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Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii
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Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii
Part of the Hawaiian Rebellions (1887–95)

The USS Boston's landing force on duty at the Arlington Hotel, Honolulu, at the time of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, January 1893. Lieutenant Lucien Young, USN, commanded the detachment, and is presumably the officer at right.[1]
Date
January 17, 1893
Location
Honolulu, Hawaii
Result
Hawaiian League / United States victory
Surrender of the Kingdom of Hawaii
Queen Liliuokalani relinquishes power
Provisional Government, later renamed to Republic, established
Hawaii organized into a territory, then a state of the United States
50th, and most recent, territory granted Statehood (in August 21, 1959)
Belligerents
Committee of Safety
United States Hawaii
Commanders and leaders
Lorrin A. Thurston
John L. Stevens
Queen Liliʻuokalani
Samuel Nowlein
Charles B. Wilson
Strength
Honolulu Rifles
1,500 Militiamen
United States
1 cruiser, USS Boston
162 US Navy and USMC
496 troops[2]
(several) Volunteers
85–110 Police
322–337 Royal Guard
50–65 at Palace
272 at Barracks[3]
8–14 artillery pieces
1 Gatling gun
Casualties and losses
None 1 wounded
[show]
v
t
e
Hawaiian Revolutions
Bloodless Revolution
Dominis
Wilcox Rebellion
Sandbag
Overthrow
Leper War
Black Week
Counter-Revolution
The overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii began with a coup d'état against Queen Liliuokalani on January 17, 1893 on the island of Oahu, by foreign residents residing in Honolulu, mostly United States citizens, and subjects of the Kingdom of Hawaii.[4] They prevailed upon American minister John L. Stevens to call in the U.S. Marines to protect American interests, an action that effectively buttressed the rebellion. The revolutionaries established the Republic of Hawaii, but their ultimate goal was the annexation of the islands to the United States, which finally occurred in 1898.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Sugar reciprocity
1.2 Rebellion of 1887 and the Bayonet Constitution
1.3 Wilcox Rebellion of 1888
1.4 Liliuokalani attempts to re-write Constitution
2 Overthrow
2.1 United States involvement
3 Aftermath
4 Response
4.1 United States
4.2 International
4.3 Hawaiian counter-revolution
5 Republic, American annexation, statehood
6 See also
7 References
Background[edit]
The Kamehameha Dynasty was the reigning monarchy of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795, until the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874.[5][6] On July 6, 1846, U.S. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, on behalf of President Tyler, afforded formal recognition of Hawaiian independence under the reign of Kamehameha III.[7] As a result of the recognition of Hawaiian independence, the Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with the major nations of the world[8] and established over ninety legations and consulates in multiple seaports and cities.[9] The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.[10]
Sugar reciprocity[edit]
Main articles: Ford Island, Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, and Great Mahele
Sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cook's arrival in 1778.[11] The first permanent plantation in the islands was on Kauai in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres of land from Kamehameha III and began growing sugar cane. Within thirty years there would be plantations on four of the main islands. Sugar had completely altered Hawaii's economy.[12]
American influence in Hawaiian government began with American-born plantation owners demanding a say in Kingdom politics. This was driven by missionary religion and the economics of the sugar industry. Pressure from these foreign born politicians was being felt by the King and chiefs with demands of land tenure. After the 1843 takeover by the British, Kamehameha III relented to the foreign advisors to private land demands with the Great Mahele, distributing the lands as pushed on heavily by the missionaries, including Gerrit P. Judd.[13] During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity.[14] The monarch wished to lower the tariffs being paid out to the U.S. while still maintaining the Kingdom's sovereignty and making Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign markets. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate.[15]
Charles Reed Bishop, Minister of Foreign Affairs (Hawaii)
As early as 1873, a United States military commission recommended attempting to obtain Ford Island in exchange for the tax-free importation of sugar to the U.S.[16] Major General John Schofield, U.S. commander of the military division of the Pacific, and Brevet Brigadier General Burton S. Alexander arrived in Hawaii to ascertain its defensive capabilities. American control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of the west coast of the United States, and they were especially interested in Pu'uloa, Pearl Harbor.[17] The sale of one of Hawaii's harbors was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop, a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family, had risen in the government to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs, and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed the two U.S. officers around the lochs, although his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch, William Charles Lunalilo, was content to let Bishop run almost all business affairs but the ceding of lands would become unpopular with the native Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession of land. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations and returned to drinking, against his doctor's advice; his health declined swiftly, and he died on February 3, 1874.[17]
Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances[18] and chose David Kalākaua as the next monarch.[19] The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy.[19] Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to the contravention of the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land ('Āina) was fertile, sacred, and not for sale to anyone.[19] In 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua traveled to the United States for a state visit to Washington DC to help gain support for a new treaty.[20][21] Congress agreed to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 for seven years in exchange for Ford Island.[22][23] After the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres of farm land to 125,000 acres in 1891.[24] At the end of the seven-year reciprocity agreement, the United States showed little interest in renewal.[22]
Rebellion of 1887 and the Bayonet Constitution[edit]
Main articles: Hawaiian Rebellions (1887–95) and 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii
On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor.[25] Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887.[26] They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887.[27] The new constitution was written by Lorrin Thurston, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia as threat against Kalākaua.[25] Kalākaua was forced under threat of assassination[28] to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution which greatly lessened his power.[19] It would become known as the "Bayonet Constitution" due to the force used.[25]
Lorrin Thurston, Minister of the Interior (Hawaii)
The Bayonet Constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but had stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature.[27]:152 Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was also altered, stipulating that both candidates and voters were now required to own property valuing at least three thousand dollars, or have an annual income of no less than six hundred dollars.[29] This resulted in disenfranchising two thirds of the native Hawaiians as well as other ethnic groups who had previously held the right to vote but were no longer able to meet the new voting requirements.[30] This new constitution benefited the white, foreign plantation owners.[31] With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing citizens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom.[32] Along with voting privileges, Americans could now run for office and still retain their American citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation of the world[33] and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized.[34] Asian immigrants were completely shut out and were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote at all.[35]
Wilcox Rebellion of 1888[edit]
ʻIolani Barracks, 2007
The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua, king of Hawaii, and replace him with his sister in a coup d'état in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king after the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua's sister, Princess Liliʻuokalani and his wife, Queen Kapiolani, returned from Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee immediately after news reached them in Great Britain.[36]
Kalākaua's distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, Robert William Wilcox returned to Hawaii at about the same time as Liliʻuokalani[37] in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped when the new constitution was signed. Wilcox, Charles B. Wilson, Princess Liliʻuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua to replace him with his sister, Liliʻuokalani. They had 300 Hawaiian conspirators hidden in Iolani Barracks and an alliance with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt would have been initiated.[38] No one was prosecuted but Wilcox was exiled. So on February 11, 1888 Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife.
Princess Liliʻuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers outright.[39]
Liliuokalani attempts to re-write Constitution[edit]
Main article: Proposed 1893 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii
In November 1889, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20 1890.[40] His sister Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage gained via the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875.[41] Many Hawaii businesses and citizens felt pressure from the loss of revenue; in response Liliʻuokalani proposed a lottery system to raise money for her government. Also proposed was a controversial opium licensing bill.[42] Her ministers, and closest friends, were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis.[43]
Liliʻuokalani's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one, an idea that seems to have been broadly supported by the Hawaiian population.[44] The 1893 Constitution would have increased suffrage by reducing some property requirements, and eliminated the voting privileges extended to European and American residents. It would have disfranchised many resident European and American businessmen who were not citizens of Hawaii. The Queen toured several of the islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support due to an understanding of what her opponents' likely response to these plans would be.[45]
Though there were threats to Hawaii's sovereignty throughout the Kingdom's history, it was not until the signing of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887 that this threat began to be realized. The precipitating event[46] leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893 was the attempt by Queen Liliʻuokalani to promulgate a new constitution that would have strengthened the power of the monarch relative to the legislature, where Euro-American business elites held disproportionate power. This political situation had resulted from the so-called 1887 Bayonet Constitution. The stated goals of the conspirators, who were non-native Hawaiian Kingdom subjects (five American nationals, one English national, and one German national)[47] were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the United States.[48][49]
Overthrow[edit]
Queen Liliʻuokalani
The overthrow itself was led by Thurston, who was the grandson of American missionaries[50] and derived his support primarily from the American and European business class residing in Hawaii and other supporters of the Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were American and European citizens who were also Kingdom subjects.[51][52][53] They included legislators, government officers, and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom.[54]
On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson was tipped off by detectives to the imminent planned overthrow. Wilson requested warrants to arrest the 13-member council of the Committee of Safety, and put the Kingdom under martial law. Because the members had strong political ties with United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen’s cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston,[55] Wilson began to collect his men for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard, Samuel Nowlein, had rallied a force of 496 men who were kept at hand to protect the Queen.[2]
The events began on January 17, 1893 when John Good, a revolutionist, shot Leialoha, a native policeman who was trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the Honolulu Rifles, the paramilitary wing of the Committee of Safety led by Lorrin Thurston.[56] The Committee of Safety feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout out the conspirators and stop the overthrow before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing the Honolulu Rifles, consisting of approximately 1,500 armed local (non-native) men, under their leadership, intending to depose Queen Liliʻuokalani. The Rifles garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from ʻIolani Palace and waited for the Queen’s response.
