text:
American Revolutionary War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about military actions only. For political and social developments, including the origins and aftermath of the war, see American Revolution.
This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. The readable prose size is 102 kilobytes. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding or removing subheadings. (January 2018)
American Revolutionary War

Clockwise: Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the Siege of Yorktown, Battle of Trenton, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Long Island, Battle of Guilford Court House
Date
April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783[11]
(8 years, 4 months and 15 days)
Ratification effective: May 12, 1784
(9 years and 23 days)
Location
Eastern North America, Caribbean Sea, Indian subcontinent,[12] Central America, Europe,[13] Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean
Result
Allied victory:
Peace of Paris
British recognition of American independence
End of the First British Empire
British retention of Canada and Gibraltar
Territorial
changes
Great Britain cedes to the United States the area east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River
Great Britain cedes East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca to Spain
Great Britain cedes Tobago and Senegal to France
Dutch Republic cedes Negapatnam to Great Britain
Belligerents
Thirteen Colonies
(before 1776)
United States
(after 1776)
Vermont Republic[1]
French Empire[2][3]
Spanish Empire[4]
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic[5]
Mysore[6]
American Indians:[show]
Oneida
Tuscarora
Catawba
Lenape
Chickasaw
Choctaw
Mahican
Mi'kmaq[7]
Abenaki
Cheraw
Seminole
Pee Dee
Lumbee
Watauga Association
British Empire
Hanover[8][9]
German mercenaries:
Hesse-Kassel
Hesse-Hanau
Waldeck
Brunswick
Ansbach
Anhalt-Zerbst
American Indians:[show]
Onondaga
Mohawk
Cayuga
Seneca
Mi'kmaq[10]
Cherokee
Odawa
Muscogee
Susquehannock
Shawnee
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
Thomas Chittenden
Louis XVI
Charles III
William V
Hyder Ali †
Tipu Sultan
full list...
George III
Lord North
Lord George Germain
full list...
Strength
United States:
Army & Militia:
40,000 (average)[14]
200,000 (total served)[15]
Navy:
5,000 sailors (peak 1779)[16]
53 frigates and sloops (total served)[16]
State Navies:
106 ships (total served)[17]
Privateers:
55,000 sailors (total served)[18]
1,697 ships[19]
Allies:
Army:
63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar)[20][21]
Navy:
146 ships-of-the-line (1782)[22]
American Indian Allies:
Unknown
Great Britain:
Army:
48,000 (America peak)[23]
121,000 (global 1781)[24]
7,500 (Gibraltar)[25]
Navy:
94 ships-of-the-line (1782)[22]
104 frigates (1781)[26]
37 sloops (1781)[27]
171,000 sailors[28]
Loyalists:
25,000 (total served)[29]
Hanoverians:
2,365 (total served)[30]
German mercenaries:
29,875 (total served)[31]
American Indian Allies:
13,000[32]
Casualties and losses
United States:
25,000–70,000 total dead[14][33]
6,800 killed in battle
17,000 died of disease[34]
France:
at least 7,000 dead
(2,112 in the United States)[35]
Spain:
5,000 killed[36]
Netherlands:
500 killed[36]
Total: 37,000–82,500+ soldiers dead
Great Britain:
Army:
43,633 total dead[37]
~9,372 killed in battle[38]
27,000 died of disease[14][39]
Navy:
1,243 killed in battle
18,500 died of disease (1776–1780)[40]
42,000 deserted[41]
Germans:
7,774 total dead
1,800 killed in battle
4,888 deserted[14]
Loyalists:
7,000 total dead
1,700 killed in battle
5,300 died of disease (estimated)[42]
Total: 78,200+ soldiers dead
[show]
v
t
e
American
Revolutionary War
Campaigns and theaters
Boston
Canada
New York and New Jersey
Saratoga
Philadelphia
Western
Northern
Northern (after Saratoga)
Southern
Yorktown
Naval
The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War of Independence,[43] was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America.[N 1]
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Patriot protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp Act and escalated into boycotts, which culminated in 1773 with the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts Bay Colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power.[44]
British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British failed decisively. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate the New England Colonies. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy" led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco-American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered in October 1781.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive,[45] but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.[46]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Early seeds
1.2 Taxation disputes
1.3 Colonial response
2 Course of the war
2.1 War breaks out (1775–1776)
2.2 Political reactions
2.3 British counter-offensive (1776–1777)
2.4 British northern strategy fails (1777–1778)
2.5 Foreign intervention
2.6 International war breaks out (1778–1780)
2.6.1 Europe
2.6.2 Americas
2.6.3 India
2.7 Stalemate in the North (1778–1780)
2.8 War in the South (1778–1781)
2.9 British defeat in America (1781)
2.10 North Ministry collapses
2.11 Final years of the war (1781–1783)
2.11.1 Europe
2.11.2 Americas
2.11.3 India
3 Peace of Paris
4 Aftermath
4.1 Casualties and losses
4.1.1 Americans and allies
4.1.2 British and allies
4.2 Financial debts
5 Analysis of combatants
5.1 Great Britain
5.1.1 Armed Forces
5.1.1.1 Recruitment
5.1.1.1.1 Loyalists and Hessians
5.1.1.2 Leadership
5.1.1.3 Logistics
5.1.1.4 Discipline
5.1.2 Strategic deficiencies
5.1.2.1 William Howe
5.1.2.2 Clinton and Cornwallis
5.1.3 Campaign issues
5.2 Patriots
5.3 African Americans
5.4 American Indians
5.5 Race and class
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 Reference literature
11 External links
11.1 Bibliographies
Background
Main article: American Revolution
Early seeds
In 1651, the Parliament of England sought to regulate trade in America by passing the Navigation Acts, ensuring that trade only enriched Britain.[47][48] The economic effects were minimal,[49][50] but they triggered serious political friction.[51] The American colonists had fought King Philip's War without significant assistance from the Crown, and this contributed to a growing sense of American identity separate from that of Britain.[52] Britain continued to assert control into the 1680s,[53] culminating in the abrogation of colonial charters[54] and the establishment of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Colonists, however, felt that the Dominion was undermining their democratic liberty[55][56] and they overthrew it in 1689;[57][58] the Crown made no attempt to restore it.[59][60]
