text:
Mixed-design analysis of variance
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In statistics, a mixed-design analysis of variance model (also known as a split-plot ANOVA) is used to test for differences between two or more independent groups whilst subjecting participants to repeated measures. Thus, in a mixed-design ANOVA model, one factor (a fixed effects factor) is a between-subjects variable and the other (a random effects factor) is a within-subjects variable. Thus, overall, the model is a type of mixed effect model.
A repeated measures design is used when multiple independent variables or measures exist in a data set, but all participants have been measured on each variable.[1]:506[page needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 An example
2 ANOVA assumptions
3 Partitioning the sums of squares and the logic of ANOVA
4 Analysis of variance table
5 Degrees of freedom
6 Follow-up tests
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
An example[edit]
Andy Field (2009)[1] provided an example of a mixed-design ANOVA in which he wants to investigate whether personality or attractiveness is the most important quality for individuals seeking a partner. In his example, there is a speed dating event set up in which there are two sets of what he terms "stooge dates": a set of males and a set of females. The experimenter selects 18 individuals, 9 males and 9 females to play stooge dates. Stooge dates are individuals who are chosen by the experimenter and they vary in attractiveness and personality. For males and females, there are three highly attractive individuals, three moderately attractive individuals, and three highly unattractive individuals. Of each set of three, one individual has a highly charismatic personality, one is moderately charismatic and the third is extremely dull.
The participants are the individuals who sign up for the speed dating event and interact with each of the 9 individuals of the opposite sex. There are 10 males and 10 female participants. After each date, they rate on a scale of 0 to 100 how much they would like to have a date with that person, with a zero indicating "not at all" and 100 indicating "very much".
The repeated measures are looks, which consist of three levels (very attractive, moderately attractive, and highly unattractive) and the personality, which again has three levels (highly charismatic, moderately charismatic, and extremely dull). The between-subjects measure is gender because the participants making the ratings were either female or male.
ANOVA assumptions[edit]
When running an analysis of variance to analyse a data set, the data set should meet the following criteria:
Normality: scores for each condition should be sampled from a normally distributed population.
Homogeneity of variance: each population should have the same error variance.
Sphericity of the covariance matrix: ensures the F ratios match the F distribution
For the between-subject effects to meet the assumptions of the analysis of variance, the variance for any level of a group must be the same as the variance for the mean of all other levels of the group. When there is homogeneity of variance, sphericity of the covariance matrix will occur, because for between-subjects independence has been maintained.[2][page needed]
For the within-subject effects, it is important to ensure normality and homogeneity of variance are not being violated.[2][page needed]
If the assumptions are violated, a possible solution is to use the Greenhouse & Geisser[3] or the Huynh & Feldt[4] adjustments to the degrees of freedom because they can correct for issues that can arise should the sphericity of the covariance matrix assumption be violated.[2][page needed]
Partitioning the sums of squares and the logic of ANOVA[edit]
Due to the fact that the mixed-design ANOVA uses both between-subject variables and within-subject variables (a.k.a. repeated measures), it is necessary to partition out (or separate) the between-subject effects and the within-subject effects.[2] It is as if you are running two separate ANOVAs with the same data set, except that it is possible to examine the interaction of the two effects in a mixed design. As can be seen in the source table provided below, the between-subject variables can be partitioned into the main effect of the first factor and into the error term. The within-subjects terms can be partitioned into three terms: the second (within-subjects) factor, the interaction term for the first and second factors, and the error term.[2][page needed] The main difference between the sum of squares of the within-subject factors and between-subject factors is that within-subject factors have an interaction factor.
More specifically, the total sum of squares in a regular one-way ANOVA would consist of two parts: variance due to treatment or condition (SSbetween-subjects) and variance due to error (SSwithin-subjects). Normally the SSwithin-subjects is a measurement of variance. In a mixed-design, you are taking repeated measures from the same participants and therefore the sum of squares can be broken down even further into three components: SSwithin-subjects (variance due to being in different repeated measure conditions), SSerror (other variance), and SSBT*WT (variance of interaction of between-subjects by within-subjects conditions).[2]
Each effect has its own F value. Both the between-subject and within-subject factors have their own MSerror term which is used to calculate separate F values.
Between-subjects:
FBetween-subjects = MSbetween-subjects/MSError(between-subjects)
Within-subjects:
FWithin-subjects = MSwithin-subjects/MSError(within-subjects)
FBS×WS = MSbetween×within/MSError(within-subjects)
Analysis of variance table[edit]
Results are often presented in a table of the following form.[2][page needed]
Source
SS
df
MS
F
Between-subjects
FactorBS SSBS dfBS MSBS FBS
Error SSBS/E dfBS/E MSBS/E
Within-subjects
FactorWS SSWS dfWS MSWS FWS
FactorWS×BS SSBS×WS dfBS×WS MSBS×WS FBS×WS
Error SSWS/E dfWS/E MSWS/E
Total SST dfT
Degrees of freedom[edit]
In order to calculate the degrees of freedom for between-subjects effects, dfBS = R – 1, where R refers to the number of levels of between-subject groups.[2][page needed]
In the case of the degrees of freedom for the between-subject effects error, dfBS(Error) = Nk – R, where Nk is equal to the number of participants, and again R is the number of levels.
To calculate the degrees of freedom for within-subject effects, dfWS = C – 1, where C is the number of within-subject tests. For example, if participants completed a specific measure at three time points, C = 3, and dfWS = 2.
The degrees of freedom for the interaction term of between-subjects by within-subjects term(s), dfBSXWS = (R – 1)(C – 1), where again R refers to the number of levels of the between-subject groups, and C is the number of within-subject tests.
Finally, the within-subject error is calculated by, dfWS(Error) = (Nk – R)(C – 1), in which Nk is the number of participants, R and C remain the same.
Follow-up tests[edit]
When there is a significant interaction between a between-subject factor and a within-subject factor, statisticians often recommended pooling the between-subject and within-subject MSerror terms.[2][page needed][citation needed] This can be calculated in the following way:
MSWCELL = SSBSError + SSWSError / dfBSError + dfWSError
When following up interactions for terms that are both between-subjects or both within-subjects variables, the method is identical to follow-up tests in ANOVA. The MSError term that applies to the follow-up in question is the appropriate one to use, e.g. if following up a significant interaction of two between-subject effects, use the MSError term from between-subjects.[2][page needed] See ANOVA.