As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.[57]
United States involvement[edit]
John L. Stevens, an American diplomat, conspired to overthrow the Kingdom of Hawaii
USS Boston
The overthrow efforts were supported by United States Government Minister John L. Stevens with an invasion of U.S. Marines, who came ashore at the request of the conspirators.[58] Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property[59] by the Committee of Safety, Stevens obliged their request and summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS Boston and two companies of U.S. sailors to land on the Kingdom and take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. 162 sailors and Marines aboard the USS Boston in Honolulu Harbor came ashore well-armed but under orders of neutrality. The overthrow left the queen imprisoned at Iolani Palace under house arrest. The sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence served effectively in intimidating royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."[60] Due to the Queen's desire "to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life" for her subjects and after some deliberation, at the urging of advisers and friends, the Queen ordered her forces to surrender. The Honolulu Rifles took over government buildings, disarmed the Royal Guard, and declared a provisional government.
According to the Queen's Book, her friend and minister J.S. Walker "came and told me 'that he had come on a painful duty, that the opposition party had requested that I should abdicate." After consulting with her ministers, including Walker, the Queen concluded that "since the troops of the United States had been landed to support the revolutionists, by the order of the American minister, it would be impossible for us to make any resistance." Despite repeated claims that the overthrow was "bloodless", the Queen's Book notes that Lili'uokalani received "friends [who] expressed their sympathy in person; amongst these Mrs. J. S. Walker, who had lost her husband by the treatment he received from the hands of the insurgents. He was one of many who from persecution had succumbed to death."
Immediate annexation was prevented by the speech given by President Grover Cleveland to Congress at this time, in which he stated that:
... the military demonstration upon the soil of Honolulu was of itself an act of war; unless made either with the consent of the government of Hawaii or for the bona fide purpose of protecting the imperiled lives and property of citizens of the United States. But there is no pretense of any such consent on the part of the government of the queen... the existing government, instead of requesting the presence of an armed force, protested against it. There is as little basis for the pretense that forces were landed for the security of American life and property. If so, they would have been stationed in the vicinity of such property and so as to protect it, instead of at a distance and so as to command the Hawaiian Government Building and palace.... When these armed men were landed, the city of Honolulu was in its customary orderly and peaceful condition....[61]
The Republic of Hawaii was nonetheless declared in 1894 by the same parties which had established the provisional government. Among them were Lorrin A. Thurston, a drafter of the Bayonet Constitution, and Sanford Dole who appointed himself President of the forcibly instated Republic on July 4, 1894.
Aftermath[edit]
See also: Opposition to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii
December 19, 1898 letter
A provisional government was set up with the strong support of the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group who had defended the system of government promulgated by the Bayonet Constitution against the Wilcox Rebellion of 1889.[49]
The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, protested the overthrow:
I Liliʻuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.
That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.
Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.
