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Electron transport chain
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The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes. The NADH and succinate generated in the citric acid cycle are oxidized, providing energy to power ATP synthase.
Photosynthetic electron transport chain of the thylakoid membrane.
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.
Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.
In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP+ to NADPH with transfer of H+ ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD+ and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient.
Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 In mitochondria
2.1 Mitochondrial redox carriers
2.1.1 Complex I
2.1.2 Complex II
2.1.3 Complex III
2.1.4 Complex IV
2.2 Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation
2.3 Summary
3 In bacteria
3.1 Electron donors
3.2 Dehydrogenases
3.3 Quinone carriers
3.4 Proton pumps
3.5 Cytochrome electron carriers
3.6 Terminal oxidases and reductases
3.7 Electron acceptors
3.8 Summary
4 Photosynthetic
5 Summary
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.
The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions.[1] If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP,[2] which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate-level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.[citation needed]
In mitochondria[edit]
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.
A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.
Mitochondrial redox carriers[edit]
Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.
Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:
NADH+H+ → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → H2O ↑ Complex II ↑ Succinate

Complex I[edit]
In Complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6.5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH2), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H+) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.[3]
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH is oxidized to NAD+, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH2 in one two-electron step. FMNH2 is then oxidized in two one-electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH2 to an Fe-S cluster, from the Fe-S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free-radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH2. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. [4] As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.[5]
This complex is inhibited by Alkylguanides (Example : Guanethidine), Rotenone, Barbiturates, Chlorpromazine, Piericidin.
Complex II[edit]
In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate-CoQ reductase; EC 1.3.5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
This complex is inhibited by Carboxin.
Complex III[edit]
In Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex or CoQH2-cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10.2.2), the Q-cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption/release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH2 at the QO site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water-soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Qi site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol ( 2 H 2 + e − {\displaystyle {\ce {2H+2e-}}} ) oxidations at the Qo site to form one quinone ( 2 H 2 + e − {\displaystyle {\ce {2H+2e-}}} ) at the Qi site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).
QH 2 + 2 cytochrome c ( Fe III ) + 2 H + ( in ) ⟶ Q + 2 cytochrome c ( Fe II ) + 4 H + ( out ) {\displaystyle {\ce {QH2 + 2 cytochrome c (Fe^{III}) + 2 H+ (in) -> Q + 2 cytochrome c (Fe^{II}) + 4 H+ (out)}}}
When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
This complex is inhibited by British Antilewisite(BAL), Napthoquinone and Antimycin.
Complex IV[edit]
In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9.3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O2), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide, carbon monoxide, azide, hydrogen sulphide(H2S).
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation[edit]
Depiction of ATP synthase, the site of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP.
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the FOF1 ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain.[6] The FO component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits.[7] The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the FO turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required.[8] After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix.[7] This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD+ and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F1 component of the complex.[9]
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin—present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue—provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. Thyroxine is also a natural uncoupler. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production.[10] Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2,4-dinitrophenol, 2,4-dinitrocresol, CCCP) also exist, and can be lethal at high doses.[citation needed]
Summary[edit]
In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH2) to a terminal electron acceptor (O2) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.[11]
In bacteria[edit]
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is
NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O2 where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.
In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
                     Donor Donor Donor ↓ ↓ ↓ dehydrogenase → quinone → bc1 → cytochrome ↓ ↓ oxidase(reductase) oxidase(reductase) ↓ ↓ Acceptor Acceptor

Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.
Electron donors[edit]
In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock-eater"). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.
Dehydrogenases[edit]
Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, H2 dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.[citation needed]
Quinone carriers[edit]
Quinones are mobile, lipid-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.
Proton pumps[edit]
A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc1 is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc1 is similar to mitochondrial bc1 (Complex III).
Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.
Cytochrome electron carriers[edit]
Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid-state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher-energy molecule.
Terminal oxidases and reductases[edit]
When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O2) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.
In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc1 complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Electron acceptors[edit]
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.[citation needed]
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD+/NADH redox pair and the O2/H2O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O2 is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor-acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen-evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10−4 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard" conditions.[citation needed]
Summary[edit]
Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.
Photosynthetic[edit]
In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O2) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction.
Summary[edit]
Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.
