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NBA high school draftees
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The NBA high school draftees are players who have been drafted to the National Basketball Association (NBA) straight out of high school without playing basketball at the collegiate level. The process of jumping directly from high school to the professional level is also known as going prep-to-pro. Since 2006, the practice of drafting high school players has been prohibited by the new collective bargaining agreement, which requires that players who entered the draft be 19 years of age and at least one year removed from high school.[1] Contrary to popular belief, the player does not have to play at least a year in college basketball, as the player can choose to instead play in another professional league (especially overseas) like Brandon Jennings or Emmanuel Mudiay in Italy and China respectively, simply take the year off, such as the case with Mitchell Robinson, or even hold themselves back a year in high school before declaring for the draft, like with Satnam Singh Bhamara or Thon Maker.
The NBA has long had a preference for players who played basketball at the collegiate level;[2] the vast majority of players to play in the NBA have had college experience. However, there have been numerous notable players who attended high school in the United States and then jumped directly to the NBA without playing college basketball.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early years
1.2 1995–2005
1.3 2005–present
2 List
3 Other players
4 Controversy
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Early years[edit]
In the early years of the NBA draft, a player had to finish his four-year college eligibility to be eligible for selection. Reggie Harding, who had graduated from high school but did not enroll in a college, became the first player drafted out of high school when the Detroit Pistons selected him in the fourth round of the 1962 draft.[3] However, the NBA rules at that time prohibited a high school player to play in the league until one year after his high school class graduated.[4][5] Thus, he spent a year playing in a minor basketball league before he was drafted again in the 1963 draft by the Pistons.[6] He finally entered the league in the 1963–64 season and played four seasons in the NBA and American Basketball Association (ABA).[7]
In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court decision Haywood v. National Basketball Association ruled, 7–2 against the National Basketball Association's requirement that a player must wait four years after high school graduation (which in most cases was spent playing in college) before turning professional. This ruling allowed players to enter the NBA Draft without four years of college, provided they could give evidence of hardship to the NBA office.[8]
In 1974, the NBA's rival, the ABA, drafted high school star Moses Malone. He was immediately signed by the Utah Stars and became the first player to go directly from high school basketball to a professional league.[9] He became an instant success, averaging 18 points and 14 rebounds per game in his rookie season. He played in the ABA until the ABA–NBA merger in 1976. He then played 19 successful seasons with 7 NBA teams. He won the NBA championship, along with the Finals Most Valuable Player Award, with the Philadelphia 76ers in 1983. His other achievements include 3 Most Valuable Player Awards, 12 consecutive All-Star Game selections, 8 All-NBA Team selections and 6 rebounding titles. He has been inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and was also named in the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History list announced at the league's 50th anniversary in 1996.[10]
A year later, two high school players, Darryl Dawkins and Bill Willoughby, applied for hardship and were declared eligible to be selected in the 1975 draft.[11] They had applied and gave evidence of financial hardship to the league, which granted them the right to start earning their living by starting their professional careers earlier.[8] Dawkins was selected 5th by the Philadelphia 76ers while Willoughby was selected 19th by the Atlanta Hawks. Dawkins played 14 seasons and averaged 12 points and 6 rebounds per game. Willoughby played 8 seasons with 6 different teams and averaged only 6 points per game. Neither player reached the level of success that was expected. It is argued that they could have been better players if they had college basketball experience before entering the NBA.[12][13][14]
After Dawkins and Willoughby, no high schoolers were drafted for 14 years, though several players entered the league without playing college basketball. One notable player, Shawn Kemp, enrolled in college but never played any games due to personal problems. In 1989, a year after his high school graduation, he was drafted by the Seattle SuperSonics.[15] He played 14 seasons in the NBA and was selected to 6 All-Star Games and 3 All-NBA Teams.[16]
1995–2005[edit]
Kevin Garnett's high-profile migration from high school to the NBA in 1995 prompted many high schoolers to follow in his footsteps
In 1995, Kevin Garnett, USA Today's high school basketball player of the year, announced his intentions to forgo college, and declared himself eligible for the 1995 NBA draft. The move was highly controversial; the conventional wisdom at the time was that high-schoolers were neither emotionally nor physically mature enough for the rigors of the NBA game. On draft day, Garnett was selected with the #5 pick in the first round by the Minnesota Timberwolves. Garnett led the Timberwolves to eight consecutive playoff berths and was a multiple All-Star during his time with the team. In 2004, the Wolves advanced to the Western Conference Finals before losing to the Lakers; Garnett was named Most Valuable Player that year. After a trade in the 2007 offseason to the Boston Celtics, he was a core player in the Celtics' first NBA title in over 20 years.
In 1996, two notable players made the jump from high school to the NBA. The first was Kobe Bryant, selected by the Charlotte Hornets with the 13th pick of the NBA draft, but traded almost immediately to the Los Angeles Lakers. The second was Jermaine O'Neal, selected by the Trail Blazers with the 17th pick. O'Neal was traded in 2000 to the Indiana Pacers (and later to the Miami Heat). In 1997, another All-Star caliber player, Tracy McGrady, was selected by the Toronto Raptors. In 1998, three high-schoolers were drafted with Al Harrington and Rashard Lewis experiencing the most success. Darius Miles became the highest high school player selected with the third pick in the 2000, until the following year.
In 2001, Kwame Brown (selected by the Washington Wizards) became the first high-schooler to be selected with the number one pick in the draft; since then, LeBron James (2003) and Dwight Howard (2004) have also been selected with the first pick. Other notable high-schoolers include Tyson Chandler and Eddy Curry (2001); Amar'e Stoudemire (2002); Josh Smith, Sebastian Telfair, J. R. Smith, and Shaun Livingston (2004); Andrew Bynum and Monta Ellis (2005).
Many prep-to-pro players like Kevin Garnett, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, and Tracy Mcgrady went on to become star players in the NBA. Kevin Garnett, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James have all won the league's MVP Award; as well as holding at least one NBA title under their belt, and are widely regarded as future Hall-of-Famers. Dwight Howard, Jermaine O'Neal and Amar'e Stoudemire also became perennial All-Stars in their prime. However, not all high-schoolers were successful. Kwame Brown and Eddy Curry are widely regarded as draft busts, while Jonathan Bender and Darius Miles had their careers cut short by injury. Korleone Young (drafted in 1998) and Leon Smith (drafted in 1999) only played a handful of games in the NBA, while Lenny Cooke and DeAngelo Collins, both of whom declared for the 2002 Draft, went undrafted and never played in the NBA.
