down from Moses. The Sadducees—unlike the Pharisees but like the Samaritans—seem to have maintained an earlier and smaller number of texts as canonical, preferring to hold to only what was written in the Law of Moses[17] (making most of the presently accepted canon, both Jewish and Christian, apocryphal in their eyes). Certain circles in Judaism, such as the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt, were said to have a secret literature (see Dead Sea scrolls). Other traditions maintained different customs regarding canonicity.[18] The Ethiopic Jews, for instance, seem to have retained a spread of canonical texts similar to the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians,[19] cf Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol 6, p 1147.
Intertestamental[edit]
Main article: Biblical apocrypha
See also: Intertestamental period
During the birth of Christianity, some of the Jewish apocrypha that dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom became popular in the rising Jewish Christian communities. Occasionally these writings were changed or added to, but on the whole it was found sufficient to reinterpret them as conforming to a Christian viewpoint. Christianity eventually gave birth to new apocalyptic works, some of which were derived from traditional Jewish sources. Some of the Jewish apocrypha were part of the ordinary religious literature of the Early Christians. This was strange, as the large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Greek Septuagint, which is the source of the deuterocanonical books[20] as well as most of the other biblical apocrypha.[21]
Slightly varying collections of additional Books (called deuterocanonical by the Roman Catholic Church) form part of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox canons. See Development of the Old Testament canon.
The Book of Enoch is included in the biblical canon only of the Oriental Orthodox churches of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Epistle of Jude quotes the book of Enoch, and some believe the use of this book also appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter.[22][23] The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Epistle of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria and much of the early church. The epistles of Paul and the gospels also show influences from the Book of Jubilees, which is part of the Ethiopian canon, as well as the Assumption of Moses and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which are included in no biblical canon.
The high position which some apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences in the Christian church. All claims to the possession of a secret tradition (as held by many Gnostic sects) were denied by the influential theologians like Irenaeus and Tertullian, which modern historians refer to as the Proto-orthodox, the timeframe of true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as proof of apostolic authorship. As these principles gained currency, books deemed apocryphal tended to become regarded as spurious and heretical writings, though books now considered deuterocanonical have been used in liturgy and theology from the first century to the present.
Christianity[edit]
Disputes over canonicity[edit]
The actual status of the books which the Catholic church terms Deuterocanonicals (second canon) and Protestantism refers to as Apocrypha has been an issue of disagreement which preceded the Reformation. Many believe that the pre-Christian-era Jewish translation (into Greek) of holy scriptures known as the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures originally compiled around 280 B.C., originally included the apocryphal writings in dispute, with little distinction made between them and the rest of the Old Testament. Others argue that the Septuagint of the first century did not contain these books but were added later by Christians,[24][25] The earliest extant manuscripts of the Septuagint are from the fourth century, and suffer greatly from a lack of uniformity as regards containing apocryphal books,[26][27][28] and some also contain books classed as Pseudepigrapha, from which texts were cited by some early writers in the second and later centuries as being Scripture.[4]
While a few scholars conclude that the Jewish canon was the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty,[29] it is generally considered to not have been finalized until about 100 A.D.[30] or somewhat later, at which time considerations of Greek language and beginnings of Christian acceptance of the Septuagint weighed against some of the texts. Some were not accepted by the Jews as part of the Hebrew Bible canon and the Apocrypha is not part of the historical Jewish canon.