See also[edit]
CoRR hypothesis
Electron equivalent
Hydrogen hypothesis
Respirasome
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Murray, Robert K.; Daryl K. Granner; Peter A. Mayes; Victor W. Rodwell (2003). Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry. New York, NY: Lange Medical Books/ MgGraw Hill. p. 96. ISBN 0-07-121766-5.
Jump up ^ Karp, Gerald (2008). Cell and Molecular Biology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-470-04217-5.
Jump up ^ Lauren, Biochemistry, Johnson/Cole, 2010, pp 598-611
Jump up ^ Garrett & Grisham, Biochemistry, Brooks/Cole, 2010, pp 598-611
Jump up ^ Garret and Grisham (2016). biochemistry. University of Virginia. p. 687. ISBN 978-1-305-57720-6.
Jump up ^ Jonckheere, An I.; Smeitink, Jan A. M.; Rodenburg, Richard J. T. (2017-03-10). "Mitochondrial ATP synthase: architecture, function and pathology". Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease. 35 (2): 211–225. doi:10.1007/s10545-011-9382-9. ISSN 0141-8955. PMC 3278611  . PMID 21874297.
^ Jump up to: a b Garrett, Reginald H.; Grisham, Charles M. (2012). Biochemistry (5th ed.). Cengage learning. p. 664. ISBN 1-133-10629-3.
Jump up ^ Fillingame, Robert H; Angevine, Christine M; Dmitriev, Oleg Y (2003-11-27). "Mechanics of coupling proton movements to c-ring rotation in ATP synthase". FEBS Letters. 555 (1): 29–34. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(03)01101-3. ISSN 1873-3468.
Jump up ^ Berg, Jeremy M.; Tymoczko, John L.; Stryer, Lubert (2002-01-01). "A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP".
Jump up ^ Cannon, Barbara; Nedergaard, Jan (2004-01-01). "Brown Adipose Tissue: Function and Physiological Significance". Physiological Reviews. 84 (1): 277–359. doi:10.1152/physrev.00015.2003. ISSN 0031-9333. PMID 14715917.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002-01-01). "Electron-Transport Chains and Their Proton Pumps".
Fenchel T; King GM; Blackburn TH (September 2006). Bacterial Biogeochemistry: The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling (2nd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-103455-9.
Lengeler JW (January 1999). Drews G; Schlegel HG, eds. Biology of the Prokaryotes. Blackwell Science. ISBN 978-0-632-05357-5.
Nelson DL; Cox MM (April 2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4339-2.
Nicholls DG; Ferguson SJ (July 2002). Bioenergetics 3. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-518121-1.
Stumm W; Morgan JJ (1996). Aquatic Chemistry (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-51185-4.
Thauer RK; Jungermann K; Decker K (March 1977). "Energy conservation in chemotrophic anaerobic bacteria". Bacteriol Rev. 41 (1): 100–80. PMC 413997  . PMID 860983.
White D. (September 1999). The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512579-5.
Voet D; Voet JG (March 2004). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-58651-7.
Kim HS.; Patel, K; Muldoon-Jacobs, K; Bisht, KS; Aykin-Burns, N; Pennington, JD; Van Der Meer, R; Nguyen, P; et al. (January 2010). "SIRT3 is a mitochondria-localized tumor suppressor required for maintenance of mitochondrial integrity and metabolism during stress". Cancer Cell. 17 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2009.11.023. PMC 3711519  . PMID 20129246.
External links[edit]
Electron Transport Chain Complex Proteins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Khan Academy, video lecture
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-3 - Complexes with cytochrome b-like domains
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-4 - Bacterial and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidases
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-2 - Photosynthetic reaction centers and photosystems
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-78 - Cytochrome PORN renodoxin reductase
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-130 - Electron transfer flavoproteins
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Comptroller and Auditor General of India
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This article is about Comptroller and Auditor General of India. For similar title in other jurisdictions, see Comptroller and Auditor General.
Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Logo of Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Incumbent
Rajiv Mehrishi, IAS
since 25 September 2017
Nominator
Prime Minister of India
Appointer
President of India
Term length
6 yrs or up to 65 yrs of age
(whichever is earlier)
Inaugural holder
V. Narahari Rao
Deputy
Deputy Comptrollers and Auditors General of India
Salary
₹90,000 (US$1,300) per month[1][2]
Website
Official Website
India
This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
India
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e
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is an authority, established by Article 148 of the Constitution of India, which audits all receipts and expenditure of the Government of India and the state governments, including those of bodies and authorities substantially financed by the government. The CAG is also the external auditor of Government-owned corporations and conducts supplementary audit of government companies, i.e., any non-banking/ non-insurance company in which Union Government has an equity share of at least 51 per cent or subsidiary companies of existing government companies. The reports of the CAG are taken into consideration by the Public Accounts Committees (PACs) and Committees on Public Undertakings (COPUs), which are special committees in the Parliament of India and the state legislatures. The CAG is also the head of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department, the affairs of which are managed by officers of Indian Audit and Accounts Service, and has over 58,000 employees across the country.
The CAG is mentioned in the Constitution of India under Article 149 – 151.
The CAG is ranked 9th and enjoys the same status as a judge of Supreme Court of India in Indian order of precedence. The current CAG of India is Rajiv Mehrishi,[3][4][5][6][7] who assumed office on 25 September 2017. He is the 13th CAG of India.
Contents
1 Appointment
1.1 Oath or affirmation
1.2 Duties of the CAG
1.3 Recent achievements
1.4 Suggested reforms
2 Removal
3 Indian Audit and Accounts Service
4 Scope of audits
5 Reforms suggested by former CAG Vinod Rai
6 Prominent audit reports
6.1 2G Spectrum allocation
6.2 Coal mine allocation
6.3 Fodder scam
6.4 Krishna-Godavari (KG) D-6 gas block
7 List of Comptroller and Auditors General of India
8 References
9 External links
Appointment[edit]
The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India is appointed by the President of India[8] following a recommendation by the Prime Minister. On appointment, he/she has to make an oath or affirmation before the President of India.
Oath or affirmation[edit]
"I,(name of the person being appointed), having appointed Comptroller and Auditor-General of India do swear in the name of God/solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will duly and faithfully and to the best of my ability, knowledge and judgement perform the duties of my office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will and that I will uphold the Constitution and the laws.
Duties of the CAG[edit]
As per the provisions of the constitution, the CAG’s (DPC) (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971 was enacted. As per the various provisions, the duties of the CAG include the audit of:
Receipts and expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India and of the State and Union Territory having legislative assembly.
Trading, manufacturing, profit and loss accounts and balance sheets, and other subsidiary accounts kept in any Government department; Accounts of stores and stock kept in Government offices or departments.
Government companies as per the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013.
Corporations established by or under laws made by Parliament in accordance with the provisions of the respective legislation.
Authorities and bodies substantially financed from the Consolidated Funds of the Union and State Governments. Anybody or authority even though not substantially financed from the Consolidated Fund, the audit of which may be entrusted to the C&AG.
Grants and loans given by Government to bodies and authorities for specific purposes.
Entrusted audits e.g. those of Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies under Technical Guidance & Support (TGS).
Recent achievements[edit]
Recently the CAG under Vinod Rai has constantly been in the limelight for its reports exposing mega corruption, particularly in 2G spectrum case, Commonwealth Games scam and other scams.[9][10]
Suggested reforms[edit]
In June 2012, Lal Krishna Advani a veteran Indian politician and former Deputy Prime Minister of India (as well as former Leader of the Opposition in Indian Parliament)[11] suggested that CAG's appointment should be made by a bipartisan collegium consisting of the prime minister, the Chief Justice of India, the Law Minister and the Leaders of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.[12][13] Subsequently, M Karunanidhi, the head of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party and five times Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu[14] supported the suggestion. Advani made this demand to remove any impression of bias or lack of transparency and fairness because, according to him, the current system was open to "manipulation and partisanship".[12][13] Similar demand was made by many former CEC's such as B B Tandon, N Gopalaswamy and S Y Quraishi,[15] however the government did not seem too keen.[16]
CPI MP Gurudas Dasgupta wrote a letter to the PM and demand CAG has appointed by the collegium of consisting the PM, the CJI and the leader of the opposition in Lok Sabha but the PM declined. Former CAG V. K. Shunglu has suggested in its CWG scam report that CAG be made a multi-member body.[17]
PMO minister V.Narayanasamy in his interview with PTI said Government is considering the Shunglu panel report but PM and Finance Minister declined it. Later V. Narayanasamy said he misquoted but PTI reaffirmed it.[18]
rvice) Act, 1971". His salary is same as that of judge of the Supreme court of India. Neither leave of absence, pension or age of retirement can be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment. The CAG is not eligible for further office either under the Government of India or under the Government of any State after he has ceased to hold his office. These provisions are in order to ensure the independence of CAG.[2][19]
Salary of CAG
Date
Salary
1 January 2006 ₹90,000 (US$1,300)[1][20]
Removal[edit]
The CAG can be removed only on an address from both houses of parliament on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. The CAG vacates the office on attaining the age of 65 years even without completing the 6 years term by impeachment also.