2005–present[edit]
Brandon Jennings spent a year playing in Italy before entering the NBA
Beginning 2005, both the NBA and the players' union started to discuss the possibility of implementing a new age limit. The league lobbied for an age minimum of 20 while the union was against an age limit.[17] Finally in July 2005, both sides compromised in the new collective bargaining agreement, requiring that the minimum age for entry into the NBA be 19 and that entrants be at least one year removed from high school.[18] For the first time, teams are also allowed to send players, with two years of NBA experience or less, to the NBA Development League (NBA D-League).[17]
The terms of the new agreement ended the practice of drafting high school players, starting in the 2006 Draft. A high school player must wait at least a year to be eligible for selection. However, they are not required to spend that year in college. In 2008, high school star Brandon Jennings decided to skip college and play professional basketball in Italy. After a year, he was eligible for the 2009 draft and was selected 10th by the Milwaukee Bucks.[19] In the 2010 draft, Latavious Williams, who did not qualify academically to go to college, spent a year playing in the NBA D-League before he was drafted in the second round.[20] Emmanuel Mudiay decided to take a route similar to that of Brandon Jennings by skipping college to play professionally in China in 2014 before being selected by the Denver Nuggets at pick 7 a year later. In the 2015 draft, Satnam Singh Bhamara, who did not qualify academically to go to college, went straight to the NBA draft as a post-graduate after being at IMG Academy for five years. He would be taken by the Dallas Mavericks with the 52nd pick in the draft, thus becoming the first high school student to be drafted since the rule changes. Most recently, in the 2016 draft, one of the Top–10 players that was declared eligible for NCAA play in 2016, Thon Maker, decided to enter the draft instead as a post-graduate from Orangeville Prep in Orangeville, Ontario, Canada due to him originally declaring himself as eligible for college in 2015. Thon would also mark the first player to be drafted directly from a Canadian high school, as well as the second player to enter as a post-graduate. He'd also be the first high schooler to be drafted in the first round since 2005, being drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks with the tenth pick in the draft, thus becoming the first high school lottery pick since 2005.
Some players support the new age limit. Gerald Green called it "a smart move", saying that "[not everybody is] LeBron James ... He came in ready and he dominated the league. There's a lot of players that have to get developed. Me, I've got to get developed. But I guess that age limit, that one year of college experience, can get you more developed and I think that's pretty good."[17] Others, however, strongly criticize the rule. Andrew Bynum said "That's something I'll never understand. Because in no other business can the owner, or a stock trader or a C.E.O. of a company try to protect themselves by putting rules like that."[21] Former Florida Gators and current Oklahoma City Thunder head coach Billy Donovan believed that the rule made high schoolers feel like they were being punished.[22]
List[edit]
There have been 44 high school draftees in the NBA Draft. Three draftees were selected first overall; Kwame Brown in 2001 NBA draft, LeBron James in 2003 and Dwight Howard in 2004 NBA draft. Two draftees went on to win the Rookie of the Year Award in their first season; LeBron James and 2002 draftee Amar'e Stoudemire.[23] Three draftees went on to win the Most Valuable Player Award; Kevin Garnett in 2004, Kobe Bryant in 2008 and LeBron James in 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2013.[24] Ten draftees have been selected to the All-Star Game while seven draftees have been selected to the All-NBA Team.
Pos. G F C
Position Guard Forward Center
^ Denotes player who has been inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame
* Denotes player who has been selected for at least one All-Star Game and All-NBA Team
+ Denotes player who has been selected for at least one All-Star Game
# Denotes player who never played in the NBA regular season or playoffs
Kobe Bryant was selected by the Charlotte Hornets in 1996.
Jermaine O'Neal was selected by the Portland Trail Blazers in 1996.
Tracy McGrady was selected by the Toronto Raptors in 1997.
Amar'e Stoudemire was selected by the Phoenix Suns in 2002.
LeBron James was selected by the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2003.
Dwight Howard was selected by the Orlando Magic in 2004.
Draft[a]
Round
Pick
Player
Pos.
Nationality
Draft team
High school (city)
Ref.
1962 4 29 Harding, ReggieReggie Harding C United States Detroit Pistons Detroit Eastern High School (Detroit)1[›] [25]
1975 1 5 Dawkins, DarrylDarryl Dawkins C United States Philadelphia 76ers Maynard Evans High School (Orlando, Florida) [26]
1975 2 19 Willoughby, BillBill Willoughby F/C United States Atlanta Hawks Dwight Morrow High School (Englewood, New Jersey) [27]
1995 1 5 Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett* F United States Minnesota Timberwolves Farragut Career Academy (Chicago) [28]
1996 1 13 Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant* G United States Charlotte Hornets Lower Merion High School (Ardmore, Pennsylvania) [29]
1996 1 17 O'Neal, JermaineJermaine O'Neal* F/C United States Portland Trail Blazers Eau Claire High School (Columbia, South Carolina) [30]
1997 1 9 McGrady, TracyTracy McGrady^ F United States Toronto Raptors Mount Zion Christian Academy (Durham, North Carolina) [31]
1998 1 25 Harrington, AlAl Harrington F United States Indiana Pacers St. Patrick High School (Elizabeth, New Jersey) [32]
1998 2 32 Lewis, RashardRashard Lewis+ F United States Seattle SuperSonics Alief Elsik High School (Houston, Texas) [33]