On December 19, 1898 the queen would amend the declaration with the "Memorial of Queen Liliuokalani in relation to the Crown lands of Hawaii", further protesting the overthrow and loss of property.[62]
Response[edit]
United States[edit]
Newly inaugurated President Grover Cleveland called for an investigation into the overthrow. This investigation was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount. Blount concluded in his report on July 17, 1893, "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government." Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawaiʻi was forced to resign his commission.[citation needed] President Cleveland stated, "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." The matter was referred by Cleveland to Congress on December 18, 1893 after the Queen refused to accept amnesty for the traitors as a condition of reinstatement. Hawaii President Sanford Dole was presented a demand for reinstatement by Minister Willis, who had not realized Cleveland had already sent the matter to Congress—Dole flatly refused Cleveland's demands to reinstate the Queen.[citation needed]
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, chaired by Senator John Tyler Morgan (D-Alabama) and composed mostly of senators in favor of annexation, initiated their own investigation to discredit Blount's earlier report, using pro-annexationist affidavits from Hawaii, and testimony provided to the U.S. Senate in Washington, D.C. Not surprisingly, the Morgan Report contradicted the Blount Report, and exonerated Minister Stevens and the U.S. military troops finding them "not guilty" of involvement in the overthrow. Cleveland became stalled with his earlier efforts to restore the queen, and adopted a position of recognition of the so-called Provisional Government and the Republic of Hawaii which followed.[63][64]
The Native Hawaiian Study Commission of the United States Congress in its 1983 final report found no historical, legal, or moral obligation for the U.S. government to provide reparations, assistance, or group rights to Native Hawaiians.[65]
In 1993, the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Congress passed a resolution, which President Bill Clinton signed into law, offering an apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for its involvement in the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. This law is known as the Apology Resolution.
International[edit]
Every government with a diplomatic presence in Hawaii, except for the United Kingdom, recognized the Provisional Government within 48 hours of the overthrow via their consulates. Countries recognizing the new Provisional Government included Chile, Austria-Hungary, Mexico, Russia, the Netherlands, Imperial Germany, Sweden, Spain, Imperial Japan,[66] Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Belgium, China, Peru, and France.[67] When the Republic of Hawaii was declared on July 4, 1894, immediate de facto recognition was given by every nation with diplomatic relations with Hawaii, except for Britain, whose response came in November 1894.[68]
Hawaiian counter-revolution[edit]
Main article: 1895 Counter-revolution in Hawaii
A four-day uprising between January 6 and 9, 1895, began with an attempted coup d'état to restore the monarchy, and included battles between Royalists and the republican rebels. Later, after a weapons cache was found on the palace grounds after the attempted rebellion in 1895, Queen Liliʻuokalani was placed under arrest, tried by a military tribunal of the Republic of Hawaiʻi, convicted of misprision of treason and imprisoned in her own home. On January 24, Liliokinauokalani abdicated, formally ending the Hawaiian monarchy.
Republic, American annexation, statehood[edit]
Main articles: Provisional Government of Hawaii, Republic of Hawaii, and Territory of Hawaii
The Kūʻē Petitions. Several pro-royalist groups submitted petitions against annexation in 1897. In 1900 those groups disbanded and formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, the first congressional representative from the Territory of Hawaii
Sanford Dole and his committee declared itself the Provisional Government of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi on January 17, 1893, removing only the Queen, her cabinet, and her marshal from office. On July 4, 1894 the Republic of Hawaiʻi was proclaimed. Dole was president of both governments. As a republic, it was the intention of the government to campaign for annexation with the United States of America. The rationale behind annexation included a strong economic component—Hawaiian goods and services exported to the mainland would not be subject to American tariffs, and would benefit from domestic bounties, if Hawaii was part of the United States.
In 1897, William McKinley succeeded Cleveland as president. A year later he signed the Newlands Resolution, which provided for the annexation of Hawaii on July 7, 1898. The formal ceremony marking the annexation was held at Iolani Palace on August 12, 1898. Almost no Native Hawaiians attended, and those few who were on the streets wore royalist ilima blossoms in their hats or hair, and, on their breasts Hawaiian flags with the motto: Kuu Hae Aloha ("my beloved flag").[69] Most of the 40,000 Native Hawaiians, including Liliʻuokalani and the royal family, shuttered themselves in their homes, protesting what they considered an illegal transaction. "When the news of Annexation came it was bitterer than death to me", Liliuokalani's niece, Princess Ka'iulani, told the San Francisco Chronicle. "It was bad enough to lose the throne, but infinitely worse to have the flag go down." The Hawaiian flag was lowered for the last time while the Royal Hawaiian Band played the Hawaiian national anthem, Hawaiʻi Ponoʻi.