See also[edit]
Restricted randomization
Mauchly's sphericity test
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Field, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS (3rd edition). Los Angeles: Sage.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Howell, D. (2010). Statistical Methods for Psychology (7th edition). Australia: Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ Geisser, S. and Greenhouse, S.W. (1958). An extension of Box's result on the use of the F distribution in multivariate analysis. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 29, 885-891
Jump up ^ Hyunh, H. and Feldt, L.S. (1970). Conditions under which mean square ratios in repeated measurements designs have exact F-distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 65, 1582-1589
Further reading[edit]
Cauraugh, J.H. (2002). Experimental design and statistical decisions tutorial: Comments on longitudinal ideomotor apraxia recovery. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 12, 75-83.
Gueorguieva, R. & Krystal, J.H. (2004). Progress in analyzing repeated-measures data and its reflection in papers published in the archives of general psychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 310-317.
Huck, S.W. & McLean, R.A. (1975). "Using a repeated measures ANOVA to analyze the data from a pretest-posttest design: A potentially confusing task". Psychological Bulletin, 82, 511-518.
Pollatsek, A. & Well, A.D. (1995). "On the use of counterbalanced designs in cognitive research: A suggestion for a better and more powerful analysis". Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 785-794.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Mixed-design ANOVA
Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares, and their analysis in R
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The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (comics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen is a comic book series written by Alan Moore and illustrated by Kevin O'Neill, publication of which began in 1999. The series spans several volumes.
Contents
[hide]
1 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume I
2 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II
3 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Black Dossier
4 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century
5 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Nemo Trilogy
6 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume IV: Tempest
7 Chronological settings
8 Collected editions
9 References
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume I[edit]
Main article: The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume One
In the aftermath of the events of the novel Dracula, a now disgraced and divorced Mina Harker (née Murray) is recruited by Campion Bond on behalf of British Intelligence and asked to assemble a league of other extraordinary individuals to protect the interests of the Empire. Together with Captain Nemo, Mina travels to Cairo to locate Allan Quatermain, then on to Paris in search of Dr. Jekyll; finally in London she forcibly recruits Hawley Griffin, The Invisible Man, who completes this incarnation of the League. Meeting with Professor Cavor, the League is sent against Fu Manchu in his Limehouse lair, who has stolen the only known sample of cavorite and plans to use it to build an armed airship, against which Britain would have little defence. Having eventually retrieved the cavorite, the League delivers it into the hands of their employer — none other than Professor Moriarty (nemesis of Sherlock Holmes), who plans to use it in an airship of his own, with which he will bomb his adversary's Limehouse lair flat, taking large parts of London and the League itself with it. An aerial battle above London commences, and the League eventually triumphs. Mycroft Holmes replaces Moriarty as the League's employer, and the extraordinary individuals are given the task of remaining in the service of the Crown, awaiting England's call. Some kind of a meteor shower is shown, leading up to the events in Volume II.
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II[edit]
Main article: The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II
Placed during the events of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, Volume II opens on Mars, where John Carter and Lt. Gullivar Jones (of Edwin Lester Arnold's Gullivar of Mars) have assembled an alliance to fight against Martian invaders. When the invaders are forced off Mars and land on Earth, they begin to build their tripods. Griffin leaves the League under cover of invisibility to form an alliance with the invaders before betraying it outright, stealing plans for the defence of London as well as physically and emotionally assaulting Mina.
Mycroft Holmes deploys Nemo and Hyde to defend the capital by patrolling London's rivers in the Nautilus. Meanwhile, Murray and Quatermain meet up with Dr. Moreau in his secret hideout in the forest, and tell him that MI5 has asked for something known as H-142. Hyde returns to the British Museum and tortures Griffin; breaking Griffin's leg and raping him before murdering him. Hyde dies fighting a tripod, allowing time for MI5 to launch H-142. However, before he goes to fight the tripods, he asks Mina for two things: for her to give him a kiss, and permission to touch her breast.
MI5 then launches H-142: a hybrid bacterium, made up of anthrax and streptococcus. Nemo is infuriated about H-142, and Bond coolly replies that they will claim that, officially, the Martians died of the common cold, whilst any humans found dead will have been killed by Martians. Angered by the British government's heartless use of biological weaponry, Nemo leaves in the Nautilus and tells Quatermain and Murray to "never seek [him] again", mistakenly believing that they knew the details of the British plan.
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Black Dossier[edit]
Main article: The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier
Presented as a stand-alone sourcebook, rather than as the third volume, the Black Dossier has a framing sequence set not in the Victorian era but in 1958. Events take place after the fall of the Big Brother government from Nineteen Eighty Four. (The in-story explanation for this apparent date-shift is that Orwell's book was published in 1948.) The story itself sees Mina Harker and Allan Quatermain—now immortal after bathing in the fire of youth from She—on their quest to recover the Black Dossier itself (a confessed macguffin), in a metafictional unravelling of the secret history of the now-disbanded League of Extraordinary Gentlemen.
Out to stop them is a trio of secret agents: James Bond, Emma Night, and Hugo "Bulldog" Drummond. The pursuit takes Mina and Allan from London to Scotland and eventually to the magical Blazing World, overseen by Shakespeare's Prospero.
Initially intended to be accompanied by a 45-rpm record featuring songs referenced in the plot, this addition was shelved ostensibly to be included as an incentive with the 'Absolute Edition', and ultimately dropped entirely—to the chagrin of the author/singer. A limited number of copies of the record were eventually produced in the UK.[1]
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century[edit]
Main article: The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century
The third volume, a 216-page epic spanning almost a hundred years and entitled Century, is divided into three 72-page chapters, each a self-contained narrative. The volumes were tentatively scheduled to be released annually with Part 1 released on May 13, 2009; Part 2 not released until July 28, 2011; and Part 3 being released in June 2012.[2]
Chapter one is set against a backdrop of London, 1910, with Halley's Comet passing overhead, the nation prepares for the coronation of King George V, and far away on his South Atlantic island, the scientist-pirate Captain Nemo is dying. In the bowels of the British Museum, Carnacki the ghost-finder is plagued by visions of a shadowy occult order who are attempting to create something called a Moonchild, while on London's dockside the most notorious serial murderer of the previous century has returned to carry on his grisly trade. Chapter two takes place almost 60 years later in the psychedelic daze of Swinging London during 1969, a place where tadukic acid diethylamide 26 is the drug of choice (similar to LSD), and where different underworlds are starting to overlap dangerously to an accompaniment of sit-ins and sitars. Starting to buckle from the pressures of the twentieth century and the weight of their own endless lives, Mina and her companions must nevertheless prevent the making of a Moonchild that might well turn out to be the Antichrist. In chapter three, the narrative draws to its cataclysmic close in London 2009. The magical child whose ominous coming has been foretold for the past hundred years has now been born and has grown up to claim his dreadful heritage. His promised eon of unending terror can commence, the world can now be ended starting with North London.[3]
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Nemo Trilogy[edit]
Main article: The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Nemo Trilogy
Presented as a stand-alone hardcover spin-off rather than a new League of Extraordinary Gentlemen story. The trilogy consists of three chapters, Nemo: Heart of Ice, c, and Nemo: River of Ghosts.