1998 2 40 Young, KorleoneKorleone Young F United States Detroit Pistons Hargrave Military Academy (Chatham, Virginia) [34]
1999 1 5 Bender, JonathanJonathan Bender F United States Toronto Raptors Picayune Memorial High School (Picayune, Mississippi) [35]
1999 1 25 Smith, LeonLeon Smith C United States Dallas Mavericks Martin Luther King High School (Chicago) [36]
2000 1 3 Miles, DariusDarius Miles F United States Los Angeles Clippers East St. Louis High School (East St. Louis, Illinois) [37]
2000 1 23 Stevenson, DeShawnDeShawn Stevenson G United States Utah Jazz Washington Union High School (Fresno, California) [38]
2001 1 1 Brown, KwameKwame Brown F United States Washington Wizards Glynn Academy (Brunswick, Georgia) [39]
2001 1 2 Chandler, TysonTyson Chandler* C United States Los Angeles Clippers Dominguez High School (Compton, California) [40]
2001 1 4 Curry, EddyEddy Curry C United States Chicago Bulls Thornwood High School (South Holland, Illinois) [41]
2001 1 8 Diop, DeSaganaDeSagana Diop C Senegal Cleveland Cavaliers Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia) [42]
2001 2 46 Cisse, OusmaneOusmane Cisse# F Mali Denver Nuggets St. Jude High School (Montgomery, Alabama) [43]
2002 1 9 Stoudemire, Amar'eAmar'e Stoudemire* F/C United States Phoenix Suns Cypress Creek High School (Orlando, Florida) [44]
2003 1 1 James, LeBronLeBron James* F United States Cleveland Cavaliers St. Vincent – St. Mary High School (Akron, Ohio) [45]
2003 1 23 Outlaw, TravisTravis Outlaw F United States Portland Trail Blazers Starkville High School (Starkville, Mississippi) [46]
2003 1 26 Ebi, NdudiNdudi Ebi F United Kingdom
Nigeria2[›] Minnesota Timberwolves Westbury Christian School (Houston, Texas) [47]
2003 1 27 Perkins, KendrickKendrick Perkins C United States Memphis Grizzlies Clifton J. Ozen High School (Beaumont, Texas) [48]
2003 2 48 Lang, JamesJames Lang C United States New Orleans Hornets Central Park Christian High School (Birmingham, Alabama) [49]
2004 1 1 Howard, DwightDwight Howard* F/C United States Orlando Magic Southwest Atlanta Christian Academy (Atlanta) [50]
2004 1 4 Livingston, ShaunShaun Livingston G United States Los Angeles Clippers Peoria High School (Peoria, Illinois) [51]
2004 1 12 Swift, RobertRobert Swift C United States Seattle SuperSonics Bakersfield High School (Bakersfield, California) [52]
2004 1 13 Telfair, SebastianSebastian Telfair G United States Portland Trail Blazers Abraham Lincoln High School (Brooklyn, New York) [53]
2004 1 15 Jefferson, AlAl Jefferson F United States Boston Celtics Prentiss High School (Prentiss, Mississippi) [54]
2004 1 17 Smith, JoshJosh Smith F United States Atlanta Hawks Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia) [55]
2004 1 18 Smith, J. R.J. R. Smith G United States New Orleans Hornets Saint Benedict's Preparatory School (Newark, New Jersey) [56]
2004 1 19 Wright, DorellDorell Wright G/F United States Miami Heat South Kent Preparatory School (South Kent, Connecticut) [57][58]
2005 1 6 Webster, MartellMartell Webster G/F United States Portland Trail Blazers Seattle Preparatory School (Seattle) [59]
2005 1 10 Bynum, AndrewAndrew Bynum+ C United States Los Angeles Lakers St. Joseph High School (Metuchen, New Jersey) [60]
2005 1 18 Green, GeraldGerald Green F United States Boston Celtics Gulf Shores Academy (Houston, Texas) [61]
2005 2 34 Miles, C. J.C. J. Miles G United States Utah Jazz Skyline High School (Dallas) [62]
2005 2 35 Sánchez, RickyRicky Sánchez# F Puerto Rico Portland Trail Blazers IMG Academy (Bradenton, Florida) [63]
2005 2 40 Ellis, MontaMonta Ellis G United States Golden State Warriors Lanier High School (Jackson, Mississippi) [64]
2005 2 45 Williams, LouisLouis Williams G United States Philadelphia 76ers South Gwinnett High School (Snellville, Georgia) [65]
2005 2 49 Blatche, AndrayAndray Blatche F United States
Philippines3[›] Washington Wizards South Kent Preparatory School (South Kent, Connecticut) [66]
2005 2 56 Johnson, AmirAmir Johnson F United States Detroit Pistons Westchester High School (Los Angeles) [67]
2015 2 52 Singh, SatnamSatnam Singh# C India4[›] Dallas Mavericks IMG Academy (Bradenton, Florida) [68]
2016 1 10 Maker, ThonThon Maker F/C Sudan
South Sudan
Australia5[›] Milwaukee Bucks Orangeville District Secondary School (Orangeville, Ontario, Canada)6[›] [69]
^ 1: Reggie Harding played and graduated from Detroit Eastern High School in January but he played high school basketball in Nashville, Tennessee prior to the draft.[70][71]
^ 2: While Ndudi Ebi was originally born and raised in London, England, he also holds Nigerian nationality due to his parents being born and raised there.
^ 3: Andray Blatche was born and raised in Syracuse, New York and holds American nationality, but he had become a naturalized Filipino since June 2014 and has officially represented the Philippines since.
^ 4: Satnam Singh officially marks the first ever player to be taken from India in the NBA. He also marks the first time since 2005 after their latest ruling on high school players that someone directly from high school would be taken in the draft, albeit as a postgraduate senior.
^ 5: Thon Maker was born in Wau, Sudan at the time, but Wau has now since become a part of South Sudan instead due to war. Even then, though, he would be raised as an Australian representative.
^ 6: Thon Maker would become the first high schooler (and second overall high school postgraduate student) to be selected from the nation of Canada instead of somewhere in the United States of America. Also, while Thon attended classes at Orangeville Prep, he would play basketball games for the Athlete Institute nearby in Mono, Ontario as well.
Other players[edit]
The following players also played in the NBA or were drafted without playing college basketball; however, these players did not get drafted or join the NBA directly after their high school graduation.
Year[b]
Debut[c]
Player
Pos.
Nationality
High school (city)
Notes
Ref.