The Hawaiian Islands became the Territory of Hawaii, a United States territory, with a new government established on February 22, 1900. Sanford Dole was appointed as the first governor. ʻIolani Palace served as the capitol of the Hawaiian government until 1969.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
Democratic Revolution of 1954
Hawaii - historical novel by James Michener has fictionalized account of the Overthrow in Chapter IV "From the Starving Village"
Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Kalākaua Dynasty
Paulet Affair
Unfamiliar Fishes by Sarah Vowell
Unification of Hawaii
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Jump up ^ Liliuokalani (1898). Hawaii's Story. Tothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. p. 186.
Jump up ^ Richard Harned (11 February 2009). The Palace Hotel. Arcadia Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4396-3655-8.
Jump up ^ Paul R. Spickard; Joanne L. Rondilla; Debbie Hippolite Wright (1 January 2002). Pacific Diaspora: Island Peoples in the United States and Across the Pacific. University of Hawaii Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-8248-2619-2.
Jump up ^ Eric Tyrone Lowery Love (2004). Race Over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865-1900. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-0-8078-5565-2.
Jump up ^ United States. Department of State (1895). Foreign Relations of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 496.
Jump up ^ Russ, The Hawaiian Revolution, p. 67: "She ... defended her act[ions] by showing that, out of a possible 9,500 native voters in 1892, 6,500 asked for a new Constitution."
Jump up ^ Daws, Shoal of Time, p271: The Queen's new cabinet "had been in office less than a week, and whatever they thought about the need for a new constitution... they knew enough about the temper of the queen's opponents to realize that they would endure the chance to challenge her, and no minister of the crown could look forward... to that confrontation."
Jump up ^ Kuykendall, Ralph (1967). The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 3. University of Hawaii Press. p. 582. ISBN 0-87022-433-6.
Jump up ^ The Blount Report, p588
Jump up ^ Kuykendall, Ralph (1967). The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 3. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 533 and 587–88. ISBN 0-87022-433-6. From Kuykendall, p. 587-588: "W.D. Alexander (History of Later Years of the Hawaiian Monarchy and the Revolution of 1893, p. 37) gives the following as the wording of Thurston's motion [to launch the coup]: 'That preliminary steps be taken at once to form and declare a Provisional Government with a view to annexation to the United States.' Thurston later wrote that his motion was 'substantially as follows: "I move that it is the sense of this meeting that the solution of the present situation is annexation to the United States."'(Memoirs, p. 250) Lt. Lucien Young (The Boston at Hawaii, p. 175) gives the following version of the motion: 'Resolved, That it is the sense of this committee that in view of the present unsatisfactory state of affairs, the proper course to pursue is to abolish the monarchy and apply for annexation to the United States.'"
^ Jump up to: a b Russ, William Adam (1992). The Hawaiian Revolution (1893–94). Associated University Presses. p. 90. ISBN 0-945636-53-9.
Jump up ^ Roark, James L.; Johnson, Michael P.; Cohen, Patricia Cline; Stage, Sarah; Hartmann, Susan M. (9 January 2012). The American Promise, Combined Volume: A History of the United States. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 660. ISBN 978-0-312-66312-4.
Jump up ^ Vernon M. Briggs (1 January 2003). Mass Immigration and the National Interest: Policy Directions for the New Century. M.E. Sharpe. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-7656-0934-2.
Jump up ^ Vernon M. Briggs (2001). Immigration and American Unionism. Cornell University Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-8014-8710-2.
Jump up ^ Tom Ginsburg; Rosalind Dixon (1 January 2011). Comparative Constitutional Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-85793-121-4.
Jump up ^ Andrade, Jr., Ernest (1996). Unconquerable Rebel: Robert W. Wilcox and Hawaiian Politics, 1880–1903. University Press of Colorado. p. 130. ISBN 0-87081-417-6.
Jump up ^ Twombly, Alexander (1900). Hawaii and its people. Silver, Burdett and company. p. 333.