Early church fathers such as Athanasius, Melito, Origen, and Cyril of Jerusalem, spoke against the canonicity of much or all of the apocrypha,[24] but the most weighty opposition was the fourth century Catholic scholar Jerome who preferred the Hebrew canon, whereas Augustine and others preferred the wider (Greek) canon,[31] with both having followers in the generations that followed. The Catholic Encyclopedia states as regards the Middle Ages,
"In the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages [5th century to the 15th century] we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals. There is a current friendly to them, another one distinctly unfavourable to their authority and sacredness, while wavering between the two are a number of writers whose veneration for these books is tempered by some perplexity as to their exact standing, and among those we note St. Thomas Aquinas. Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity." The prevailing attitude of Western medieval authors is substantially that of the Greek Fathers.[32]
The wider Christian canon accepted by Augustine became the more established canon in the western Church[33] after being promulgated for use in the Easter Letter of Athanasius (circa 372 A.D., though in the same letter he denied all apocryphal books as being Scripture, except for Baruch, while excluding Esther).[34] the Synod of Rome (382 A.D., but its Decretum Gelasianum is generally considered to be a much later addition[35] ) and the local councils of Carthage and Hippo in north Africa (391 and 393 A.D). Nevertheless, none of these constituted indisputable definitions, and significant scholarly doubts and disagreements about the nature of the Apocrypha continued for centuries and even into Trent,[36][37][38] which provided the first infallible definition of the Catholic canon in 1546.[39][40] This canon came to see appropriately 1,000 years of nearly uniform use by the majority, even after the 11th-century schism that separated the church into the branches known as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers challenged the canonicity of the books and partial-books found in the surviving Septuagint but not in the Masoretic Text. In response to this challenge, after the death of Martin Luther (February 8, 1546) the ecumenical Council of Trent officially ("infallibly") declared these books (called "deuterocanonical" by Catholics) to be part of the canon in April, 1546 A.D. While the Protestant Reformers rejected the parts of the canon that were not part of the Hebrew Bible, they included the four New Testament books Luther held as doubtful canonicity along with the Apocrypha in his non-binding canon (though most were separately included in his bible,[4] as they were in some editions of the KJV bible until 1947).[41] Protestantism therefore established a 66 book canon with the 39 books based on the ancient Hebrew canon, along with the traditional 27 books of the New Testament. Protestants also rejected the Catholic term "deuterocanonical" for these writings, preferring to apply the term "apocryphal" which was already in use for other early and disputed writings. As today (but along with others reasons),[24] various reformers argued that those books contained doctrinal or other errors and thus should not have been added to the canon for that reason. The differences between canons can be seen under Biblical canon and Development of the Christian biblical canon.
Explaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Those differences (in matters of jurisdictional authority) were contributing factors in the separation of the Roman Catholics and Orthodox around 1054, but the formation of the canon which Trent would later officially definitively settle was largely complete by the fifth century, in not settled, six centuries before the separation. In the eastern part of the church, it took much of the fifth century also to come to agreement, but in the end it was accomplished. The canonical books thus established by the undivided church became the predominate canon for what was later to become Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox alike. The East did already differ from the West in not considering every question of canon yet settled, and it subsequently adopted a few more books into its Old Testament. It also allowed consideration of yet a few more to continue not fully decided, which led in some cases to adoption in one or more jurisdictions, but not all. Thus, there are today a few remaining differences of canon among Orthodox, and all Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon. The Psalms of Solomon, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, the Epistle of Jeremiah the Book of Odes, the Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 are included in some copies of the Septuagint,[42] some of which are accepted as canonical by Eastern Orthodox and some other churches. Protestants accept none of these additional books as canon either, but see them having roughly the same status as the other Apocrypha.
New Testament apocrypha[edit]
Main article: New Testament apocrypha
New Testament apocrypha—books similar to those in the New Testament but almost universally rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants—include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some were written by early Jewish Christians (see the Gospel according to the Hebrews). Others of these were produced by Gnostic authors or members of other groups later defined as heterodox. Many texts believed lost for centuries were unearthed in the 19th and 20th centuries, producing lively speculation about their importance in early Christianity among religious scholars,[citation needed] while many others survive only in the form of quotations from them in other writings; for some, no more than the title is known. Artists and theologians have drawn upon the New Testament apocrypha for such matters as the names of Dismas and Gestas and details about the Three Wise Men. The first explicit mention of the perpetual virginity of Mary is found in the pseudepigraphical Infancy Gospel of James.
Before the fifth century, the Christian writings that were then under discussion for inclusion in the canon but had not yet been accepted were classified in a group known as the ancient antilegomenae. These were all candidates for the New Testament and included several books which were eventually accepted, such as: The Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, 3 John and the Revelation of John (Apocalypse). None of those accepted books can be considered Apocryphal now, since all Christendom accepts them as canonical. Of the uncanonized ones, the Early Church considered some heretical but viewed others quite well. Some Christians, in an extension of the meaning, might also consider the non-heretical books to be "apocryphal" along the manner of Martin Luther: not canon, but useful to read. This category includes books such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and The Shepherd of Hermas which are sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Gnostic tradition was a prolific source of apocryphal gospels. While these writings borrowed the characteristic poetic features of apocalyptic literature from Judaism, Gnostic sects largely insisted on allegorical interpretations based on a secret apostolic tradition. With them, these apocryphal books were highly esteemed. A well-known Gnostic apocryphal book is the Gospel of Thomas, the only complete text of which was found in the Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. The Gospel of Judas, a Gnostic gospel, also received much media attention when it was reconstructed in 2006.
Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians as well as Protestants generally agree on the canon of the New Testament, see Development of the New Testament canon. The Ethiopian Orthodox have in the past also included I & II Clement and Shepherd of Hermas in their New Testament canon.