The British government continued to pursue trade control, however, passing acts that taxed wool,[61] hats,[62] and molasses.[63] The Molasses Act of 1733 was especially egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the local economy, and consequently they were rarely paid. Smuggling, bribery, piracy, and intimidation of customs officials became commonplace.[64] Colonial wars were also a contributing factor. The return of Louisbourg to France in 1748 following the War of the Austrian Succession caused considerable resentment in New England, the colonists having expended great effort in subduing the fortress only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.[65][66]
Taxation disputes
Britain triumphed over France and Spain in the Seven Years' War, but this led to a financial crisis, as the national debt had doubled to £130 million, and the annual cost of the British civil and military establishment in America had quintupled when compared to 1749.[67] Smuggling had been tacitly accepted, but the practice decreased British revenue, so Whitehall decided to ensure that customs duties were unavoidable[68] by passing the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives.[69] Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually", an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire.[70] Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies.[71] From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread.[72][73]
This iconic 1846 lithograph by Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians.[74]
Enforcing the acts proved difficult. The seizure of the sloop Liberty in 1768 on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England.[75] Tensions rose after the murder of Christopher Seider by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre.[76] In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor. So, the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests, an incident that later became known as the "Boston Tea Party".[77]
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy.[78][79] Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity.[80] Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission.[81] The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts", and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America.[82] The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment.[83][84]
Colonial response
The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies[85][86] convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain.[87][88] The Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire,[89] and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97% in 1775 compared to 1774.[88]
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony.[90][91] It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war.[92] Thomas Gage was the British Commander-in-Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias.[93]
Course of the war
War breaks out (1775–1776)
Main articles: Battles of Lexington and Concord; Boston campaign; Invasion of Quebec (1775); Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War § Early operations, 1775–1778; and Battle of Nassau
Major Campaigns of the American Revolutionary War
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord.[94][95] Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston.[96] On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton.[97] The British seized the Charlestown peninsula on June 17 after a costly frontal assault,[98][99] leading Howe to replace Gage.[100] Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack, which had gained them little,[101] while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt.[102] On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington's surprise.[103] A plan was rejected to assault the city,[104] and the Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in early March 1776 with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga.[105] The British were permitted to withdraw unmolested on March 17, and they sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York.[106]
The British marching to Concord
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to support them,[107] while the Americans urged them to maintain their neutrality.[108][109] In April 1775, Congress feared an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada and authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec had a largely Francophone population and had been under British rule for only 12 years,[110] and the Americans expected that they would welcome being liberated from the British.[111][112][113] The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after an arduous march[114] but were defeated.[115][116] After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776.[117][118] A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec.[119] However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing them to withdraw to Ticonderoga and ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion,[120] while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support.[121] The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever made.[122]
British soldiers and Provincial militiamen repulse the American assault at Sault-au-Matelot, Canada, December 1775
In Virginia, Royal governor Lord Dunmore had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out.[123] He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown.[124][125] Dunmore's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, and Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. Subsequent negotiations broke down, so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town.[126]
Fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias,[127] and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony.[128] Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated and Loyalist sentiment was subdued.[129] A troop of British regulars set out to reconquer South Carolina and launched an attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776,[130] but it failed and effectively left the South in Patriot control until 1780.[131][132]
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas colony in the British West Indies in order to secure ordnance there.[133] On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance.[134] They confiscated all the supplies that they could load and sailed away on March 17.[135][136] The squadron reached New London, Connecticut on April 8, after a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6.[137]
Political reactions