Nemo: Heart of Ice follows Janni Dakkar to Antarctica in 1925. The story opens with Nemo and her crew robbing a great treasure from Ayesha, who appears to have great influence over Charles Foster Kane. Nemo travels to Antarctica as her father once did on a trip that drove him mad. Kane recruits Frank Reade Jr., Jack Wright, and Tom Swift to retrieve Ayesha's treasure from Nemo. The trio follow her to Antarctica where they encounter a pit that leads to Yuggoth, a mysterious white giant and an ice sphinx. Nemo: The Roses of Berlin takes place in 1941 where Janni Dakkar and Broad Arrow Jack's daughter Hira and her husband Armand Robur are captured by Adenoid Hynkel's Nazi-forces, Nemo and Jack go to Berlin on a rescue mission only to find out they have been lured into a trap. They are soon pursued by the remains of the Twilight Heroes, Maria and Dr. Caligari. Dr. Mabuse later helps the pair evade capture and reveals to them the plot had been orchestrated by Ayesha, who has become an ally of Hynkel, to get her vengeance after the events of "Heart of Ice." Nemo: River of Ghosts takes place in the year of 1975 and is set in South America.[4][5]. Janni sets off down the vastness of the Amazon, from the ruined city of Yu-Atlanchi to the fabulous plateau of Maple White Land to settle scores with old enemies.
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume IV: Tempest[edit]
The fourth volume is set to be released in six parts, starting in June 2018. It is not only the last League story, but also marks Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill's departure from comics.[6] The plot is described as follows: Opening simultaneously in the panic-stricken headquarters of British Military Intelligence, the fabled Ayesha’s lost African city of Kor and the domed citadel of ‘We’ on the devastated Earth of the year 2996, the dense and yet furiously-paced narrative hurtles like an express locomotive across the fictional globe from Lincoln Island to modern America to the Blazing World; from the Jacobean antiquity of Prospero’s Men to the superhero-inundated pastures of the present to the unimaginable reaches of a shimmering science-fiction future. With a cast-list that includes many of the most iconic figures from literature and pop culture, and a tempo that conveys the terrible momentum of inevitable events, this is literally and literarily the story to end all stories.[7]
Chronological settings[edit]
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen comics are generally set in the 20th century, but the chronological order of the fictional world does not correspond with the order of release:
#
Title
Year
1 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume I 1898 AD
1a Allan and the Sundered Veil 1889 AD
2 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II 1898 AD
2a The New Traveler's Almanac 1899 AD
3 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: The Black Dossier 1958 AD
3a * The Black Dossier - Life of Orlando 1953 AD
3b * The Black Dossier - Faerie's Fortunes Founded 1620 AD
3c * The Black Dossier - The New Adventures of Fanny Hill 1912 AD
3d * The Black Dossier - Shadows in the Steam 1908 AD
4 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century - 1910 1910 AD
4a Minions of the Moon, Chapter 1: Into the Limbus - Love Amongst the Troglodytes 1236 BC
4b Minions of the Moon, Chapter 1: Into the Limbus - In the Wake of the Black Nautilus 1910 AD
4c Minions of the Moon, Chapter 1: Into the Limbus - Her Long, Adorable Lashes 1964 AD
4d Minions of the Moon, Chapter 1: Into the Limbus - Requiem for a Space-Wizard 1964 AD
4e Minions of the Moon, Chapter 1: Into the Limbus - Coming Forth by Day 1964 AD
4f Minions of the Moon, Chapter 1: Into the Limbus - Huckleberry Friends 1964 AD
5 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century - 1969 1969 AD
5a Minions of the Moon, Chapter 2: The Distance from Tranquility - Escape from Nowhere 1896 AD
5b Minions of the Moon, Chapter 2: The Distance from Tranquility - Glass Shirts and Goose-Bones 1964 AD
5c Minions of the Moon, Chapter 2: The Distance from Tranquility - Babes in Toyland 1896 AD
5d Minions of the Moon, Chapter 2: The Distance from Tranquility - A Long Way from Baltimore 1964 AD
5e Minions of the Moon, Chapter 2: The Distance from Tranquility - Skulls and Amazons 1964 AD
5f Minions of the Moon, Chapter 2: The Distance from Tranquility - Give Me the Moonlight, Give Me the Girls... 1964 AD
6 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century - 2009 2009 AD
6a Minions of the Moon, Chapter 3: Saviours - A Cricket-Cap of Thorns 1901 AD
6b Minions of the Moon, Chapter 3: Saviours - A Harsh Mistress 1964 AD
6c Minions of the Moon, Chapter 3: Saviours - Moonbeams, Home in a Jar 1964 AD
6d Minions of the Moon, Chapter 3: Saviours - A Moonlight Flit 1964 AD
6e Minions of the Moon, Chapter 3: Saviours - A Sea of Crises 1964 AD
6f Minions of the Moon, Chapter 3: Saviours - The Sins of the Father 1964 AD
7 Nemo: Heart of Ice 1925 AD
7a A Perfect Match... And a Perfect Fuse! 1938 AD
8 Nemo: The Roses of Berlin 1941 AD
8a The Johnson Report: Princess Dakkar of Lincoln 1965 AD
9 Nemo: River of Ghosts 1975 AD
Notes:
"The New Traveller's Almanac" is published in 1931, and contains writings from 1625 to 1682, the mid- to late-1700s and 1890 to 1912.
"Life of Orlando" is set from 1260 BC to 1943 AD, and is published in 1953.
"The New Adventures of Fanny Hill" is set from 1750 to 1802, and is published in 1912.
"Shadows in the Steam" is set in 1897, and is published in 1908.