List of Sixty[edit]
The List of Sixty, dating to around the 7th century, lists the sixty books of the Bible. The unknown author also lists several apocryphal books that are not included amongst the sixty. These books are:[2]
Adam
Enoch
Lamech
Twelve Patriarchs
Prayer of Joseph
Eldad and Modad
Testament of Moses
Assumption of Moses
Psalms of Solomon
Apocalypse of Elijah
Ascension of Isaiah
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
Apocalypse of Zechariah
Apocalyptic Ezra
History of James
Apocalypse of Peter
Itinerary and Teaching of the Apostles
Epistle of Barnabas
Acts of Paul
Apocalypse of Paul
Didascalia of Clement
Didascalia of Ignatius
Didascalia of Polycarp
Gospel According to Barnabas
Gospel According to Matthew
Confucianism and Taoism[edit]
Prophetic texts called the Ch'an-wei (zh:讖緯) were written by Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE) Taoist priests to legitimize as well as curb imperial power.[43] They deal with treasure objects that were part of the Zhou (1066 to 256 BCE) royal treasures. Emerging from the instability of the Warring States period (476–221 BCE), ancient Chinese scholars saw the centralized rule of the Zhou as an ideal model for the new Han empire to emulate. The Ch'an-wei are therefore texts written by Han scholars about the Zhou royal treasures, only they were not written to record history for its own sake, but for legitimizing the current imperial reign. These texts took the form of stories about texts and objects being conferred upon the Emperors by Heaven and comprising these ancient sage-king's (this is how the Zhou emperors were referred to by this time, about 500 years after their peak) royal regalia.[43] The desired effect was to confirm the Han emperor's Heavenly Mandate through the continuity offered by his possession of these same sacred talismans. It is because of this politicized recording of their history that it is difficult to retrace the exact origins of these objects. What is known is that these texts were most likely produced by a class of literati called the fangshi. These were a class of nobles who were not part of the state administration; they were considered specialists or occultists, for example diviners, astrologers, alchemists or healers.[43] It is from this class of nobles that the first Taoist priests are believed to have emerged. Seidel points out however that the scarcity of sources relating to the formation of early Taoism make the exact link between the apocryphal texts and the Taoist beliefs unclear.[43]
Buddhism[edit]
Main article: Buddhist apocrypha
Apocryphal Jatakas of the Pali Buddhist canon, such as those belonging to the Paññāsajātaka collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain Southeast Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals.[44][45]
Within the Pali tradition, the apocryphal Jatakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) are treated as a separate category of literature from the "Official" Jataka stories that have been more-or-less formally canonized from at least the 5th century—as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls.
See also[edit]
Occult
Shakespeare apocrypha
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Little, Williams. Onions, C.T., editors. The Oxford Universal Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1955
^ Jump up to: a b Bromiley, Geoffrey William, ed. (2009). "Apocrypha". The International standard Bible encyclopedia (2 ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans.
Jump up ^ "Apocrypha - Definition". merriam-webster.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McDonald, Lee Martin (2009). Forgotten Scriptures: The Selection and Rejection of Early Religious Writings. Louisville, KY 40202-1396. pp. 11–33. ISBN 978-0664233570. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
Jump up ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia (Vol. 3 ed.). , Washington, DC 20064: Catholic University of America. 2003. pp. 20, 26.
Jump up ^ Coogan, Michael David (2007). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books . Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 457.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Charles 1911
^ Jump up to: a b Seidel, Anna. "Imperial treasures and Taoist sacraments", in M. Strickmann, ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honor of Rolf A. Stein, II, Bruxelles, Institut belge des hautes etudes chinoises. pp. 291-371.
Jump up ^ Commentaries on Matthew, X. 18, XIII. 57[not specific enough to verify]
Jump up ^ "Origen on the Canon". BibleResearcher.com. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "John Wycliffe's Translation". nnu.edu.
Jump up ^ The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments Archived August 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "THE WESTMINSTER CONFESSION OF FAITH". BibleResearcher.com. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Blocher, Henri (2004). "Helpful or Harmful? The "Apocrypha" and Evangelical Theology". European Journal of Theology (13.2): 81–90.
Jump up ^ Webster, William. "The Old Testament Canon and the Apocrypha Part 3". Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Shamoun, Sam. "Are The Jewish Apocrypha Inspired Scripture? Pt. 4". Answering Islam - A Christian-Muslim dialog. Answering Islam. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "SADDUCEES". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ The Old Testament Canon Archived December 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ethiopian Orthodox Old Testament Archived December 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Deuterocanonical books literally means books of the second canon. The term was coined in the 16th century.