Main articles: Olive Branch Petition and United States Declaration of Independence
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere.[138] King George then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, which only served to embolden the colonists in their determination to become independent.[139] After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes.[140] British Tories refused to compromise,[141] while Whigs argued that current policy would drive the colonists towards independence.[142] Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort.[143] The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America,[144] and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time.[145] Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King.[146]
The initial hostilities provided a sobering military lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability.[147][148] The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage, and the British lost control over every colony.[149] The army had been deliberately kept small in England since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King.[150] Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops[151] and sent an army of 32,000 men to America after a year, the largest that it had ever sent outside Europe at the time.[152]
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence.[153][154] On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention,[155] issuing its declaration on July 4.[156] Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9,[157] invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King and melting it to make bullets.[158] British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves.
Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived,[159] intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, or even death.[160] American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, or even barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans.[161][162] Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war.[163] Some Quakers who remained neutral had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts that they were owed.[164]
British counter-offensive (1776–1777)
Main article: New York and New Jersey campaign
American soldiers in combat at the Battle of Long Island, 1776
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans.[165] He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island on July 2. Washington split his army to positions across the city due to poor intelligence,[166] and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans.[167] On August 27, Howe defeated Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead.[168]
Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance.[169] Following the withdrawal, the Staten Island Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace, as the British delegates did not possess authorization to grant independence.[170][171] Howe then seized control of New York on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day.[172] He attempted to encircle Washington, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.[173][174]
British warships forcing passage of the Hudson River
Washington's retreat left his forces isolated, and the British captured an American army on November 16, taking 3,000 prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms "the most disastrous defeat of the entire war".[175] Washington's army fell back four days later.[176] Henry Clinton then captured Newport, Rhode Island, an operation which he opposed, feeling that the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington.[177][178][179] The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous prison ships in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined.[180] Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington marched away unmolested.[181][182]
The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year.[183] Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia.[184] Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York.[162]
Emanuel Leutze's famous 1851 depiction of Washington Crossing the Delaware
News of the campaign was well received in Britain. Festivities took place in London, public support reached a peak,[185][186] and the King awarded the Order of the Bath to William Howe. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year.[187] The American defeat revealed what one writer views as Washington's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his troops fleeing in disorder when fighting began.[188] In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters and were in a good place to resume campaigning.[189]
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware River, and his army overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New Jersey the following morning, taking 900 prisoners.[190][191] The decisive victory rescued the army's flagging morale and gave a new hope to the cause for independence.[192] Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but his efforts were repulsed on January 2.[193][194] Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army.[195][196][197] Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey on January 6,[198] though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued.[199] While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington's amazement.[200]
British northern strategy fails (1777–1778)
Main articles: Saratoga campaign and Philadelphia campaign
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne's plan was to establish control of the Champlain-George-Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England.[201] Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance.[202] Howe instead argued capturing Philadelphia and defeating Washington was a priority.[203] Germain approved this plan, leaving Howe unable to assist Burgoyne.[204] Washington himself was baffled by Howe's choices.[205] Alden argues Howe was influenced by the idea that, upon success, he would not receive credit, but Burgoyne.[206] Controversy persists over whether Germain approved Burgoyne's plan after reading Howe's, and whether he shared this information with his subordinates.[201][207][208] Howe was not given any explicit orders to assist Burgoyne; however, a copy Germain sent to Quebec explicitly stated Howe was to assist Burgoyne's efforts.[209][210] Another letter stated Howe should launch his campaign against Philadelphia as intended, while allowing enough time to assist Burgoyne.[208] Black argues Germain either left his generals too much latitude, or without a clear direction.[211]
"The Surrender at Saratoga" shows General Daniel Morgan in front of a French de Vallière 4-pounder.