Jump up ^ "An Officer Shot – He Suspected There Was Ammunition on the Wagon". The Daily Bulletin. V (626). Honolulu: J. W. Robertson. January 17, 1893. p. 3. Retrieved July 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ The Morgan Report, p808-809, "At the request of many citizens, whose wives and families were helpless and in terror of an expected uprising of the mob, which would burn and destroy, a request was made and signed by all of the committee, addressed to Minister Stevens, that troops might be landed to protect houses and private property.
Jump up ^ Jack Utter (2001). American Indians: Answers to Today's Questions. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-8061-3309-6.
Jump up ^ Kinzer, S. (2006) America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq. p. 30. [Minister Stevens] "certainly overstepped his authority when he brought troops ashore, especially since he knew that the 'general alarm and terror' of which the Committee of Safety had complained was a fiction."
Jump up ^ Russ, William Adam (1992). The Hawaiian Revolution (1893–94). Associated University Presses. p. 350. ISBN 0-945636-43-1.
Jump up ^ President Cleveland'S Message. Hawaii-nation.org. Retrieved on 2011-07-06.
Jump up ^ "Memorial of Queen Liliuokalani in relation to the Crown lands of Hawaii, 12/19/1898". National Archives. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
Jump up ^ The Blount Report, p1342, "In reply to the direct question from Mr. Parker as to whether this was the final decision of the Senate, I said that in my opinion it was final."
Jump up ^ Grover Cleveland's 2nd Annual Message, December 3, 1894 – "Since communicating the voluminous correspondence in regard to Hawaii and the action taken by the Senate and House of Representatives on certain questions submitted to the judgment and wider discretion of Congress the organization of a government in place of the provisional arrangement which followed the deposition of the Queen has been announced, with evidence of its effective operation. The recognition usual in such cases has been accorded the new Government."
Jump up ^ Native Hawaiian Study Commission: See Conclusions and Recommendations p.27 and also Existing Law, Native Hawaiians, and Compensation, pgs 333–339 and pgs 341–345. Wiki.grassrootinstitute.org. Retrieved on 2011-07-06.
Jump up ^ During the overthrow, the Japanese Imperial Navy gunboat Naniwa was docked at Pearl Harbor. The gunboat's commander, Heihachiro Togo, who later commanded the Japanese battleship fleet at Tsushima, refused to accede to the Provisional Government's demands that he strike the colors of the Kingdom, but later lowered the colors on order of the Japanese Government. Along with every other international legations in Honolulu, the Japanese Consulate-General, Suburo Fujii, quickly recognized the Provisional Government as the "de facto" legitimate successor to the monarchy.
Jump up ^ The Morgan Report, p 1103-1111. Morganreport.org (2006-02-11). Retrieved on 2011-07-06.
Jump up ^ Andrade, Ernest (1996). The Unconquerable Rebel. The University Press of Colorado. p. 147. ISBN 0-87081-417-6. The provisional government, with all its faults, had major difficulties in obtaining recognition, especially from Cleveland, and it was not considered likely that the republic would have any foreign problems. Recognition albeit de facto came about even more quickly than it had in 1893, for at least there was no question of a overthrow having taken place or of the government's control of the domestic situation.
Jump up ^ Robert W. Brockway. Hawaii "Hawai'i: America's Ally" Check |url= value (help). The Spanish American War Centennial web site. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
[show]
Overthrows in Hawaii
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The Member of the Wedding
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1952 film, see The Member of the Wedding (film).
The Member of the Wedding
First edition
Author
Carson McCullers
Cover artist
Isaac Haft
Country
United States
Language
English
Publisher
Houghton Mifflin Company
Publication date
1946
Media type
Print
Pages
176 pp (paperback)
OCLC
57134632
The Member of the Wedding is a 1946 novel by Southern writer Carson McCullers.[1] It took McCullers five years to complete, although she interrupted the work for a few months to write the short novel The Ballad of the Sad Café.[2]
In a salacious letter to her husband Reeves McCullers, she explained that the novel was "one of those works that the least slip can ruin. It must be beautifully done. For like a poem there is not much excuse for it otherwise."[3]
She originally planned to write a story about a girl who is in love with her piano teacher, but she had what she called "a divine spark: "Suddenly I said: Frankie is in love with her brother and the bride.... The illumination focused the whole book."[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Critical interpretations
3 Adaptations
4 References in popular culture
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
The novel takes place over a few days in late August. It tells the story of 12-year-old tomboy Frankie Addams, who feels disconnected from the world; in her words, an "unjoined person." Frankie's mother died when she was born, and her father is a distant, uncomprehending figure. Her closest companions are the family's African American maid, Berenice Sadie Brown, and her six-year-old cousin, John Henry West. She has no friends in her small Southern town and dreams of going away with her brother and his bride-to-be on their honeymoon in the Alaskan wilderness.