—[d] 1946 Kappen, TonyTony Kappen G United States —[d]
Played in the ABL before making his BAA debut
The first player to play in the BAA/NBA without any college experience
Made his BAA debut at the age of 27
[72][73][74]
—[d] 1946 Simmons, ConnieConnie Simmons F/C United States Flushing High School (Flushing, New York)5[›]
The second player to play in the BAA/NBA without any college experience
Made his BAA debut at the age of 21
[75][76]
—[d] 1948 Graboski, JoeJoe Graboski F/C United States Tuley High School (Chicago)
The third and final player to play in the BAA before its merger as the NBA
Made his BAA debut at the age of 18
[77][78]
1960 1969 Hawkins, ConnieConnie Hawkins^ F/C United States Boys High School (Brooklyn, New York)
Was permanently banned by the NBA due to a point shaving scandal in college, but was later reinstated in 1969
Attended University of Iowa
Played in the ABL and the ABA before making his NBA debut
[79][80][81]
1974 1976 Malone, MosesMoses Malone^ F/C United States Petersburg High School (Petersburg, Virginia)
Drafted by the Utah Stars in the 1974 ABA Draft
Played in the ABA before the ABA–NBA merger
[82]
1988 1989 Kemp, ShawnShawn Kemp* F/C United States Concord High School (Elkhart, Indiana)
Attended University of Kentucky and Trinity Valley Community College
Drafted by the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1989 NBA draft (1st round, 17th pick)
[83][84]
1986 1992 Daniels, LloydLloyd Daniels G United States Andrew Jackson High School (Queens, New York)
Attended Mt. San Antonio College
Played in various minor basketball leagues before making his NBA debut
[85][86][87]
1993 1996 Hamilton, ThomasThomas Hamilton C United States Martin Luther King High School (Chicago)
Attended University of Pittsburgh
Declared for the 1994 NBA draft but went undrafted
[88][89]
1996 2000 Jackson, StephenStephen Jackson F United States Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia)
Attended Butler Community College
Drafted by the Phoenix Suns in the 1997 NBA draft (2nd round, 43rd pick)
[90][91]
2001 2015 Huertas, MarceloMarcelo Huertas G Brazil
Italy Coppell High School (Coppell, Texas)
Was born in Brazil and played for the Esporte Clube Pinheiros before moving to the U.S.A. around 2000.
Played senior year in Coppell High School before beginning his professional international career.
Went undrafted in the 2005 NBA draft.
Played in Brazil, Spain, and Italy before making his NBA debut in 2015.
[92]
2004 2005 Butler, JackieJackie Butler F/C United States Coastal Christian Academy (Virginia Beach, Virginia)
Initially committed to Mississippi State University and, later on, the University of Tennessee
Declared for the 2004 NBA draft but went undrafted
Played in the CBA before making his NBA debut
[93][94][95]
2008 2009 Jennings, BrandonBrandon Jennings G United States Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia)
Initially committed to the University of Southern California and, later on, the University of Arizona
Played in the Italian league in the 2008–09 season
Drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks in the 2009 NBA draft (1st round, 10th pick)
[96][97]
2009 Williams, LataviousLatavious Williams# F United States Christian Life Center Academy (Humble, Texas)
Initially committed to the University of Memphis
Played in the NBA D-League in the 2009–10 season
Drafted by the Miami Heat in the 2010 NBA draft (2nd round, 43rd pick)
[98][99]
2010 2011 Kanter, EnesEnes Kanter F/C Turkey Stoneridge Preparatory School (Simi Valley, California)
Previously played in both youth squads and professionally in Turkey
Moved to the U.S.A. in 2009 and played basketball in his senior year of high school
Attended the University of Kentucky, but was barred from playing due to his previous time spent in Turkey
Drafted by the Utah Jazz in the 2011 NBA draft (1st round, 3rd pick)
2010 2011 Tyler, JeremyJeremy Tyler C United States San Diego High School (San Diego)
Initially committed to the University of Louisville
Left high school after his junior year in 2009
Played in the Israeli league in the 2009–10 season
Played in the Japanese league in the 2010–11 season
Drafted by the Charlotte Bobcats in the 2011 NBA draft (2nd round, 39th pick)
[100][101]
2012 2013 Ledo, RickyRicky Ledo G United States South Kent High School (South Kent, Connecticut)
Attended Providence College
Drafted by the Dallas Mavericks in the 2013 NBA draft (2nd round, 43rd pick)
2013 2015 Felício, CristianoCristiano Felício C Brazil CCSE Prep Academy (Sacramento)
Was born in Brazil and played professionally there before moving in his senior year.
Tried to get a scholarship for the University of Oregon, but was deemed ineligible.
Returned to playing professionally in Brazil.
2014 2015 Mudiay, EmmanuelEmmanuel Mudiay PG Democratic Republic of the Congo
United States Prime Prep Academy (Dallas)
Initially committed to Southern Methodist University
Played in the Chinese professional league in the 2014–15 season
Drafted by the Denver Nuggets in the 2015 NBA draft (1st round, 7th pick)
2014 2016 Papagiannis, GeorgiosGeorgios Papagiannis C Greece Westtown School (West Chester, Pennsylvania)
Was born in Greece and played professionally for Peristeri at 14 before moving in his freshman year
Went to Westtown as a junior before moving back to Greece
Played professionally for the Panathinaikos while also attending the American School in Athens, Greece
Drafted by the Phoenix Suns and traded to the Sacramento Kings in the 2016 NBA draft (1st round, 13th pick)
^ 5: Secondary source mentions that Connie Simmons attended Forest Hills High School (Queens, New York).[76]
Controversy[edit]
Further information: National Basketball Association criticisms and controversies § Age limit
Despite the success of some high school players drafted, the entry of high school players into the NBA remains controversial. Critics say that high school players are not mentally and physically mature or prepared enough to handle the pressure of professional play. Thus, they are more likely to fail.[14][102] Instead, they believe that colleges are useful at filtering out players who can dominate against weak competition in high school, but cannot succeed at a higher level of play. They also think that the influx of high schoolers bypassing colleges in favor of the NBA has caused collegiate game to deteriorate. Universities are wary of spending time recruiting as many players that are motivated financially to turn pro fresh out of high school.[102][103]
On the other hand, proponents argue that there is no valid reason to exclude high school players. Michael McCann, writer of law article "Illegal Defense: The Irrational Economics of Banning High School Players from the NBA Draft", contends that players drafted straight out of high school can do as well as any other players in the NBA. The article finds that "on average, these [high school] players perform better in every major statistical category than does the average NBA player".[104] Others instead believe that the problem was due to the lack of established farm system in basketball until recently. In other major sports, such as baseball and hockey, it is common for young players to develop in their minor league systems.[102]
See also[edit]
Haywood v. National Basketball Association
Notes[edit]
a Each year is linked to an article about that particular NBA Draft.
b Year denotes the year when the player graduated from high school.
c Debut denotes the year when the player made his NBA debut. Each year is linked to an article about that particular NBA season.