Indian Audit and Accounts Service[edit]
Main article: Indian Audit and Accounts Service
The Constitution of India [Article 148] provides for an independent office to the CAG of India. He or she is the head of Indian Audit and Accounts Department. He/she has a duty to uphold the Constitution of India and laws of the Parliament to safeguard the interests of the public exchequer. The Indian Audit and Accounts Service aids the CAG in the discharge of his/her functions.
Scope of audits[edit]
"CAG is not a munimji or an accountant or something like that... He is a constitutional authority who can examine the revenue allocation and matters relating to the economy. CAG is the principal auditor whose function is to go into the economy, effectiveness and efficiency of the use of resources by the government. If the CAG will not do, then who else will do it"
– Observation of a bench of Supreme Court of India while dismissing a petition challenging CAG reports on 2G spectrum, Coal Blocks Allotment, etc.[21]
Audit of government accounts (including the accounts of the state governments) in India is entrusted to the CAG of India who is empowered to audit all expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of the union or state governments, whether incurred within India or outside, all revenue into the Consolidated Funds and all transactions relating to the Public Accounts and the Contingency Funds of the Union and the states. Specifically, audits include:
Transactions relating to debt, deposits, remittances, Trading, and manufacturing
Profit and loss accounts and balance sheets kept under the order of the President or Governors
Receipts and stock accounts. CAG also audits the books of accounts of the government companies as per Companies Act.
In addition, the CAG also executes performance and compliance audits of various functions and departments of the government. Recently, the CAG as a part of thematic review on "Introduction of New Trains" is deputing an auditors' team on selected trains, originating and terminating at Sealdah and Howrah stations, to assess the necessity of their introduction.[22] In a path-breaking judgement, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the CAG General could audit private firms in revenue-share deals with government.
CAG has been elected the Chairman of the United Nations' Board of Auditors.[23][24]CAG has been appointed as external auditor of eleven UN organisations:[25]
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
United Nations Secretariat (Volume 1)
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
United Nations Escrow (Iraq) Account
United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund (UNJSPF)
Strategic Heritage Plan (SHP)
United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC)
International Trade Centre (ITC)-Capital Master Plan (CMP)
United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS),
Information Communication Technology (OICT)
Umoja
Omkar Goswami is an Indian who is presently one of the External Auditors of the UN organisation World Food Programme (WFP) headquartered at Rome, Italy.[26]
Reforms suggested by former CAG Vinod Rai[edit]
In November 2009, the CAG requested the government to amend the 1971 Audit Act to bring all private-public partnerships (PPPs), Panchayti Raj Institutions and societies getting government funds within the ambit of the CAG. The amendment further proposes to enhance CAG’s powers to access information under the Audit Act. In the past, almost 30% of the documents demanded by CAG officials have been denied to them.[27] The PPP model has become a favourite mode of executing big infrastructure projects worth millions of rupees and these projects may or may not come under the audit purview of the CAG, depending on sources of funds and the nature of revenue sharing agreements between the government and the private entities. Currently, it is estimated that 65 percent of government spending does not come under the scrutiny of the CAG.[28]
Prominent audit reports[edit]
Following are some of the most debated CAG reports:
2G Spectrum allocation[edit]
Main article: 2G Spectrum case
A CAG report on issue of Licences and Allocation of 2G Spectrum[29] resulted in a huge controversy. The report estimated that there was a presumptive loss of ₹1,766 billion (US$26 billion) by the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government.[30] In a chargesheet filed on 2 April 2011 by the investigating agency Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), the agency pegged the loss at ₹310 billion (US$4.5 billion)[31]
All the speculations of profit, loss and no-loss were put to rest on 2 February 2012 when the Supreme Court of India on a public interest litigation (PIL) declared allotment of spectrum as "unconstitutional and arbitrary" and quashed all the 122 licenses issued in 2008 during tenure of A. Raja (then minister for communications & IT in the UPA government) the main accused.[32] The court further said that A. Raja "wanted to favour some companies at the cost of the public exchequer" and "virtually gifted away important national asset".[33]
Revenue loss calculation was further established on 3 August 2012 when according to the directions of the Supreme Court, Govt of India revised the reserve price for 2G spectrum to ₹140 billion (US$2.0 billion).[34][35]
However, the special court in New Delhi acquitted all accused in the 2G spectrum case including prime accused A Raja and Kanimozhi on December 21, 2017, the verdict was based on the fact that CBI could not find any evidence against the accused in those 7 years. Per the judgement, "Some people created a scam by artfully arranging a few selected facts and exaggerating things beyond recognition to astronomical levels."