The novel explores the psychology of the three main characters and is more concerned with evocative settings than with incident. Frankie does, however, have a brief and troubling encounter with a soldier. Her hopes of going away are disappointed and, her fantasy destroyed, a short coda reveals how her personality has changed. It also recounts the fate of John Henry West, and Berenice Sadie Brown's future plans.
Critical interpretations[edit]
The Member of the Wedding is told from the point of view of Frankie, who is a troubled adolescent. But some critics think it is a mistake to view The Member of the Wedding as simply a coming of age novel—a "sweet momentary illumination of adolescence before the disillusion of adulthood,"[5] as it is sometimes regarded, or as Patricia Yaeger puts it, "an economical way of learning about the pangs of growing up."[6]
For Yaeger and the Scots novelist and critic Ali Smith, this is to sentimentalize the work. They suggest that such a reading misses much of its profundity, darkness, and what Smith calls its "political heft."[7] It should be seen, according to Smith, as a "very funny, very dark novel" and a "combination of hope, hopelessness and callousness." Its theme, says Smith, is "why people exclude others and what happens when they do."
Other critics, including McKay Jenkins,[8] have highlighted the importance of themes of racial and sexual identity. Frankie wishes people could "change back and forth from boys to girls". John Henry wants them to be "half boy and half girl". Berenice would like there to be "no separate colored people in the world, but all human beings would be light brown color with blue eyes and black hair." For them, Jenkins suggests, the ideal world would be "a place where identity…is fluid, changeable, amorphous."
Another critic, Margaret B. McDowell, has also stressed the role of Berenice Sadie Brown (and to a lesser extent John Henry West) in counter-pointing Frankie’s story.[2]
Jack Halberstam, in his book Female Masculinity, uses the character of Frankie to illustrate the pressures on girls to "outgrow" their tomboyishness, arguing that masculinity is tolerated in girls only as long as they ultimately conform to gender expectations in adulthood. In the example of Frankie, he argues, we can see that "the image of the tomboy can be tolerated only within a narrative of blossoming womanhood; within such a narrative, tomboyism represents a resistance to adulthood itself rather than to adult femininity."[9]
Critics such as Elizabeth Freeman[10] and Nicole Seymour view the novel as "queer"—as challenging gender and sexual norms. In her article on the novel, Seymour argues that McCullers queers the human developmental schema (childhood-adolescence-adulthood) through various narrative methods. These methods include the novel's tripartite structure; its depiction of personal difficulties with narrativizing, "the refusal of dynamism, and the use of the literary devices of repetition and analepsis." Seymour concludes that "the novel allows us to imagine an adolescent body in synchronic rather than diachronic terms - thereby challenging the ideals of sexuality, gender, and race that normally accrue to such bodies."[11]
Adaptations[edit]
Julie Harris, Ethel Waters and Brandon deWilde in the Broadway production.
The book has been adapted for the stage, motion pictures, and television.
McCullers herself adapted the novel for a Broadway production directed by Harold Clurman. It opened on January 5, 1950 at the Empire Theatre, where it ran for 501 performances. The cast included Ethel Waters, Julie Harris, and debuted Brandon deWilde, a seven-year-old second-grader at the time.
Waters, Harris, and deWilde reprised their stage roles, with Arthur Franz, Nancy Gates, and Dickie Moore joining the cast, for the 1952 film version The Member of the Wedding. The screenplay was adapted by Edna and Edward Anhalt and directed by Fred Zinnemann. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for Julie Harris, in her debut screen appearance.