d Information not available
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Travis Outlaw Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Dwight Howard Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Shaun Livingston Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Robert Swift Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Sebastian Telfair Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Fifty Early Entry Candidates Withdraw". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. June 22, 2005. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Thon Maker Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
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Jump up ^ O'Mealy, Ryan Canner (March 19, 2010). "Jeremy Tyler: Preps-to-Passports". ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "American Basketball League Statistics 1938–39 To 1952–53". The Association for Professional Basketball Research. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Connie Simmons Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Butler, Dylan (February 11, 2010). "The Butler Did It". New York Post. NYP Holdings, Inc. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Joe Graboski of Olympians Jumps From Preps to Pros". The Milwaukee Journal. October 29, 1952. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
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Jump up ^ Flatter, Ron (November 19, 2003). "Layups: More Info on Connie Hawkins". ESPN. Retrieved January 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Connie Hawkins Bio". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved January 1, 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Lloyd Daniel's Next Stop: Long Island". The New York Times. April 30, 1992. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ Gup, Ted; Doyle, Brian (April 3, 1989). "Education: Playing To Win in Vegas". Time. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Thomas Hamilton Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Hawks Sign Free Agent Stephen Jackson". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. October 3, 2003. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Jackie Butler Bio". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Brandon Jennings Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Draft 2009 Prospects: Brandon Jennings". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on August 20, 2009. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Draft 2010 Prospects: Latavious Williams". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "2010 NBA Draft". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved December 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Tyler intrigues as NBA draft nears". ESPN Internet Ventures. June 15, 2011. Retrieved December 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "2011 NBA Draft". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sappenfield, Mark (May 22, 2001). "Straight to the NBA--without a stop at college". Christian Science Monitor. Vol. 93, Issue 124, p. 1. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Freeman, Mike (April 5, 2002). "Sports of The Times; Young Star Stays Cool in Spotlight". The New York Times. Retrieved August 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ewell, Christian (May 18, 2004). "Difficult jump shot: preps to NBA; Basketball: More and more try the leap, but for every LeBron James who flourishes, there are a lot of James Langs who don't". The Baltimore Sun. p. 1 C. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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Electronic voting in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the voting machines used in India. For general information on EVMs, see Electronic voting.
Balloting Unit(left), control unit (right)
control unit
Electronic Voting Machines ("EVM") are being used in Indian General and State Elections to implement electronic voting in part from 1999 elections and recently in 2017 state elections held in five states across India. EVMs have replaced paper ballots in local, state and general (parliamentary) elections in India. There were earlier claims regarding EVMs' tamparability and security which have not been proved.[1][2][3][4] After rulings of Delhi High Court, Supreme Court[5] and demands from various political parties,[6] Election Commission decided to introduce EVMs with Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system.[7] The Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system was introduced in 8 of 543 parliamentary constituencies as a pilot project in Indian general election, 2014.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Design and technology
3 Procedure to use
4 Benefits
5 Limitations
6 Security issues
7 Voter-verified paper audit trail
8 Exports
9 See also
10 Further reading
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
Further information: Booth capturing
In 1980, M. B. Haneefa invented the first Indian voting machine, gazetted "Electronically operated vote counting machine" (Gazette: 191/Mas/80, 15 October 1980). His original design (using Integrated Circuits) was exhibited to the public in Government Exhibitions held in six cities across Tamil Nadu. The EVMs were commissioned in 1989 by Election Commission of India in collaboration with Electronics Corporation of India Limited.[9] The Industrial designers of the EVMs were faculty members at the Industrial Design Centre, IIT Bombay.[10] The EVMs were first used in 1982 in the by-election to North Paravur Assembly Constituency in Kerala for a limited number of polling stations.[11]
Design and technology[edit]
An EVM consists of two units, control unit and balloting unit. The two units are joined by a five-meter cable. Balloting unit facilitates voting by voter via labelled buttons while control unit controls the ballot units, stores voting counts and displays the results on 7 segment LED displays. The controller used in EVMs has its operating program etched permanently in silicon at the time of manufacturing by the manufacturer. No one (including the manufacturer) can change the program once the controller is manufactured.
EVMs are powered by an ordinary 6 volt alkaline battery [12] manufactured by Bharat Electronics Limited, Bangalore and Electronics Corporation of India Limited, Hyderabad. This design enables the use of EVMs throughout the country without interruptions because several parts of India do not have power supply and/or erratic power supply.
An EVM can record a maximum of 3840 votes and can cater to a maximum of 64 candidates. There is provision for 16 candidates in a single balloting unit and up to a maximum of 4 units can be connected in parallel. The conventional ballot paper/box method of polling is used if the number of candidates exceeds 64. It is not possible to vote more than once by pressing the button again and again. As soon as a particular button on the balloting unit is pressed, the vote is recorded for that particular candidate and the machine gets locked. Even if one presses that button further or any other button, no further vote will be recorded. This way the EVMs ensure the principle of "one person, one vote".
Procedure to use[edit]
The control unit is with the presiding officer or a polling officer and the balloting Unit is placed inside the voting compartment. The balloting unit presents the voter with blue buttons (momentary switch) horizontally labelled with corresponding party symbol and candidate names. The Control Unit on the other hand provides the officer in-charge with a "Ballot" marked button to proceed to the next voter, instead of issuing a ballot paper to them. This activates the ballot unit for a single vote from the next voter in queue.The voter has to cast his vote by once pressing the blue button on the balloting unit against the candidate and symbol of his choice.
As soon as the last voter has voted, the Polling Officer in-charge of the Control Unit will press the 'Close' Button. Thereafter, the EVM will not accept any votes. Further, after the close of poll, the Balloting Unit is disconnected from the Control Unit and kept separately. Votes can be recorded only through the Balloting Unit. Again the Presiding officer, at the close of the poll, will hand over to each polling agent present an account of votes recorded. At the time of counting of votes, the total will be tallied with this account and if there is any discrepancy, this will be pointed out by the Counting Agents. During the counting of votes, the results are displayed by pressing the 'Result' button. There are two safeguards to prevent the 'Result' button from being pressed before the counting of votes officially begins. (a) This button cannot be pressed till the 'Close' button is pressed by the Polling Officer in-charge at the end of the voting process in the polling booth. (b) This button is hidden and sealed; this can be broken only at the counting center in the presence of designated office.
Benefits[edit]
The cost per EVM was ₹5,500 (equivalent to ₹41,000 or US$640 in 2016) at the time the machines were purchased in 1989–90. The cost was estimated to be ₹10,500 (equivalent to ₹12,000 or US$180 in 2016) per unit as per an additional order issued in 2014[13]. Even though the initial investment was heavy, it has since been expected to save costs of production and printing of crores of ballot papers, their transportation and storage, substantial reduction in the counting staff and the remuneration paid to them. For each national election, it is estimated that about 10,000 tonnes of ballot paper is saved. EVMs are easier to transport compared to ballot boxes as they are lighter, more portable, and come with polypropylene carrying cases. Vote counting is also faster. In places where illiteracy is a factor, illiterate people find EVMs easier than ballot paper system. Bogus voting is greatly reduced as the vote is recorded only once. The unit can store the result in its memory before it is erased manually. The battery is required only to activate the EVMs at the time of polling and counting and as soon as the polling is over, the battery can be switched off. The shelf life of Indian EVMs is estimated at 15 years[14].