Burgoyne's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany.[212] Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. The hasty withdrawal of the Continental Army after little resistance outraged the American public.[213] Burgoyne's pursuit ran into stiff resistance at Hubbardton and Fort Anne. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance.[214] Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food.[215] Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him.[216][217] On August 16, a British foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured.[218] As a result of the defeat, the vast majority of Burgoyne's Indian support abandoned him.[219] Meanwhile, Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid.[220]
Having considered his options, Burgoyne decided to continue the advance.[221] On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low.[222] Henry Clinton did capture two key forts on October 6 to divert American resources, though he turned back ten days later.[223] Meanwhile, the American army was growing in size daily,[224] swelling to some 15,000 men.[225] On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17, and 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans.[226] The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance.[227][228]
Washington and Lafayette inspect the troops at Valley Forge.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed.[229] Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time-consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe's critics accused him of treason.[230]
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow-up on the victory and destroy his army.[231][232] A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia.[233] Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed.[234] Again, Howe did not follow-up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight.[235] Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides.[236] Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies.[237] On December 19, Washington's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops.[238] Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war.[239][240][241]
The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling.[242] Meanwhile, Howe resigned and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.[243] Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit.[244] The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence.[245] By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
Foreign intervention
Main articles: France in the American Revolutionary War, Spain in the American Revolutionary War, and Carlisle Peace Commission
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands,[246] although Lord North refused to grant independence.[247] No positive reply was received from the Americans.[248]
French troops storming Redoubt 9 during the Siege of Yorktown
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British,[249] and he sought a casus belli to go to war with Britain following the conquest of Canada in 1763.[250] The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war,[249] proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign.[251][252][253] The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk.[254] The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile,[255] but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean.[256][257] To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo-French trade.[258][259]
Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain.[260][261] Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776.[262] Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain's neighbor and a close ally of Britain.[263] However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain's empire.[264] In the Spanish-Portuguese War (1776-77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain.[265] Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America.[266][267]
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight.[268] He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years' War as a reason to remain optimistic.[269] Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated,[270] preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater,[271][272] and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America.[273][274] Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown.[275] Mahan argues that Britain's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail.[276]
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request.[277] Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies.[278] French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports.[249] The Republic maintained free trade with France following France's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status.[279] The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers[280] and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.[281]
International war breaks out (1778–1780)
Main articles: France in the American Revolutionary War, Anglo-French War (1778-1783), Spain in the American Revolutionary War, Second Anglo-Mysore War, and Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Europe
The Moonlight Battle of Cape St. Vincent, 16 January 1780 by Francis Holman, painted 1780
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778.[282] Spain entered the war on 12 April 1779, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar,[283] Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock on 24 June.[284] The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison.[285] Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco-Spanish invasion of the British mainland, but the expedition failed due to a combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues, and high financial expenditures.[286][287] However, a diversionary Franco-American squadron did meet with some success on 23 September under John Paul Jones.[288] On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar.[289]
A Franco-Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off the Azores led by John Moutray on 9 August which was bound for the West Indies.[290] The defeat was catastrophic for Britain, which lost 52 merchant ships,[291][292] 5 East Indiamen,[293][294] 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns,[295] and 3,144 men,[296] making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made.[297] The loss was valued at some £1.5 million (£181 million in today's money), dealing a severe blow to British commerce.[298][299]
Americas
The French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica, intending to damage British trade.[300] French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778 in order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands and to strike a blow to privateering.[301][302] The British defeated a French naval force on 15 December and captured St. Lucia on 28 December.[303] Both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, but the French under the Comte d'Estaing had superiority in the Caribbean and began capturing British territories,[304] seizing St. Vincent on 18 June and Grenada on 4 July.[305] The British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated on July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada,[306] the worst loss that the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690.[307] Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.[308][309]
On the mainland, Louisiana Governor Bernardo de Gálvez intercepted intelligence that the British were planning to invade New Orleans, and he decided to strike first.[310] He intended to conquer West Florida and set out with 670 men on August 27, 1779,[311] though his force soon grew to 1,400 with the addition of local Indians.[312] On 7 September, Fort Bute fell to the Spanish,[312] who then marched on to Baton Rouge; they arrived on September 12 and the town fell after a nine-day siege.[313] Galvez left a garrison there and returned to New Orleans to recruit additional troops. In early 1780, he mounted an expedition to take Mobile, setting off with 750 troops on 11 January and joined by reinforcements from Havana. They commenced siege operations on March 1, and the town fell after a 14-day siege.[314] Gálvez had hoped to push on to Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida; however, a hurricane devastated his expedition, stalling it till 1781.[315]
In Central America, the defense of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region.[316] After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and they captured the fort on 20 October.[317] However, the British suffered terribly due to disease and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November;[318] Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied it.[319] In 1780, Jamaica's governor John Dalling planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River.[320] A British expedition set out on 3 February 1780, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson.[321] They reached Fort San Juan on 17 March and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April.[322] The British were ravaged by disease[323] and were running low on food due to poor logistics.[321] They withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat;[324] some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war.[325]
India
Mysorean troops defeat the British at Pollilur, using rockets against closely massed British infantry
The British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions in India when they learned about the hostilities with France, and they took Pondicherry on 19 October 1778 after a two-week siege.[326] The Company resolved to drive the French completely out of India,[327] and they captured the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779[328] where French ordnance passed through.