Coal mine allocation[edit]
Main article: Coal Mining Scam
A 2012 CAG report on coal mine allocation[36] received massive media and political reaction as well as public outrage. During the 2012 monsoon session of the Parliament, the BJP protested the Government's handling of the issue demanding the resignation of the prime minister and refused to have a debate in the Parliament. The deadlock resulted in Parliament functioning only seven of the twenty days of the session.[37][38]
The CAG report criticised the Government by saying it had the authority to allocate coal blocks by a process of competitive bidding, but chose not to.[39] As a result, both public sector enterprises (PSEs) and private firms paid less than they might have otherwise. In its draft report in March, the CAG estimated that the "windfall gain" to the allocatees was ₹10,673 billion (US$160 billion).[39] The CAG Final Report tabled in Parliament put the figure at ₹1,856 billion (US$27 billion)[40]
While the initial CAG report suggested that coal blocks could have been allocated more efficiently, resulting in more revenue to the government, at no point did it suggest that corruption was involved in the allocation of coal. Over the course of 2012, however, the question of corruption came to dominate the discussion. In response to a complaint by the BJP, the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) directed the CBI to investigate the matter. The CBI named a dozen Indian firms in a First Information Report (FIR), the first step in a criminal investigation. These FIRs accuse them of overstating their net worth, failing to disclose prior coal allocations, and hoarding rather than developing coal allocations.[41][42] The CBI officials investigating the case have speculated that bribery may be involved.[41]
Fodder scam[edit]
Main article: Fodder scam
The scandal was first exposed due to the CAG report in the matter in December 1995. The report alleged of fraudulent withdrawal of government funds worth ₹9.5 billion (US$140 million) in the Bihar animal husbandry department against non-existent supplies of fodder and medicines.[43] Subsequently, based on Patna High Court's orders, CBI investigated the case and registered as many as 63 cases. Many accused have been convicted while many cases are still under trial.[44]
Krishna-Godavari (KG) D-6 gas block[edit]
The oil ministry imposed a fine of ₹7000 crores on Mukesh Ambani's company for the sharp drop in production of gas and violations mentioned in CAG's 2011 report. Oil ministry did not approve company's US$7.2 billion stake in deal with BP.[45][46][47] So Jaipal Reddy known for his honesty was shifted from oil ministry to the Science and Technology ministry owing to pressure from Reliance group of Industries.[48][49][50] RIL allowed the CAG to begin the audit in April this year after stalling it for a year. But unresolved issues could stall audit of KG Basin again.[51] Then Reliance appointed Defence Secretary Shashikant Sharma as new CAG to audit KG Basin, said Prashant Bhushan.[52] In KG D-6, most of the cost had been recovered by the private player and the increase in price would only go as profit. About 90% of receipts from K-G D-6 were so far booked as expenditure and in the remaining 10%, only 1% was paid to the government and rest 9% went to the operator as profit.[53]
List of Comptroller and Auditors General of India[edit]
No.
Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Year tenure began
Year tenure ended
1 V. Narahari Rao 1948 1954
2 A. K. Chanda 1954 1960
3 A. K. Roy 1960 1966
4 S. Ranganathan 1966 1972
5 A. Bakshi 1972 1978
6 Gian Prakash 1978 1984
7 T. N. Chaturvedi 1984 1990
8 C. G. Somiah 1990 1996
9 V. K. Shunglu 1996 2002
10 VN Kaul 2002 2008
11 Vinod Rai 2008 2013
12 Shashi Kant Sharma 23th May, 2013 24th September, 2017
13 Rajiv Mehrishi 2017 Incumbent (6 years or 65 years of age, whichever is earlier)
Source:[54] [55]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "THE COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL'S (DUTIES, POWERS AND CONDITIONS OF SERVICE) ACT, 1971". CAG India. Archived from the original on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "CAG – Article 148 of Constitution of India". Archived from the original on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Parihar, Rohit (September 3, 2017). Kumar, Ganesh; Udayakumar, Radha, eds. "Why Rajiv Mehrishi's and Sunil Arora's appointments are Rajasthan's loss and the Centre's gain". India Today. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Former home secretary Rajiv Mehrishi to be next CAG". The Economic Times. September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Former home secretary Rajiv Mehrishi to be next CAG of India". Live Mint. HT Media Ltd. September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "राजीव महर्षि होंगे अगले कैग, सोमवार से संभालेंगे कार्यभार" [Rajiv Mehrishi will be the next CAG, will assume charge on Monday]. Dainik Jagran (in Hindi). September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017. CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
Jump up ^ "पूर्व होम सेक्रेटरी राजीव महर्षि बने नए CAG, कल प्रेसिडेंट कोविंद दिलाएंगे शपथ" [Former Home Secretary Rajiv Mehrishi becomes the new CAG, President Kovind will swear him in tomorrow]. Dainik Bhaskar (in Hindi). September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017. CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
Jump up ^ Constitution of India, Article 148 for the period of six years.1
Jump up ^ "A watchdog that bites". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 20 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
Jump up ^ B S Arun. "CAG 'activism' gets the thumbs up". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2012. Corporate India needs to go through a phase of reflection and soul searching
Jump up ^ "Members Bioprofile". Lok Sabha of India/National Informatics Centre, New Delhi. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Karunanidhi backs Advani's view on collegium to appoint CAG, EC". Times of India. 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Karunanidhi backs Advani's plea for collegium". The Hindu. Chennai. 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "DMK's Official Homepage-Chennai-Tamilnadu-India 800x600 screen resolution". Dmk.in. 9 December 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Collegium needed to select EC: SY Quraishi". Times of India. 16 July 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Ex-CECs backed collegium, Law Ministry not too keen". Indian Express. 10 June 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "CAG itself needs an auditor: Shunglu panel". Times of India. 12 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "PTI stands by its report on Narayanasamy". The Hindu. 12 September 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Chapter V - Constitution of India. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "The High Court and Supreme Court Judges Salaries and Conditions of Service Amendment Bill 2008" (PDF). PRS India.
Jump up ^ "SC Rejects PIL Against CAG Examining Coal Allotment". Outlook India. 1 October 2012. Archived from the original on 1 October 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Comptroller and Auditor General lens on trains introduced by Mamata Banerjee". The Times Of India. 12 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "CAG Vinod Rai elected U.N. external audit panel chief". The Times Of India. 8 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "CAG Vinod Rai to head UN audit panel". The Times Of India. 9 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "United Nations Panel of External Auditors". United Nations. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Audit Committee - World Food Programme". World Food Programme. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Four years on, UPA govt yet to accept CAG's request for more powers | Latest News & Updates at DNAIndia.com
Jump up ^ After shaking and hurting the govt he is retiring - News Oneindia
Jump up ^ "Report No. -19 of 2010-11 for the period ended March 2010 Performance Audit of Issue of Licences and Allocation of 2G Spectrum by the Department of Telecommunications ( Ministry of Communications and Information Technology)". CAG. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Performance Audit Report on the Issue of Licences and Allocation of 2G Spectrum" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "2G loss? Govt gained over Rs.3,000cr: Trai". Times of India. 7 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "SC quashes 122 licences". Times of India. 2 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "2G verdict: A Raja 'virtually gifted away important national asset', says Supreme Court". Times of India. 2 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Cabinet sets Rs 14,000 cr as reserve price for 2G spectrum". Firstpost. 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Singh, Shalini (8 August 2012). "Cabinet decision on 2G auction price demolishes zero-loss theory". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Report No. - 7 of 2012-13 for the period ended March 2012 - Performance Audit of Allocation of Coal Blocks and Augmentation of Coal Production (Ministry of Coal)". CAG. Archived from the original on 24 February 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Turmoil-ridden Monsoon session of Parliament ends". DNA. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Stalling Parliament is also a part of Democracy". Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b ""Draft Performance Audit, Allocation of Coal Blocks and Augmentation of Coal Production by Coal India Limited" Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Union Government (Commercial))" (PDF). Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Union Government (Commercial)). Retrieved 8 September 2012. Hereafter Draft CAG Report.