Limitations[edit]
Main article: Totaliser
A candidate can know how many people from a polling station voted for him. This is a significant issue particularly if lop-sided votes for/against a candidate are cast in individual polling stations and the winning candidate might show favoritism or hold grudge on specific areas. The Election Commission of India has stated that the manufacturers of the EVMs have developed a Totaliser unit which can connect several balloting units and would display only the overall results from an Assembly or a Lok Sabha constituency instead of votes from individual polling stations.[15][16]
The control units do not electronically transmit their results back to the Election Commission, even though a simple and unconditionally secure protocol for doing this exists. The Indian EVMs are purposely designed as stand-alone units to prevent any intrusion during electronic transmission of results. Instead, the EVMs are collected in counting booths and tallied on the assigned counting day(s) in the presence of polling agents of the candidates.
Security issues[edit]
An international conference on the Indian EVMs and its tamperability of the said machines was held under the chairmanship of Subramanian Swamy, President of the Janata Party and former Union Cabinet Minister for Law, Commerce and Justice at Chennai on 13 February 2010. The conclusion was that the Election Commission of India was shirking its responsibility on the transparency in the working of the EVMs.[17] In April 2010, an independent security analysis[1] was released by a research team led by Hari Prasad, Rop Gonggrijp, and J. Alex Halderman. The study included video demonstrations[2] of two attacks that the researchers carried out on a real EVM, as well as descriptions of several other potential vulnerabilities[4][18]
In order to mitigate these threats, the researchers suggest moving to a voting system that provides greater transparency, such as paper ballots, precinct count optical scan, or a voter verified paper audit trail, since, in any of these systems, sceptical voters could, in principle, observe the physical counting process to gain confidence that the outcome is fair. But Election Commission of India points out that for such tampering of the EVMs, one needs physical access to EVMs, and pretty high tech skills are required. Given that EVMs are stored under strict security which can be monitored by candidates or their agents all the time, its impossible to gain physical access to the machines. Plus, to impact the results of an election, hundreds to thousands of machines will be needed to tamper with, which is almost impossible given the hi-tech and time consuming nature of the tampering process.[19][20]
On 25 July 2011, responding to a PIL (Writ Petition (Civil) No. 312 of 2011), Supreme Court of India asked EC to consider request to modify EVMs and respond within 3 months. The petitioner Rajendra Satyanarayan Gilda had alleged that EC has failed to take any decision despite his repeated representation. The petitioner suggested that the EVMs should be modified to give a slip printed with the symbol of the party in whose favour the voter cast his ballot.[5][21][22][23]
On 17 January 2012, Delhi High Court in its ruling on Dr. Subramanian Swamy's Writ Petition (Writ Petition (Civil) No. 11879 of 2009) challenging the use of EVMs in the present form said that EVMs are not "tamper-proof". Further, it said that it is "difficult" to issue any directions to the EC in this regard. However, the court added that the EC should itself hold wider consultations with the executive, political parties and other stake holders on the matter.[24][25]
Swamy appealed against Delhi High Court's refusal to order a VVPAT system in Supreme Court. On 27 September 2012, Election Commission's advocate Ashok Desai submitted to a Supreme Court bench of Justice P Sathasivam and Justice Ranjan Gogoi that field trial for VVPAT system is in progress and that a status report will be submitted by early January 2013. Desai said that on pressing of each vote, a paper receipt will be printed, which will be visible to the voters inside a glass but cannot be taken out of the machine. Dr Swamy said that the new system was acceptable to him.
The Supreme Court posted the matter for further hearing to 22 January 2013[26][27] and on 8 October 2013, it delivered a verdict, that the Election Commission of India will use VVPAT[28].
Another similar writ petition filed by the Asom Gana Parishad is still pending before the Gauhati High Court.[29]
Voter-verified paper audit trail[edit]
Further information: Voter-verified paper audit trail
On 8 October 2010 Election Commission appointed an expert technical committee headed by Prof PV Indiresan (former Director of IIT-M) when at an all-party meeting majority of political parties backed the proposal to have a VVPAT in EVMs to counter the charges of tampering. The committee was tasked to examine the possibility of introduction of a paper trail so that voters can get a printout that will show symbol of the party to which the vote was cast.[6] After studying the issue, the committee recommended introduction of VVPAT system.[30]
On 21 June 2011, Election Commission accepted Indiresan committee's recommendations and decided to conduct field trials of the system.[31] On 26 July 2011, field trials of the VVPAT system were conducted at Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala, Cherrapunjee in Meghalaya, East Delhi in Delhi and Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.[32][33]
Just two days after Delhi High Court judgement saying EVMs are not "tamper-proof", Election Commission on 19 January 2012 ordered Electronics Corporation of India Limited and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) to make EVMs that will generate a "paper trail" of the vote cast. BEL CMD Anil Kumar said: "The new EVMs' paper trail should make the poll process safer and tamper-proof. EC has given us its requirement for EVMs and work is on to incorporate new features. The EVM software will be modified and a printer attached to it. When you cast a vote, the serial number and some data will be generated as a printout. It is to ensure that there is no malpractice in the voting system." It appears that, when the voter presses the button for the candidate of his choice in the EVM, a paper ballot with the serial number, name and symbol of the candidate will be printed.[34] The printouts will be used later to cross-check the voting data stored in the EVMs. Talking about other features in new EVMs, he said the machines will be more rugged and smaller in size but with more computing power.[7][35]
The voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system which enables EVM to record each vote cast by generating the EVM slip,[36] was introduced in 8 of 543 parliamentary constituencies as a pilot project.[8][37][38][39] VVPAT is implemented in Lucknow, Gandhinagar, Bangalore South, Chennai Central, Jadavpur, Raipur, Patna Sahib and Mizoram constituencies.[40][41][42][43][44][45] Voter-verified paper audit trail was first used in an election in India in September 2013 in Noksen (Assembly Constituency) in Nagaland.[46][47]
On 8 October 2013, Supreme Court of India delivered its verdict on Subramanian Swamy's PIL, that Election Commission of India will use VVPAT along with EVMs in a phased manner and the full completion should be achieved by 2019.[48][49][50][51][28]
Exports[edit]