Jump up ^ The Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical literature instead of apocrypha in academic writing, although not all apocryphal books are properly deuterocanonical.
Jump up ^ Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament", Cornerstone Publications (2008), ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5
Jump up ^ http://www.accordancebible.com/Comprehensive-Crossreferences
^ Jump up to: a b c Wegner, Paul D. (2004). The Journey from Texts to Translations: The Origin and Development of the Bible. Baker Academic. p. 14. ISBN 978-0801027994.
Jump up ^ Beckwith, Roger T. (November 1, 2008). The Canon of the Old Testament (PDF). Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Pub. pp. 62, 382–83. ISBN 978-1606082492. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Ellis, E. E. (1992). The Old Testament in Early Christianity. Ada, MI 49301: Baker. pp. 34–35.
Jump up ^ Archer, Jr, Gleason (2007). A survey of Old Testament introduction ([Rev. and expanded]. ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. pp. 75–86. ASIN 0802484344. ISBN 978-0802484345. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Jump up ^ Biddle, Martin Hengel with the assistance of Roland Deines; introd. by Robert Hanhart; transl. by Mark E. (2004). The Septuagint as Christian Scripture : its prehistory and the problem of its canon (North American paperback ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. pp. 57–59. ISBN 080102790X.
Jump up ^ Davies, Philip R. (September 1, 2013). Rethinking Biblical Scholarship: Changing Perspectives 4. Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 978-1844657278.
Jump up ^ Newman, Robert C. "THE COUNCIL OF JAMNIA AND THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON" (PDF). Gordon Faculty Online. Gordon College. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Correspondence of Augustine and Jerome concerning the Latin Translation of the Scriptures". bible-researcher.com.
Jump up ^ Knight, Kevin. ". Canon of the Old Testament". New Advent. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Lienhard, S.J. A.B., Joseph. The Bible, the Church, and Authority. Collegeville, Minnesota: Fordham University. p. 59.
Jump up ^ bible-researcher.com. "Athanasius on the Canon". Retrieved 26 November 2015.
Jump up ^ BURKITT, F. C. "THE DECRETUM GELASIANUM.". tertullian.org. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Jedin, Hubert (1947). Papal Legate At The Council Of Trent. St Louis: B. Herder Book Co. pp. 270–271.
Jump up ^ Wicks, Jared (1978). Cajetan Responds: A Reader in Reformation Controversy. Washington: The Catholic University Press of America.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce (1957). An Introduction to the Apocrypha. New York: Oxford. p. 180.
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (1908). Canon of the Old Testament. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ H. Tavard,, George (1959). Holy Writ or Holy Church. London: Burns & Oates. pp. 16–17.
Jump up ^ Hiers, Richard H. (October 1, 2001). The Trinity Guide to the Bible. Norcross, GA 3007: Trinity Press International. p. 148. ISBN 1563383403. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Old Testament Canon and Apocrypha". BibleResearcher. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Seidel, Anna. "Imperial treasures and Taoist sacraments", in M. Strickmann, ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honor of Rolf A. Stein, II, Bruxelles, Institut belge des hautes etudes chinoises. 291–371.
Jump up ^ (Phra), Hōrāthibō̜dī; Siam), Nārāi (King of; Prince Paramānuchit Chinōrot (Son Of Phutthayō̜Tfā Čhulālōk, King of Siam (1993). The Tale of Prince Samuttakote. ISBN 9780896801745.
Jump up ^ http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/the_tham_vessantara_jataka_-_a_critical_study_of_the_vj_and_its_influence_on_kengtung_buddhism_eastern_shan_state.pdf
Sources[edit]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Charles, Robert Henry (1911). "Apocryphal Literature". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 175–183.
External links[edit]
Look up apocrypha in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apocrypha
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Deuterocanonical books.
Alin Suciu's blog on various Coptic apocrypha
The Apocrypha is in the religion section at the e.Lib.
Noncanonical Literature
Complete NT Apocrypha Claims to be the largest collection of New Testament apocrypha online
Deuterocanonical books - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also presents the full text in Arabic)
LDS Bible Dictionary - Apocrypha – Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions.
Aldenicum The Trilogy, an apocryphal view on life and reality around us.
Christian Cyclopedia article on Apocrypha
New Testament Allusions to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Canon Comparison Chart
Schem, A. J. (1879). "Apocrypha". The American Cyclopædia.
"Apocrypha". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Apocrypha public domain audiobook at LibriVox
EarlyChristianWritings.com A chronological list of early Christian books and letters, both complete and incomplete works; canonical, apocryphal and Gnostic. Many with links to English translations.
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values: აპოკრიფი – Georgian

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