Jump up ^ "Transcript: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh Counters 'Coalgate' Allegations - India Real Time - WSJ". The Wall Street Journal.
^ Jump up to: a b Firms hid earlier allocations to get new blocks, says CBI - Hindustan Times Archived 4 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Coalgate: Now, DMK leader in the dock
Jump up ^ "CBI orders prosecution of Laloo, Mishra in fodder scam". Rediff.com. April 1996. Archived from the original on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Fodder scam case: 58 convicted, given jail terms", Times of India, 31 May 2007, archived from the original on 1 May 2009, retrieved 5 November 2008, Snippet: ... A total 63 cases were registered in the scam and 41 were transferred to Jharkhand after it was created from Bihar in November 2000 ... The CBI has filed charge sheets in almost every case and trials are under progress. Till now the special CBI court has passed judgment in 16 cases and nearly 200 accused in different cases have been punished with two to seven years imprisonment ...12121
Jump up ^ Steep Fall in Gas Output: Rs 7000cr Fine on Reliance | IndiaWires Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Jaipal Reddy's shift from Oil Ministry creates a political storm". The Times Of India. 30 October 2012.
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Jump up ^ dna special: Unresolved issues could stall audit of KG Basin, again | Latest News & Updates at DNAIndia.com
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External links[edit]
"Official website of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India". Retrieved 19 January 2009.
Reports by Comptroller and Auditor General of India
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Fundamental rights
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
[hide]
1 List of important rights
2 Legal meaning in the United States
3 Specific jurisdictions
3.1 Canada
3.2 European Union
3.3 India
3.4 United States
4 See also
5 Footnotes
List of important rights[edit]
Some universally recognized rights that are seen as fundamental, i.e., contained in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, or the U.N. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, include the following:
Right to self-determination[1]
Right to liberty[2]
Right to due process of law[2]
Right to freedom of movement[3]
Right to freedom of thought[4]
Right to freedom of religion[4]
Right to freedom of expression[5]
Right to peaceful assembly[6]
Right to freedom of association[7]
Legal meaning in the United States[edit]
Though many fundamental rights are also widely considered human rights, the classification of a right as "fundamental" invokes specific legal tests courts use to determine the constrained conditions under which the United States government and various state governments may limit these rights. In such legal contexts, courts determine whether rights are fundamental by examining the historical foundations of those rights and by determining whether their protection is part of a longstanding tradition. Individual states may guarantee other rights as fundamental. That is, States may add to fundamental rights but can never diminish or infringe upon fundamental rights by legislative processes. Any such attempt, if challenged, may involve a "strict scrutiny" review in court.
Specific jurisdictions[edit]
Canada[edit]
Main article: Charter of Rights and Freedoms
In Canada, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms outlines four Fundamental Freedoms.[8] These are freedom of:
Conscience and religion
Thought, belief, opinion, and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication
Peaceful assembly
Association.
European Union[edit]
Main article: Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
Europe has no identical doctrine (It would be incompatible with the more restrained role of judicial review in European law.) However, EU law recognizes many of the same human rights and protects them through other means.
See also: Copenhagen criteria, and European Convention on Human Rights, which every member state of the EU has to comply with and for which the European Court of Human Rights has final appellate jurisdiction.
India[edit]
The Indian fundamental rights, contrasted with such rights contained in the US bill of rights, present several peculiarities.The fundamental rights in India are far more elaborate than in the U. S. A. Thus, for example, the US bill of rights (first ten amendments) only names some rights. The Supreme Court, through the process of judicial review, decides the limitations on these rights.