Nepal, Bhutan, Namibia and Kenya have purchased India-manufactured EVMs. Fiji was expected to use Indian EVMs in its elections in 2014. In 2013, the Election Commission of Namibia acquired 1700 control units and 3500 ballot units from India's Bharat Electronics Limited; these units will be used in the regional and presidential elections in 2014.[52] Several other Asian and African countries are reportedly interested in using them as well.[53]
See also[edit]
Voting machine
Electoral fraud
None of the above
Further reading[edit]
Delhi HC judgement saying EVMs are not foolproof dated 17 Jan 2012, accessed 6 July 2012
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Scott Wolchok, Eric Wustrow, J. Alex Halderman, Hari K. Prasad, Arun Kankipati, Sai Krishna Sakhamuri, Vasavya Yagati, and Rop Gonggrijp (October 2010). Security Analysis of India's Electronic Voting Machines (PDF). 17th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b IndiaEVM.org Security Analysis of India's Electronic Voting Machines
Jump up ^ "CPI(M), JD(S) back Advani on EVM manipulation issue". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 6 July 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Electronic Voting Machine: Excellent tool of manipulation". 17 December 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "SC asks EC to consider request to modify EVMs". The Times Of India. 26 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b RAKESH RANJAN (15 December 2011). "Delhi HC to decide on EVMs". The Pioneer. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "New EVMs to have paper trail". The Times of India. 20 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-evm-paper-trail-introduced-in-8-of-543-constituencies-1982463
Jump up ^ Tamil writer Sujatha is dead
Jump up ^ http://www.idc.iitb.ac.in/index.html
Jump up ^ "Electronic Voting Machine, Chapter 39,Reference handbook, Election commission of India". Pib.nic.in. Retrieved 2010-09-01. Used in Hazaribagh District.
Jump up ^ http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/evm.aspx
Jump up ^ http://indianexpress.com/article/business/companies/electronics-corp-bharat-electronics-get-evm-contracts/
Jump up ^ http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/shelf-life-of-50-evms-ending-have-to-buy-14-lakh-for-2019-ec/
Jump up ^ "New counting method for Assembly polls".
Jump up ^ "Know Your Electronic Voting Machine" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-09-01.
Jump up ^ "Swamy for expert panel on secure EVMs". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Swamy for expert panel on secure EVMs". Retrieved 8 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "EVMs cannot be tampered: K J Rao". Indian Express. 7 August 2009. Retrieved 2012-09-17.
Jump up ^ Lakshman, Narayan (10 August 2010). "Hot debate over Electronic Voting Machines". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
Jump up ^ "SC order on EVM". Supreme Court of India. 25 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "SC seeks EC reply on EVM modification". 25 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Do EVMs need modification? SC asks EC to decide in 3 weeks". 25 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "EVMs not tamper-proof, but no paper trail: Delhi HC". The Times of India. 17 Jan 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "EVMs not tamper-proof: Delhi HC". 18 January 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Field trial of new EVMs with paper trail under way: ECI informs SC". Law et al. 27 September 2012. Archived from the original on 9 February 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Supreme Court hearing in Special Leave to Appeal (Civil) No(s).13735/2012". New Delhi: Supreme Court of India. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/supreme-court-asks-election-commission-to-introduce-paper-trail-in-evms/1/313629.html
Jump up ^ "EC buys time on paper trail". telegraphindia.com. Calcutta, India. 5 December 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "EVM with paper trail to be tested in 200 places". The Times of India. 1 June 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Election Commission to introduce EVM and VVPAT system for more transparent electronic voting". The Economic Times. 21 June 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "New voting machines found perfect: Election Commission". Kolkata News. 28 July 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "New Voting Machines Found Perfect: EC". daijiworld.com. 28 July 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Election Commission tests a paper trail for electronic voting". livemint.com. 21 June 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "New EVMs to have paper trail: BEL". FirstPost.com. 19 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Jump up ^ India devises flawless ballot mechanism Archived 3 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://www.business-standard.com/article/elections-2014/ls-polls-voters-to-get-automated-receipts-at-gandhinagar-114042901134_1.html
Jump up ^ http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/vvpat-machine-to-be-on-demonstration-for-10-days/article5868161.ece
Jump up ^ http://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/vvpat-to-be-introduced-in-jadavpur-constituency-35049.html
Jump up ^ 8 seats having VVPAT facility
Jump up ^ "VVPAT, a revolutionary step in voting transparency". DNA. 2014-04-27. Retrieved 2014-04-27.
Jump up ^ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/lok-sabha-elections-2014/news/Patna-Sahib-electorate-can-see-who-they-voted-for/articleshow/33351551.cms
Jump up ^ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/lok-sabha-elections-2014/news/EVM-slip-will-help-verify-your-vote/articleshow/34304320.cms
Jump up ^ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/400-EVMs-on-standby-for-Patna-Sahib-Pataliputra/articleshow/33836327.cms
Jump up ^ http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/VVPAT-to-Debut-in-B%E2%80%99lore-South/2014/04/04/article2148837.ece
Jump up ^ "Nagaland first to use VVPAT device for voting".
Jump up ^ "India devises flawless ballot mechanism". Archived from the original on 3 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Oct 2013 VVPAT verdict
Jump up ^ http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/elections-2014-sc-directive-to-ec-for-paper-trail-in-evms/article5213604.ece
Jump up ^ http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-10-04/news/42718349_1_vvpat-evms-election-commission
Jump up ^ http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ec-to-seek-about-rs-2-000-crore-for-vvpat-system/article1-1148899.aspx
Jump up ^ "ECN unveils 'tamper-free' voting machines". Nambian Sun. 2013-07-05.
Jump up ^ Tiwari, Rajnish; Herstatt, Cornelius (January 2012). "India – A Lead Market for Frugal Innovations? Extending the Lead Market Theory to Emerging Economies" (pdf). Hamburg University of Technology. p. 18. Retrieved 2013-03-11.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indian voting machines.
EVM page on Election Commission of India website
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electronic_voting_in_India&oldid=804082138"
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Triangular trade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Depiction of the classical model of the Triangular trade
Depiction of the Triangular Trade of slaves, sugar, and rum with New England instead of Europe as the third corner
Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions.