Collected editions[edit]
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume I, collects vol 1 #1–6
hardcover: ISBN 1-56389-665-6
paperback: ISBN 1-56389-858-6
Absolute edition (deluxe hardcover): ISBN 1-4012-0052-4, including Moore's original scripts and additional artwork by O'Neill
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II, collects vol 2 #1–6
hardcover: ISBN 1-4012-0117-2
paperback: ISBN 1-4012-0118-0
Absolute edition (deluxe hardcover): ISBN 1-4012-0611-5, including Moore's original scripts and additional artwork by O'Neill
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, The Black Dossier
hardcover: ISBN 1-4012-0306-X (November 2007)
paperback: ISBN 978-1-4012-0307-8
Absolute edition (deluxe hardcover): ISBN 1-4012-0751-0 (June 2008), with no additional bonus content
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III
Century 1910 paperback: ISBN 978-1-60309-000-1 (May 2009)
Century 1969 paperback: ISBN 978-1-60309-006-3 (July 2011)
Century 2009 paperback: ISBN 978-1-60309-007-0 (June 2012)
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century hardcover (collects 1910, 1969 and 2009) ISBN 978-0-86166-232-6 (July 2014)
Nemo: Heart of Ice (hardcover) ISBN 978-1603092746 (March 2013)
Nemo: The Roses of Berlin (hardcover) ISBN 978-0861662302 (March 2014)
Nemo: River of Ghosts (hardcover) ISBN 978-0861662333 (March 2015)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/11/30/league-of-extraordinary-gentlemen-black-dossier-with-vinyl-record-now-available-for-mail-order/
Jump up ^ Staros Talks Top Shelf's "League" Debut. Comic Book Resources. Retrieved on 2011-05-30.
Jump up ^ Catalog > Top Shelf Productions. Topshelfcomix.com. Retrieved on 2011-05-30.
Jump up ^ The Next League Of Extraordinary Gentlemen Book Is River Of Ghosts, And Set In 1975
Jump up ^ Top Shelf Productions - Nemo: River of Ghosts
Jump up ^ Alan Moore & Kevin O'Neill present The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume IV: THE TEMPEST
Jump up ^ Alan Moore & Kevin O'Neill present The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume IV: THE TEMPEST
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Northwest Indian War
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"Battle for Ohio" redirects here. It is not to be confused with the "Battle of Ohio", the nickname for both the Bengals–Browns rivalry in American football, and the Indians–Reds rivalry in baseball.
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Northwest Indian War
Part of the American Indian Wars

This depiction of the Treaty of Greenville negotiations may have been painted by one of Anthony Wayne's officers.
Date
1785–1795
Location
Northwest Territory (United States)
Result
United States victory
Treaty of Greenville
British withdrawal
US occupation of the Northwest Territory
Belligerents
United States
Chickasaw
Choctaw Western Confederacy
Great Britain
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
Josiah Harmar
Arthur St. Clair
Anthony Wayne
James Wilkinson Blue Jacket
Little Turtle
Buckongahelas
Egushawa
Alexander McKillop
Strength
4,000 colonial militiamen 10,000 Native American warriors
1 British company
Casualties and losses
1,221 killed
458 wounded 1,000+ killed
Unknown wounded
hide
v
t
e
Northwest Indian War
Logan's Raid
Harmar Campaign
Big Bottom
Dunlap's Station
Kenapacomaqua
St. Clair's Defeat
Fort St. Clair
Fort Jefferson
Fort Recovery
Fallen Timbers
The Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), also known as the Ohio War, Little Turtle's War, and by other names, was a war between the United States and a confederation of numerous Native American tribes, with support from the British, for control of the Northwest Territory. It followed centuries of conflict over this territory, first among Native American tribes, and then with the added shifting alliances among the tribes and the European powers of France and Great Britain, and their colonials.
Under the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain ceded to the U.S. "control" of the Northwest Territory, which was occupied by numerous Native American peoples. Despite the treaty, the British kept forts there and continued policies that supported the Native Americans in the Northwest Territories. In 1787, there were 45,000 Native Americans in the territory, and 2,000 French.[1] President George Washington directed the United States Army to enforce U.S. sovereignty over the territory. The U.S. Army, consisting of mostly untrained recruits supported by equally untrained militiamen, suffered a series of major defeats, including the Harmar Campaign (1790) and St. Clair's Defeat (1791), which were resounding Native American victories. About 1,000 soldiers and militiamen were killed and the United States forces suffered many more casualties than their opponents.
After St. Clair's disaster, Washington ordered Revolutionary War hero General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to organize and train a proper fighting force. Wayne took command of the new Legion of the United States late in 1793. He led his men to a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The defeated tribes were forced to cede extensive territory, including much of present-day Ohio, in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
Contents
1 Background
1.1 Beaver Wars (1650s)
1.2 French and British occupation
1.3 American Revolution
2 Postwar tensions
3 Formation of the confederacy
4 Course of the war
4.1 1790 - Harmar Campaign
4.2 1791 - St. Clair's Defeat
4.3 1792 - 1793 - Rise of Wayne's Legion
4.4 1794 - Battle of Fallen Timbers
5 Aftermath
6 Legacy
7 Key figures
7.1 United States
7.2 Indian Confederacy
7.3 British Empire
8 Notes and references
8.1 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Background[edit]
Beaver Wars (1650s)[edit]
Main article: Beaver Wars
The land east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes had been fought over for centuries before the United States government was formed.
In 1608, French explorer and founder of Quebec City Samuel Champlain sided with the Wabanaki Confederacy and their allies the Huron people living along the St. Lawrence River against the Iroquois Confederacy ("Five Nations") living in what is now upper and western New York state. The result was a lasting enmity by the Iroquois Confederacy towards the French, which caused them to side with the Dutch fur traders coming up the Hudson River in about 1626. The Dutch offered better prices than the French and traded firearms, hatchets and knives to the Iroquois in exchange for furs.[2]
Engraving based on a drawing by Champlain of his 1609 voyage, depicting a battle between Iroquois and Algonquian tribes near Lake Champlain
With these more sophisticated weapons, the Five Nations nearly exterminated[citation needed] the Huron and all of the other Native Americans living immediately to their west in the Ohio country during the Beaver Wars, beginning in the 1640s. The Native American tribes were competing for hunting grounds for the fur trade. The western tribes had also been weakened by epidemics of European infectious diseases, against which they had no acquired immunity. The Five Nations's use of modern weapons caused the wars to become deadlier. Historians consider the Beaver Wars to have been one of the bloodiest conflicts in the history of North America.
About 1664, the Five Nations became trading partners with the British, who conquered the New Netherlands (renamed New York) from the Dutch.
The Five Nations enlarged their territory by right of conquest. The number of tribes paying tribute to them realigned the tribal map of eastern North America. Several large confederacies were destroyed or relocated, including the Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock and Shawnee. The Five Nations pushed several other eastern tribes to and even across the Mississippi River. The Ohio country was virtually emptied, as the defeated tribes fled west to escape the Five Nations warriors. After the Five Nations' warriors were defeated, they left much of the Northwest territory, Kentucky and Ohio almost unpopulated and with abandoned villages. They had claimed the entire Ohio Valley as their own country.