Main article: Fundamental Rights in India
There are seven main fundamental rights of India:
right to equality
right to freedom, which includes freedom of speech and expression, right to assemble peacefully, freedom to form associations or unions, right to move freely throughout the territory of India, right to reside or settle in any part of the territory of India, right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation.
right to freedom of religion
right against exploitation
cultural and educational rights
right to constitutional remedies
right to vote(but above 18 years)
Newly implemented 7th Fundamental right in India is
right to education
It was added in the constitution after the 86th amendment in the year 2002 under article 21A. It is the most recently implemented fundamental right. The RTE Act enabled this right in the year 2010.
A recent addition was made to the list of fundamental rights in India in 2017.
right to privacy.
United States[edit]
In American Constitutional Law, fundamental rights have special significance under the U.S. Constitution. Those rights enumerated in the U.S. Constitution are recognized as "fundamental" by the U.S. Supreme Court. According to the Supreme Court, enumerated rights that are incorporated are so fundamental that any law restricting such a right must both serve a compelling state purpose and be narrowly tailored to that compelling purpose.
The original interpretation of the United States Bill of Rights was that only the Federal Government was bound by it. In 1835, the U.S. Supreme Court in Barron v Baltimore unanimously ruled that the Bill of Rights did not apply to the states. During post-Civil War Reconstruction, the 14th Amendment was adopted in 1868 to rectify this condition, and to specifically apply the whole of the Constitution to all U.S. states. In 1873, the Supreme Court essentially nullified the key language of the 14th Amendment that guaranteed all "privileges and immunities" to all U.S. persons, in a series of cases called the Slaughterhouse cases. This decision and others allowed post-emancipation racial discrimination to continue largely unabated.
Later Supreme Court justices found a way around these limitations without overturning the Slaughterhouse precedent: they created a concept called Selective Incorporation. Under this legal theory, the court used the remaining 14th Amendment protections for equal protection and due process to "incorporate" individual elements of the Bill of Rights against the states. "The test usually articulated for determining fundamentality under the Due Process Clause is that the putative right must be 'implicit in the concept of ordered liberty', or 'deeply rooted in this Nation's history and tradition.'" Compare page 267 Lutz v. City of York, Pa., 899 F. 2d 255 - United States Court of Appeals, 3rd Circuit, 1990.
This set in motion a continuous process under which each individual right under the Bill of Rights was incorporated, one by one. That process has extended more than half a century, with the free speech clause of the First Amendment first incorporated in 1925 in Gitlow v New York. The most recent amendment completely incorporated as fundamental was the Second Amendment right to possess and bear arms for personal self-defense, in McDonald v Chicago, handed down in 2010.
Not all clauses of all amendments have been incorporated. For example, states are not required to obey the Fifth Amendment's requirement of indictment by grand jury. Many states choose to use preliminary hearings instead of grand juries. It is possible that future cases may incorporate additional clauses of the Bill of Rights against the states.
The Bill of Rights lists specifically enumerated rights. The Supreme Court has extended fundamental rights by recognizing several fundamental rights not specifically enumerated in the Constitution, including but not limited to:
The right to interstate travel
The right to parent one's children[9]
Protection on the high seas from pirates
The right to privacy[10]
The right to marriage[11]
The right of Self-Defense
Any restrictions a government statute or policy places on these rights are evaluated with strict scrutiny. If a right is denied to everyone, it is an issue of substantive due process. If a right is denied to some individuals but not others, it is also an issue of equal protection. However, any action that abridges a right deemed fundamental, when also violating equal protection, is still held to the more exacting standard of strict scrutiny, instead of the less demanding rational basis test.
During the Lochner era, the right to freedom of contract was considered fundamental, and thus restrictions on that right were subject to strict scrutiny. Following the 1937 Supreme Court decision in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, though, the right to contract became considerably less important in the context of substantive due process and restrictions on it were evaluated under the rational basis standard.
See also[edit]
Fundamental Rights Agency of the European Union
Universal human rights
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 1".
^ Jump up to: a b "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 9".
Jump up ^ "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 12".
^ Jump up to: a b "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 18".
Jump up ^ "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 19".
Jump up ^ "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 21".
Jump up ^ "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 22".
Jump up ^ "Canadian Charter Of Rights And Freedoms". Efc.ca. Retrieved 2012-11-05.
Jump up ^ Troxel v. Granville
Jump up ^ see Union Pacific R. Co. v. Botsford, 141 U.S. 250 (1891)
Jump up ^ Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967)
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