A stage musical version, F. Jasmine Addams, was produced Off-Broadway in 1971.[12][13]
A 1982 television adaptation, directed by Delbert Mann, starred Pearl Bailey, Dana Hill, and Howard E. Rollins, Jr..[14]
A 1989 Broadway revival production with Roundabout Theatre (directed by Harold Scott, set design by Thomas Cariello) starred Esther Rolle as Berenice, Amelia Campbell as Frankie, and Calvin Lennon Armitage as young John Henry.[15]
The 1997 film version, adapted by David W. Rintels and directed by Fielder Cook, starred Anna Paquin, Alfre Woodard, Corey Dunn, and Enrico Colantoni. Rintels used the original novel rather than the play as his source material.[16]
The Young Vic theatre in London produced the stage version of The Member of the Wedding in 2007, directed by Matthew Dunster. Frankie Addams was played by Flora Spencer-Longhurst and Berenice Sadie Brown by Portia, a member of Philip Seymour Hoffman's LAByrinth Theater Company.[17][18]
References in popular culture[edit]
Text from The Member of the Wedding was used by Jarvis Cocker on his debut album, Jarvis. It forms the introduction to the 11th song on the album, "Big Julie", and consists of his re-writing of the opening lines of the book. In the original these are:
It happened that green and crazy summer when Frankie was twelve years old. This was the summer when for a long time she had not been a member. She belonged to no club and was a member of nothing in the world. Frankie had become an unjoined person who hung around in doorways, and she was afraid.
The poet Sylvia Plath was known to admire McCullers' work, and the unusual phrase "silver and exact", used by McCullers to describe a set of train tracks in the novel, is the first line of Plath's poem "Mirror".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Banes, Louise Parks (July 8, 1946). "The Reading Hour". The Bakersfield Californian.
^ Jump up to: a b McDowell, Margaret B. Carson McCullers, Boston, 1980.
Jump up ^ quoted in Carson McCullers: A Life, Josyane Savigneau, London, 2001.
Jump up ^ Letter to Tennessee Williams, quoted by Josyane Savigneau,Carson McCullers: A Life.
Jump up ^ Ali Smith, Introduction to The Member of the Wedding, London, 2004.
Jump up ^ Patricia Yaeger, Dirt and Desire: Reconstructing Southern Women’s Writing, Chicago, 2000.
Jump up ^ Ali Smith, Introduction to The Member of the Wedding
Jump up ^ McKay Jenkins The South in Black and White, Chapel Hill, 1999
Jump up ^ Halberstam, Judith, Female Masculinity, Durham: Duke University Press, 1998, p. 6. ISBN 0-8223-2226-9 & 0822322439.
Jump up ^ Freeman, Elizabeth. The Wedding Complex: Forms of Belonging in Modern American Culture. Duke University Press, 2002.
Jump up ^ Seymour, Nicole, "Somatic Syntax: Replotting the Developmental Narrative in Carson McCullers's The Member of the Wedding." Studies in the Novel 41.3 (Fall 2009): 293-313.
Jump up ^ Theodore Mann (2007) Journeys in the Night: Creating a New American Theatre with Circle in the Square: A Memoir, Hal Leonard Corporation
Jump up ^ F. Jasmine Addams (1971). Music & Lyrics by G. Wood; book by Carson McCullers, G. Wood and Theodore Mann; based on Carson McCullers’ The Member of the Wedding.
Jump up ^ Howard Rosenberg: "Something Old, New in 'Wedding'" (December 22, 1982), Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Mel Gussow, "Theatre Review: Frankie is Still Searching for Togetherness" (April 1, 1989), New York Times.
Jump up ^ The Member of the Wedding (1997) on IMDb
Jump up ^ "Brook gives Young Vic season a more international flavour" (May 23, 2007), Evening Standard.
Jump up ^ "The Guide: Theatre: * A Member Of The Wedding London" (September 1, 2007) The Guardian.
External links[edit]
The Member of the Wedding first edition dustjacket at NYPL Digital Gallery
The Member of the Wedding (1952) on IMDb
The Member of the Wedding (1952) at AllMovie
The Member of the Wedding (1952) at the TCM Movie Database
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Member_of_the_Wedding&oldid=805002325"
Categories:
1946 American novels
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