After about 1700, some remnants of the Native American tribes began returning to the Northwest Territory. They were often conglomerations of several tribes who paid tribute to the Five Nations (see also Mingo).[3]
French and British occupation[edit]
Main articles: French and Indian War and Pontiac's Rebellion
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, both Britain and France claimed ownership of the Ohio Country, in competition with the Five Nations (who became the "Six Nations" after the admission of the Tuscarora in 1722), and by the mid-18th century both had sent merchants and fur traders into the area to trade with local Natives, the actual inhabitants of the territory. Violence quickly erupted. During the French and Indian War, an extension in North America of the Seven Years' War in Europe, Indian tribes allied with either the French or British, often depending on trading priorities, and warred with each other and the colonists. France was defeated and relinquished all its territorial claims to Britain in the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
The British still faced opposition from numerous Native American tribes, including in the Great Lakes region: the Ottawa, Ojibwa, Pottawatomi, and Huron; in the eastern Illinois Country: the Miami, Wea, Kickapoo, Mascouten, and Piankashaw; and in the Ohio Country: the Delaware (Lenape), Shawnee, Mingo, and Wyandot. The tribes were angered by the arrogance of British colonial officials, who treated them like defeated subjects, and concerned by the growing threat of British colonials moving to settle in their territories. They attacked in Pontiac's Rebellion of 1763–66, when the Native Americans burned several British forts on their land. They killed and drove many settlers out of the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes territory. In response, Britain sent troops to reinforce Fort Pitt, which ultimately succeeded despite an ambush by the Natives in the nearby Battle of Bushy Run. The war petered out without a clear winner. The Natives remained and yet had not managed to drive British colonial forces out of their territory.
Britain officially closed the Northwest Territories to colonial settlement by the Proclamation of 1763, in an effort to create peace with the tribes west of the Appalachian Mountains. On June 22, 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, which annexed the Northwest Territories to the province of Quebec. Some colonials, wanting to move to "new lands," described this as one of the Intolerable Acts that contributed to the American Revolution.
American Revolution[edit]
Main article: American Revolutionary War
Fall of Fort Sackville
A faction of the Cherokee led by Dragging Canoe, as well as the Shawnee, were already at war with the "Long Knives" starting in 1776, in the Cherokee–American wars, which merged into the Northwest Indian Wars.
During the American Revolution, four of the Six Nations of the Iroquois League sided with the British. The Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca fought against colonists in the Battle of Oriskany, aided the British in the Battle of Wyoming in Pennsylvania, and at Saratoga, Cherry Valley, and other raids throughout the Mohawk Valley in New York, as well as in numerous other actions on the frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania. As the British concentrated on the southern United States in 1779, General George Washington took action against the Six Nations.
He instructed General John Sullivan to attack and destroy Six Nations villages in upper New York. Leading about 5,000 troops, Sullivan defeated the Six Nations forces in the Battle of Newtown, then destroyed over 40 Six Nations villages and all their stored crops in the fall of 1779. Because of the social disruption and crop losses, some Six Nations men, women, and children died of starvation that winter. Many Six Nations families retreated to Fort Niagara and other parts of Canada, where they spent a cold and hungry winter. Their power in the present-day United States territory was lessened, and their claim to the Northwest Territories was challenged.
In 1778, American General George Rogers Clark and 178 men captured the British forts on the Mississippi and Wabash Rivers. This gave the United States control of the Ohio River and a claim to all the land north of the Ohio. In the Fall of 1779, Natives allied with the British attacked a company of men under Col. David Rogers and Captain Robert Benham near Cincinnati; only a handful of soldiers survived the attack. [Note 1] In 1780, a French officer named Augustin de La Balme led a volunteer militia from Vincennes on a raid of Kekionga, with a goal of capturing Fort Detroit. This marks the first known victory for Little Turtle, who gathered available warriors and destroyed La Balme's force.[4]
As the war with the British came to a close, the young United States looked to secure their borders, exact revenge for Native American raids, and expand westward. In March 1782, a band of Pennsylvania militia entered Ohio Country and massacred a Christian Lenape village of Gnadenhütten.[5] Two months later, Colonel William Crawford led 500 volunteers deep into Ohio Country and attacked Native American villages near the Sandusky River. Crawford's force was defeated with a loss of about 70 Americans killed, and several prisoners were executed in retaliation for the Gnadenhutten massacre.[6] In August 1782, the last battle of the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Blue Licks, was fought in Kentucky. On a hill next to the Licking River in what is now Robertson County, Kentucky, a force of about 50 British rangers and 300 Natives ambushed and routed 182 pursuing Kentucky militiamen.
With the end of the war, the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Great Britain gave the United States independence and control of the Northwest Territories, at least on paper. The Six Nations' allies were forced to cede most of their land in New York state to the United States, and many Six Nations families moved on to land reserves in old Quebec Province (now southern Ontario).
Postwar tensions[edit]
Ohio Territory tracts under the Land Ordinance of 1785
The Ohio Territory was subject to overlapping and conflicting claims by the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Virginia, and to those by the Shawnee, Mingo, Lenape and other actual inhabitants, who were no longer considered tributary to the Six Nations. While the British had suffered a major defeat at the Siege of Yorktown, there had been no decisive defeat for their Native allies in the Northwest Territories. The Native tribes in the Old Northwest were not party to the treaty. Many leaders, especially Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, refused to recognize United States' claims to the area northwest of the Ohio River. The British remained in possession of their Great Lakes forts, through which they continued to supply Native American allies with trade items and weapons in exchange for furs. Some in the British government wished to maintain a neutral Native territory between Canada and the United States, but most agreed that immediate withdrawal was not possible without sparking a new war with Natives.[7] The lingering British presence was not formally ended until their withdrawal from the Great Lakes forts pursuant to the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794, and it would continue informally afterward until the War of 1812.
Through the public sale of western lands, the Confederation Congress sought to stabilize the dollar and pay down some of its war debt. The Land Ordinance of 1785 gave encouragement to land speculators, surveyors, and settlers who sought to gain new land from the Native Americans who may or may not have had a claim to it. To acquire most of the eastern portion of the Ohio Country, Congress negotiated the Treaty of Fort McIntosh in 1785 with several Indian tribes. Settlers from Connecticut were already streaming into the Western Reserve, which extended into part of a reservation set aside for some of the tribes.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, passed by the US Congress under the Articles of Confederation, gave Native Americans title, under U.S. law, to enjoy whatever lands they lived on. It also encouraged the influx of U.S. settlers north of the Ohio River. Localized ambushes and engagements between those settlers and natives continued. The failure of the 1789 Treaty of Fort Harmar to address underlying grievances between the two sides only exacerbated the problems. Fort Washington was built in 1789 to protect United States settlements in the Symmes Purchase. The new fort added security for settlers, but unsettled the Native American nations living North of the Ohio River.[8] Fort Washington became the first of a line of forts advancing North into Ohio, and the combined Native American tribes would soon demand their destruction as a condition of peace.