Mahé was under the protection of Mysore's ruler Hyder Ali (the Tipu Sultan), and tensions were already inflamed because the British had supported Malabar rebels who had risen against him;[329] so the fall of Mahé precipitated war.[330] Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region in July 1780 and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A British relief force of 7,000 men[331] under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September, the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India at the time.[332]
Ali then renewed the siege at Arcot instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second British army at Madras, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year.[333]
Stalemate in the North (1778–1780)
Main articles: Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga and Western theater of the American Revolutionary War
"Give 'em Watts, boys!" – American troops repulse Wilhelm von Knyphausen's attack at Springfield
Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating his forces in New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war.[274] French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, and he arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York.[334] The Franco-American forces felt that New York's defenses were too formidable for the French fleet,[335] and they opted to attack Newport.[336] This effort was launched on August 29, but it failed when the French opted to withdraw, and this displeased the Americans.[337] The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.[338][339]
In July, Clinton unsuccessfully attempted to coax Washington into a decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut.[340] That month, a large American naval operation attempted to retake Maine, but it resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941.[341] The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids.[342][343] During the winter of 1779–80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge.[344] Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war; the national currency was virtually worthless; the army was plagued with supply problems; desertion was common; and whole regiments mutinied over the conditions in early 1780.[345][346]
Hamilton surrenders at Vincennes, February 29, 1779
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to retake New Jersey. On June 7, 6,000 men invaded under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, but they met stiff resistance from the local militia. The British held the field, but Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington's main army and withdrew.[347] Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt two weeks later which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey.[348] Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had defected to the British, and he conspired to betray the key American fortress of West Point by surrendering it to the enemy.[349] The plot was foiled when British spy master John André was captured, so Arnold fled to British lines in New York. He attempted to justify his betrayal by appealing to Loyalist public opinion, but the Patriots strongly condemned him as a coward and turncoat.[350]
The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. An expedition of militia was halted due to adverse weather in February 1778 which had set out to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River.[351] Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes, although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counterattacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and they secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner.[352][353]
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured.[354] The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success, but it did little to abate the Indian raids on the frontier.[355] French militia attempted to capture Detroit, but it ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5.[356] The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the hostile Indian tribes and occupy their land.[357]
War in the South (1778–1781)
Main article: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War
British troops besiege Charleston in 1780, by Alonzo Chappel
The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778, despite their defeat at Saratoga. Prominent Loyalists with great influence in London[358] had convinced them that Loyalist support was high in the South and that a campaign there would inspire an uprising, and the British centered their strategy upon this thinking.[359][360] A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco-Spanish fleets.[361]
On April 19, 1778, three row galleys of the Georgia Navy engaged, defeated, and captured a Royal Navy brigantine, an armed British East Florida provincial sloop, and an armed brig.[362]
On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah, and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support.[363] There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779, but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to recognize their dependence upon the British. The British, however, defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3,[364] and then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists.[365]
In October, a combined Franco-American effort failed to recapture Savannah.[366] In 1780, Henry Clinton moved against Charleston, capturing it on May 12. With few losses of their own, the British took 5,266 prisoners,[367] effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south.[368][369] Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.[370]
American and British cavalry clash at the Battle of Cowpens; from an 1845 painting by William Ranney
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias who effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County,[371] Lincolnton,[372] York County,[373] Stanly County,[374] and Lancaster County.[373]
Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina.[375] The British attempted to subjugate the countryside, and Patriot militia continued to fight against them, so Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north.[376] This wing of Cornwallis' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina.[377] In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.[378]
Greene was unable to confront the British directly, so he dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops.[379] Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781 at Cowpens.[380] Cornwallis was criticized for having detached a substantial part of his army without adequate support,[381] but he advanced into North Carolina despite the setbacks, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support there.[360] Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition.[382]
By March, Greene's army had increased in size enough that he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15; Greene was beaten, but Cornwallis' army suffered irreplaceable casualties.[383] Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining than the British had previously expected.[384] Cornwallis' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the Patriots in control of the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia.
Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South. The American troops suffered a reversal at Hobkirk's Hill on April 25;[385] nonetheless, they continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson[386] and Fort Motte.[387] Augusta was the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, but the Americans reclaimed possession of it on June 6.[388] A British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a final effort to stop Greene, but the British casualties were so high that they withdrew to Charleston.[389] Minor skirmishes continued in the Carolinas until the end of the war, and British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.[390]
British defeat in America (1781)
Main article: Yorktown campaign
The French (left) and British (right) lines exchange fire at the Battle of the Chesapeake
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of American supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and he had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, favoring a campaign farther north in the Chesapeake Bay region.[391] Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan and neglected to include Clinton in the decision-making, even though Clinton was Cornwallis' superior officer,[392] and Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton.[393] Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781,[394] owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart Marriot Arbuthnot.[395]
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized that closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success.[396] The French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed.[397][398] Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia where the British were less well-established and thus easier to defeat.[399] Franco-American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions were vague to Cornwallis during this time, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base and to transfer troops to the north to defend New York.[400] Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown and awaited the Royal Navy.[401]
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by John Trumbull, 1797
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but he acquiesced to the French when they opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco-American army moved south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis.[402] The British lacked sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, but they dispatched a fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and attempt to gain naval dominance.[403] On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwallis from reinforcements and relief.[404] Despite the continued urging of his subordinates,[405]
Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco-American army before it had established siege works, expecting that reinforcements would arrive from New York,[406] and the Franco-American army laid siege to Yorktown on September 28.[407] Cornwallis continued to think that relief was imminent from Clinton, and he abandoned his outer defenses which were immediately occupied by American troops—serving to hasten his subsequent defeat.[408] The British then failed in an attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point when a storm hit.[409] Cornwallis and his subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindling supplies; they agreed that their situation was untenable and negotiated a surrender on October 17, 1781,[410] and 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans.[411] The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown.[412][413]
North Ministry collapses
The Gordon Riots, by John Seymour Lucas
The North government had gained support in Parliament after the British successes at Newport and Charleston,[414] but the decision to allow Irish Catholics to enlist in the army[145] was deeply unpopular and triggered a massive protest in London in 1780, culminating in widespread rioting.[415] The riots were the most destructive in London's history, damaging the prestige of the government.[416][417] On 25 November 1781, the situation worsened when news arrived in London of the surrender at Yorktown. Prime Minister Lord North is said to have repeatedly exclaimed, "Oh, God! It's all over!"[418] King George III received the news with dignity, though later became depressed and considered abdication.[419] The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, and a motion was proposed on December 12 to end the war which was defeated by only one vote.[420] On 27 February 1782, the House voted against further war in America by 19 votes.[421]
Lord Germain had overseen strategic matters in the war effort and was dismissed from office in early 1782. Soon after, a vote of no confidence was passed against the Prime Minister, forcing North's resignation and leading to the collapse of his ministry.[422] The Rockingham Whigs came to power soon after and began opening negotiations for peace.[423] Prime Minister the Marquess of Rockingham died in office on 1 July 1782 and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, forcing the resignations of prominent Whigs Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox, with whom Shelburne had an icy relationship.[424] Shelburne was initially hesitant to grant full American independence, instead preferring that the colonies accept dominion status, but his intentions were never realized.[425]
Despite their defeat, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned in New York, Charleston, and Savannah.[426] Henry Clinton was recalled to London after the defeat at Yorktown, and he departed America in March 1782.[427] He was replaced by Guy Carleton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations.[428]
Final years of the war (1781–1783)
Main articles: Anglo-French War (1778-1783), Spain in the American Revolutionary War, Second Anglo-Mysore War, and Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Europe
The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 13, 1782, by John Singleton Copley
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports,[429] though political turmoil within the Republic[430] and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum.[431] The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain; however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace.[432] To restore diminishing trade[433] a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.[434]
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed.[435] Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco-Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782,[436] securing a primary war goal for the Spanish.[437] At Gibraltar, a major Franco-Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties.[438] On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco-Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea.[439][440] On 7 February 1783, after 1,322[441] days of siege, the Franco-Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated.[442][443]
Americas
Spanish troops led by Bernardo de Gálvez in combat at Pensacola. Oil on canvas, Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau, 2015.