Historically the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents during the age of sail. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe, it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30 N latitude and reaching the so-called "trade winds"; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. A similar triangle to this, called the volta do mar was already being used by the Portuguese, before Christopher Columbus' voyage, to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores. Columbus simply expanded this triangle outwards, and his route became the main way for Europeans to reach, and return from, the Americas.
Contents
1 Atlantic triangular slave trade
1.1 New England
2 Other triangular trades
3 See also
4 Notes
5 External links
Atlantic triangular slave trade[edit]
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See also: Atlantic slave trade and Slave Coast of West Africa
The best-known triangular trading system is the transatlantic slave trade, that operated from the late 16th to early 19th centuries, carrying slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean or American colonies and the European colonial powers, with the northern colonies of British North America, especially New England, sometimes taking over the role of Europe.[1] The use of African slaves was fundamental to growing colonial cash crops, which were exported to Europe. European goods, in turn, were used to purchase African slaves, who were then brought on the sea lane west from Africa to the Americas, the so-called Middle Passage.[2] Despite being driven primarily by economic needs, Europeans sometimes had a religious justification for their actions. In 1452, for instance, Pope Nicholas V, in the Dum Diversas, granted to the kings of Spain and Portugal "full and free permission to invade, search out, capture, and subjugate the Saracens [Muslims] and pagans and any other unbelievers ... and to reduce their persons into perpetual slavery."[3]
Diagram illustrating the stowage of African slaves on a British slave ship.
A classic example is the colonial molasses trade. Sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from the Caribbean was traded to Europe or New England, where it was distilled into rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe, restarting the cycle. The trip itself took five to twelve weeks.
The loss of the slaver Luxborough Galley in 1727 ("I.C. 1760"), lost in the last leg of the triangular trade, between the Caribbean and Britain.
North Atlantic Gyre
The first leg of the triangle was from a European port to Africa, in which ships carried supplies for sale and trade, such as copper, cloth, trinkets, slave beads, guns and ammunition.[4] When the ship arrived, its cargo would be sold or bartered for slaves. On the second leg, ships made the journey of the Middle Passage from Africa to the New World. Many slaves died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then prepared to get them thoroughly cleaned, drained, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage, the third leg, to their home port,[5] from the West Indies the main export cargoes were sugar, rum, and molasses; from Virginia, tobacco and hemp. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle.
Graph depicting the number of slaves imported from Africa from 1501 to 1866
However, because of several disadvantages that slave ships faced compared to other trade ships, they often returned to their home port carrying whatever goods were readily available in the Americas and filled up a large part or all of their capacity with ballast. Other disadvantages include the different form of the ships (to carry as many humans as possible, but not ideal to carry a maximum amount of produce) and the variations in the duration of a slave voyage, making it practically impossible to pre-schedule appointments in the Americas, which meant that slave ships often arrived in the Americas out-of-season. When the ships did reach their intended ports, only about 90% of the passengers survived the journey across the middle passage. Due to the slaves being transported in tight, confined spaces, a small percentage of the group that started perished at the hands of disease and lack of nourishment.[6][unreliable source?] Cash crops were transported mainly by a separate fleet which only sailed from Europe to the Americas and back mitigating the impact the slaves involvement brought forth. The Triangular trade is a trade model, not an exact description of the ship's route.[7]

A 2017 study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the export of gunpowder technology to Africa increased the transatlantic slave trade by making it easier for Africans to enslave each other: "A one percent increase in gunpowder set in motion a 5-year gun-slave cycle that increased slave exports by an average of 50%, and the impact continued to grow over time."[8]
New England[edit]
New England also benefited from the trade, as many merchants from New England, especially the state of Rhode Island, replaced the role of Europe in the triangle. New England also made rum from Caribbean sugar and molasses, which it shipped to Africa as well as within the New World.[9] Yet, the "triangle trade" as considered in relation to New England was a piecemeal operation. No New England traders are known to have completed a sequential circuit of the full triangle, which took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton.[10] The concept of the New England Triangular trade was first suggested, inconclusively, in an 1866 book by George H. Moore, was picked up in 1872 by historian George C. Mason, and reached full consideration from a lecture in 1887 by American businessman and historian William B. Weeden.[11] The song "Molasses to Rum" from the musical 1776 vividly describes this form of the triangular trade.
Other triangular trades[edit]
The term "triangular trade" also refers to a variety of other trades.
A trade pattern which evolved before the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain, the Colonies of British North America, and British colonies in the Caribbean. This typically involved exporting raw resources, such as fish (especially salt cod), agricultural produce or lumber, from British North American colonies to slaves and planters in the West Indies; sugar and molasses from the Caribbean; and various manufactured commodities from Great Britain.[12]
The shipment of Newfoundland salt cod and corn from Boston in British vessels to southern Europe.[13] This also included the shipment of wine and olive oil to Britain.
A new "sugar triangle" developed in the 1820s and 1830s whereby American ships took local produce to Cuba, then brought sugar or coffee from Cuba to the Baltic coast (Russian Empire and Sweden), then bar iron and hemp back to New England.[14]
See also[edit]
North Atlantic triangle
Transatlantic relations
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ About.com: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Accessed 6 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "Triangular Trade". National Maritime Museum. Archived from the original on 25 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Curran, Charles E. (2003). Change in Official Catholic Moral Teaching. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press. p. 67.
Jump up ^ Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade Archived 2012-01-03 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed 28 March 2007.
Jump up ^ A. P. Middleton, Tobacco Coast.
Jump up ^ "Death Toll From The Slave Trade". World Future Fund. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Emmer, P.C.: The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation. Variorum Collected Studies Series CS614, 1998.
Jump up ^ Whatley, Warren C. (2017). "The Gun-Slave Hypothesis and the 18th Century British Slave Trade". Explorations in Economic History. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2017.07.001.
Jump up ^ Slavery in Rhode Island Slavery in the North Accessed 11 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Wayne. And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006–2007. ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4. page 117.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Wayne. And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006–2007. ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4. p. 119.
Jump up ^ Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Walker, 1997. ISBN 0-8027-1326-2.
Jump up ^ Morgan, Kenneth. Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-33017-3. pp. 64–77.
Jump up ^ Chris Evans and Göran Rydén, Baltic Iron in the Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century : Brill, 2007 ISBN 978-90-04-16153-5, 273.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Triangular trade.
The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database, a portal to data concerning the history of the triangular trade of transatlantic slave trade voyages.
Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice
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Part of a series on trade routes
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Varangians to the Greeks
Way of the Patriarchs
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