Formation of the confederacy[edit]
Map of Native tribes in the Northwest Territory
Co-operation among the Native American tribes forming the Western Confederacy had gone back to the French colonial era. It was renewed during the American Revolutionary War. The confederacy first came together in the autumn of 1785 at Fort Detroit, proclaiming that the parties to the confederacy would deal jointly with the United States, rather than individually. This determination was renewed in 1786 at the Wyandot (Huron) village of Upper Sandusky. The confederacy declared the Ohio River as the boundary between their lands and those of American settlers. The Wyandot were the nominal "fathers," or senior guaranteeing tribe of the confederacy, but the Shawnee and Miami provided the greatest share of the fighting forces.
The confederacy included warriors from a wide variety of peoples:
Wyandot (Huron)
Shawnee
Council of the Three Fires
Ojibwe
Odawa
Potawatomi
Lenape (Delaware)
Miami
Kickapoo
Kaskaskia
Wabash Confederacy (Wea, Piankashaw, and others)
Chickamauga Cherokee
In most cases, an entire tribe was not involved in the war; the Indian societies were generally not centralized. Villages and individual warriors and chiefs decided on participation in the war.
Nearly 200 Cherokee warriors from two bands of the Overmountain Towns fought alongside the Shawnee from the inception of the Revolution through the years of the Indian Confederacy. In addition, the Chickamauga (Lower Town) Cherokee leader, Dragging Canoe, sent a contingent of warriors for a specific action.
Some warriors of the Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes, which had been traditional enemies of the northwest tribes, served as scouts for the United States during these years.
Course of the war[edit]
Map of the Northwest Indian War
Still opposed to the US, some British agents in the region sold weapons and ammunition to the Indians and encouraged attacks on American settlers. War parties launched a series of isolated raids in the mid-1780s, resulting in escalating bloodshed and mistrust. In the fall of 1786, General Benjamin Logan led a force of Federal soldiers and mounted Kentucky militia against several Shawnee towns along the Mad River. These were defended primarily by noncombatants while the warriors were raiding forts in Kentucky. Logan burned the native towns and food supplies, and killed or captured numerous natives, including their chief Moluntha, who was murdered by one of Logan's men. Logan's raid and the execution of the chief embittered the Shawnees, who retaliated by escalating their attacks on American settlers.
Native American raids on both sides of the Ohio River resulted in increasing casualties. During the mid- and late-1780s, American settlers south of the Ohio River in Kentucky and travelers on and north of the Ohio River suffered approximately 1,500 casualties. Settlers retaliated with attacks on Indians.
1790 - Harmar Campaign[edit]
Main article: Harmar Campaign
In 1790, President George Washington and Secretary of War Henry Knox ordered General Josiah Harmar to launch the Harmar Campaign, a major western offensive into the Shawnee and Miami country. In October 1790, a force of 1,453 men under Harmar was assembled near present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana. Harmar committed only 400 of his men under Colonel John Hardin to attack a Native force of some 1,100 warriors, and Hardin was handily defeated in Hardin's Defeat. He lost at least 129 soldiers.[9][10]
1791 - St. Clair's Defeat[edit]
Main article: St. Clair's Defeat
Washington ordered Major General Arthur St. Clair, who served as governor of the Northwest Territory, to mount a more vigorous effort by Summer 1791. After considerable trouble finding men and supplies, St. Clair was somewhat ready, but the troops had received little training. At dawn on 4 November 1791, St. Clair's force, accompanied by about 200 camp followers, was camped near where Fort Recovery, Ohio is now, with weak defenses set up on the perimeter. A Native American force of about 2,000 warriors, led by Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, struck quickly. Surprising the Americans, they soon overran the poorly prepared perimeter. The barely trained recruits panicked and were slaughtered in St. Clair's Defeat, along with many of their officers, who frantically tried to restore order and stop the rout. The American casualty rate was 69%, based on the deaths of 632 of the 920 soldiers and officers, with 264 wounded. Nearly all of the 200 unarmed camp followers were slaughtered, for a total of about 832 deaths—the highest United States losses in any of its battles with Native Americans.[11][12]
The 1791 harvest had been insufficient in the region, and the warriors needed to hunt in order to complement their food stores.[13] A grand council was held on the banks of the Ottawa River to determine whether to continue the war against the United States or negotiate a peace from a strong position. The council delayed the final decision until a new grand council could be held the following year,[13] and the Native Confederacy disbanded for the Winter.
1792 - 1793 - Rise of Wayne's Legion[edit]
In January 1792, Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson assumed command of the Second Regiment United States Army at Fort Washington,[14] and constructed Fort St. Clair to improve communications and logistics between Fort Hamilton and Fort Jefferson.[15] The three forts were garrisoned with less than 150 men each, including infirmed Soldiers and servants.[16] On 11 June 1792, a force of about 15 Shawnee and Delaware attacked the northern-most outpost, Fort Jefferson, while the detachment there was cutting hay. Four Soldiers were killed and left in the hay and 15 were captured. Eleven of the captives, including the Sergeant in charge, were later killed, and the four remaining Soldiers were sent to a Chippewa village.[17] On 29 September, several Soldiers were killed while guarding cattle at Fort Jefferson.[17]
That same year, after the discovery of United States espionage operations,[18] Washington's emissaries John Hardin and Major Alexander Truman were killed on separate peace missions in Shelby County and Ottawa, Ohio when they were mistaken for spies.
Seneca Chief Cornplanter was a leader of the moderate faction at the 1792 Grand Council on the Auglaize River.
Meanwhile, Native American tribes debated whether to continue the war or sue for peace while they had the advantage. A grand council was called, and several nations met at the confluence of the Auglaize and Maumee Rivers.[19] Alexander McKee represented British interests and arrived in late September. For a week in October, pro-war factions, especially Simon Girty, the Shawnee, and Miami, debated moderate factions, especially the Six Nations represented by Cornplanter and Red Jacket.[20] The Council agreed that the Ohio River must remain the boundary of the United States, that the forts in the Ohio Country must be destroyed, and that they would meet with the United States at the Lower Sandusky River in Spring 1793.[21] [Note 2]
In November 1792, following the decision of the Auglaize Grand Council, Little Turtle led a force of 200 Miami and Shawnee past Fort Jefferson and Fort St. Clair, and reached Fort Hamilton on 3 November in time to attack close to the United States settlements on the anniversary of St. Clair's Defeat. They captured two prisoners and learned that a large convoy of packhorses had left for Fort Jefferson and was due back in a matter of days. Little Turtle moved North and found the convoy, nearly 100 horses and 100 Kentucky militia led by Major John Adair, camped just outside Fort St. Clair.[22] Little Turtle attacked at dawn, just as Major Adair recalled his sentries. The militia conducted an organized retreat to the fort, losing six killed and four missing, while another five were wounded. Major Adair later criticized Fort St. Clair's commandant, Captain Bradley, for his failure to come to their aid.[23] Little Turtle's force lost two warriors, but captured the camp and all provisions. All horses were killed, wounded, or driven off; only 23 were later recovered. Wilkinson considered the horses to be a loss that would make the advanced forts un-defendable.[24]
The United States received the demands of the Grand Council with indignation, but Henry Knox agreed to send commissioners to the 1793 treaty and suspend all offensive operations until that time.[25] British Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War, was delighted with the United States' failures, and hoped for British involvement in the creation of a neutral barrier state between the United States and Canada.[26] In 1793, however, Simcoe abruptly changed policy and sought peace with the United States in order to avoid opening a new front in the French Revolutionary Wars.[27] Simcoe treated the United States commissioners - Benjamin Lincoln, Beverly Randolph, and Timothy Pickering - cordially when they arrived at Niagara in May 1793,[28] seeking an escort by way of the Great Lakes in order to avoid the fate of John Hardin and Alexander Truman in 1792.[29]
At the 1793 Sandusky River council, however, disagreement broke out between Shawnee and the Six Nations. The Shawnee and Delaware insisted that the United States recognize the 1768 Fort Stanwix Treaty between the Six Nations and Great Britain, which set the Ohio River as a boundary. Joseph Brant countered that the Six Nations had nothing to gain from this demand and refused to concede. Many of the council members doubted whether the United States commissioners even had the authority to negotiate these terms. Further disagreements erupted over Alexander McKee's influence and Simon Girty's translations. The U.S. commissioners argued that it would be too expensive to move white settlers who had already established homesteads North of the Ohio River.[30] On 13 August, the council (without the Six Nations) sent a declaration to the U.S. commissioners, contesting U.S. claims to any lands above the Ohio since they were based on treaties made with nations that did not live there, and with money that had no value to the Native tribes. The council proposed that the U.S. relocate white settlers using the money that would have been used to buy Ohio lands and pay the Legion of the United States.[31] The council ended with discord among the confederacy, and the commissioners wrote to Henry Knox that they had failed to secure a peace in the Northwest.
1794 - Battle of Fallen Timbers[edit]
Main article: Battle of Fallen Timbers
The Legion of the United States at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, 1794
After St Clair's disaster, Washington ordered General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to form a well-trained force and put an end to the situation. Wayne accepted the appointment in 1792 and took command of the new Legion of the United States later that year, taking time to train and supply the new Army while the United States negotiated terms of peace. As the Native American confederacy and United States commissioners debated at the Grand Council on the Sandusky River in 1793, Wayne moved the Legion from Pennsylvania downriver to Fort Washington, at a camp Wayne named Hobson's Choice because they had no other options.[32] On 11 September 1793, William Wellington arrived at Fort Jefferson with news of the Grand Council's failure, and with a warning that a force of over 1500 warriors was ready to attack Fort Jefferson and the Legion of the United States.[33]
Wayne advanced his troops North into Indian held territory. In November, the Legion built a new fort North of Fort Jefferson, which Wayne named Fort Greeneville on 20 November 1793 in honor of General Nathanael Greene.[34] The Legion wintered here, but Wayne dispatched a detachment of about 300 men on 23 December to quickly build Fort Recovery on the site of St. Clair's defeat and recover the cannons lost there in 1791.[35] By June 1794, the Legion at Fort Recovery had recovered four copper cannons (two six-pound and two three-pound), two copper howitzers, and one iron carronade.[36]
That same month, an American Indian force of over 1,200 warriors under the nominal command of the Odawa Bear Chief[37] and British officers arrived at Fort Recovery with powder and shot, intent on recovering the same cannons. The force destroyed an escort and captured or scattered several hundred pack horses used for supply convoys, but failed to capture the fort, which was defended by artillery, dragoons, and Chickasaw scouts.[38][Note 3] The British officers recovered one cannon, but were unable to utilize it; one later stated that "had we two barrels of powder, Fort Recovery would have been in our possession with the help of St. Clair's cannon."[39] Those defending the fort suffered 23 killed, 29 wounded, and three captured.[40] Estimates of the Native Nations casualties range from 17 to 50 killed, and perhaps 100 wounded, some of whom later died of their wounds.[41]
Wayne's well-trained Legion advanced deeper into the territory of the Wabash Confederacy. Blue Jacket assumed overall command, but the Indian forces were defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in August 1784. Blue Jacket's warriors fled from the battlefield to regroup at British-held Fort Miami. However, they found themselves locked out of the fort. Britain and the United States were by then reaching a close rapprochement to counter Jacobin France during the French Revolution.
In 1795 the United States ratified two treaties that recognized the changes in power. By the Treaty of Greenville, signed by President Washington on 22 December 1795,[42] the northwest Native American tribes were forced to cede most of Ohio and a slice of the Illinois Country; to recognize the U.S., rather than Britain, as the ruling power in the Old Northwest; and to surrender ten chiefs as hostages until all American prisoners were returned. Also that year, the United States negotiated the Jay Treaty with Great Britain, which required British withdrawal from the western forts while opening up some British territory in the Caribbean for American trade.
Aftermath[edit]
The border between Ohio and the Indiana Territory closely followed the Greenville Treaty Line.
General Wayne supervised the surrender of British posts in the Northwest Territory, but suffered a severe attack of gout and died on 15 December 1796, one year after the ratification of the Treaty of Greenville.[43]
After the end of hostilities, large numbers of United States settlers migrated to the Northwest Territory. Five years after the Treaty of Greenville, the territory was split into Ohio and Indiana Territory, and in February 1803, the State of Ohio was admitted to the Union.[44] The border between Ohio and the Indiana Territory closely followed the line of advanced forts and the Greenville Treaty Line.
Several veterans of the Northwest Indian War are known for their later achievements, including William Henry Harrison, William Clark and Merriweather Lewis,[45] and Tecumseh.
Future Native American resistance movements were unable to form a union matching the size or capability seen during the Northwest Indian War. In 1805, Tenskwatawa began a traditionalist movement that rejected United States practices. His followers settled at Prophetstown in Indiana Territory, leading to Tecumseh's War and the Northwest theater of the War of 1812.
Legacy[edit]
The war has no widely accepted name; other names include the "Old Northwest Indian War", the "Ohio War", the "Ohio Indian War", and the "War for the Ohio River Boundary". In U.S. Army records, it is known as the "Miami Campaign". Many books avoid the problem of what to call the war by describing it without putting a name to it, or ignoring it. Similarly, the battles and expeditions of the war do not have "standard" names in U.S. history books, except for the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
Although this war was the first major military endeavor of the post-revolutionary United States, and a major crisis of President George Washington's administration, historians have sometimes overlooked it.[46] The 19th-century Indian Wars became more famous in American popular culture, however, the Northwest Indian War resulted in more casualties of the United States military and noncombatants than the combined battles of Geronimo, Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, Cochise, and Red Cloud. In the Battle of the Wabash (St. Clair's Defeat) Indians achieved their highest rate of casualties against the U.S. Army.
The Northwest Indian War was part of a long frontier struggle in the Ohio Country, which included the French and Indian War (1754–1763), Pontiac's Rebellion (1763–1764), Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Many Native American communities perceived the wars as a kind of endemic warfare with European and American settlers that spanned several generations. For example, historian Francis Jennings suggested that the Northwest Indian War was, for the Lenape people, the end of a "Forty Years' War" that began soon after the Braddock Expedition in 1755. For some Indians, the conflict resumed a generation later with Tecumseh's War (1811) and the War of 1812 (hence their term Sixty Years' War).[47] Conflict with the U.S. continued into the 1830s' era of Indian removals from east of the Mississippi.
Key figures[edit]
See also: Category:People of the Northwest Indian War.
United States[edit]
Little Turtle (Michikinikwa)
Major General Anthony Wayne, 1795
George Washington, President of the United States
Henry Knox, Secretary of War
Josiah Harmar, Brigadier General in command during the 1790 Harmar Campaign
Arthur St. Clair, Governor of the Northwest Territory and Major General at St. Clair's Defeat
Anthony Wayne, Major General in command of Legion of the United States at the Battle of Fallen Timbers
John Hardin, colonel - killed on a peace mission at what would later become Hardin, Shelby County, Ohio
Indian Confederacy[edit]
Little Turtle (Miami)
Blue Jacket (Shawnee)
Buckongahelas (Lenape)
Roundhead, (or Stayeghtha) (Wyandot)
Egushawa (Ottawa)
Joseph Brant (Mohawk)
British Empire[edit]
Sir Guy Carleton Commander-in-Chief of British North America
John Graves Simcoe Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada
Alexander McKee British Agent to the Western Confederacy and Colonel in the Indian Department
Matthew Elliott Assistant to Alexander McKee
Notes and references[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Robert Benham later served as Packhorse Master under Generals Harmar, St. Clair and Wayne during the campaigns of the 1790s.
Jump up ^ Joseph Brant, a moderate promoting peace, arrived at the Maumee council on 8 October 1792, after the council had dismissed, and expressed displeasure at the results. See Sword (1985), p.228-9
Jump up ^ An unknown number of Chickasaw and Choctaw warriors got behind the Native American at Fort Recovery and shot a number of Chippewa and Ottawa in the back. They escaped without being identified, which caused a considerable amount of distrust between the various nations within the Native American Army. See Gaff (2004) pp. 247-248.
Citations
Jump up ^ http://www.indianahistory.org/our-collections/collection-guides/northwest-territory-collection.pdf
Jump up ^ Josephy, Alvin M., ed. (1961). The American Heritage Book of Indians. American Heritage Publishing, Co., Inc.,. LCCN 61-14871.
Jump up ^ The Jesuit Relations... 1610-1791, Creighton University, accessed January 20, 2009
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 84-84.
Jump up ^ "Gnadenhutten". Ohio History Central. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Dowd (1992), p. 87-88.
Jump up ^ Skaggs (1977), p. 318.
Jump up ^ "Fort Washington". Ohio History Central. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Harmar's Defeat". Retrieved 20 Jan 2009.
Jump up ^ Drake (1901), p. 173-5.
Jump up ^ Edel (1997).
Jump up ^ Roosevelt (1806).
^ Jump up to: a b Sword (1985), p.196
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 9.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 218.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 13.
^ Jump up to: a b Sword (1985), p. 219.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 211-12.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 223.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 226-7.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 227.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 220.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 86.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 221.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 228.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 229.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 231.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 238-40.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 105.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 240-45.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 246.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 109-110.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 149-50.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 173-175.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 184.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 234.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 241.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), pp. 242-250.
Jump up ^ Sword (1985), p. 276.
Jump up ^ Winkler (2013), p. 53.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 250-2.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 366.
Jump up ^ Gaff (2004), p. 367.
Jump up ^ An act to provide for the due execution of the laws of the United States, within the state of Ohio, ch. 7, 2 Stat. 201 (February 19, 1803).
Jump up ^ "Meriwether Lewis". Virginia Center for Digital History. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Fernandes, Melanie (2016). ""Under the auspices of peace": The Northwest Indian War and its Impact on the Early American Republic". Gettysburg Historical Journal. 15: 135–185.
Jump up ^ Skaggs (2001).
References[edit]
Dowd, Gregory Evans (1992). A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University.
Drake, Samuel Adams (1901) [1899]. The Making of the Ohio Valley States: 1660-1837. ISBN 978-1-58218-422-7.
Edel, Wilbur (1997). Kekionga! The Worst Defeat in the History of the U.S. Army. Westport: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-95821-3. LCCN 96-42274.
Gaff, Alan D. (2004). Bayonets in the Wilderness. Anthony Waynes Legion in the Old Northwest. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3585-9.
Roosevelt, Theodore (1896). St. Clair's Defeat, 1791. Fort Wayne: Fort Wayne Convention Bureau.
Skaggs, David Curtis, ed. (1977). The Old Northwest in the American Revolution. Madison, Wisconsin: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin. ISBN 0-87020-164-6.
Sword, Wiley (1985). President Washington's Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790-1795. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2488-1.
Winkler, John F. (2013). Fallen Timbers 1794: The US Army's First Victory. Illustrated by Peter Dennis. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781780963754. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Fernandes, Melanie L. (2016) ""Under the auspices of peace": The Northwest Indian War and its Impact on the Early American Republic," The Gettysburg Historical Journal: Vol. 15, Article 8. Available at: http://cupola.gettysburg.edu/ghj/vol15/iss1/8
Jennings, Francis (1993). The Founders of America. New York: Norton.
Skaggs, David Curtis; Nelson, Larry L., eds. (2001). The Sixty Years' War for the Great Lakes, 1754-1814. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0-87013-569-4.
Sugden, John (2000). Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.
White, Richard (1991). The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815. Cambridge University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Northwest Indian War.
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