In the West Indies, on 29–30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse,[444] who continued seizing British territories: Tobago fell on 2 June;[445] Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782;[446] St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February,[447] despite a British naval victory on 25 January;[448] and Montserrat on 22 February.[449] In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica,[450] whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined.[451][452] On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco-Spanish troops at Saint Domingue and invade Jamaica from the north.[453] The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued[454] and decisively defeated[455] the French off Dominica between 9–12 April. The Franco-Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins,[456] and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.[457]
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile.[458] Campbell's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781.[459] After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February.[460] Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay.[461] After a 45-day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida.[462] In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas,[463] although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.[464]
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras.[465] Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River.[466] Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes,[467] Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River,[468] which he did on 22 August.[469] However, with peace talks opening, and Franco-Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place.[469]
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781.[470] Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island's wealth.[471]
India
Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three-week siege on 11 October 1781.[472] Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782.[473]
The British (right) and the French (left), with Admiral Suffren's flagship Cléopâtre on the far left, exchange fire at Cuddalore, by Auguste Jugelet, 1836.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory.[474] After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes' fleet came off worse,[475] and he withdrew to the British-held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July.[476] Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam.[477][478] Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.[479]
Meanwhile, Ali's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped.[480] Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781,[481] Pollilur on 27 August,[482] and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic.[483][484] On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800-strong force prisoner.[485] The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate.[486] On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died,[487] and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.[488]
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783.[489] Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French-held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783.[490] On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes' fleet off Cuddalore,[491] and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India.[492] On 25 June, the Franco-Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege.[493] Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784.[494] Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.[485]
Peace of Paris
Main articles: Peace of Paris (1783) and Treaty of Paris (1783)
Benjamin West's famous painting of the American delegations at the Treaty of Paris. The British delegation refused to pose, and the painting was never completed.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives.[428] Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire,[425] though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778.[495] Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war,[496] a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations.[497] Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal.[498]
Washington enters New York in triumph following the British evacuation of America.
The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France.[499] To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec,[500] while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery.[501] According to one historian, Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London.[502] As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it".[503]
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War.[504] Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.[505][506]
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic.[507] Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas[508] in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted.[509] However, in the long-term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain.[510] France's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty.[511] Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies[512][513] and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam.[514]
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784.[515] The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783.[11]
The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.[516]
Aftermath
Casualties and losses
Americans and allies
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.[517]
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service.[33] Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor.[34] If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War.[14] Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone.[14] The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.[518]
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war.[35]
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.[36]
British and allies
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces.[37] A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775–1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778–1780).[38] In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies.[519] Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds.[14] Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.[14]
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776–1780).[40] The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency.[520] It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors.[521] Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war.[522] The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war;[523] of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone.[524]
Financial debts
Main article: Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing,[525] and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world.[526] The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90% of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade.[527]
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort.[528] As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental".[529]
By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million.[530] The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.[531]
Britain spent around £80 million and ended with a national debt of £250 million, (£27.1 billion in today's money), generating a yearly interest of £9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years' War.[532] Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.[533]
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans,[534] accumulating a national debt of 3.315.1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs.[535] Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system,[536] the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786.[537] The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century.[538] The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.[539]
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779.[540] Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600% in Mexico, and by 250% in Peru and Bolivia.[541]
Analysis of combatants
Great Britain
See also: British Army during the American Revolutionary War, Royal Navy, Hessian (soldier), and Loyalist (American Revolution)
British redcoats at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million,[542] while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves.[543] Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.
Armed Forces
Recruitment
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America.[544] Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648,[545] the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell,[546] and the overthrow of James II,[547] and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King.[150][548] Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier".[549]
Press gang at work, British caricature of 1780
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower,[550] and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set.[551] The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8d. per day,[552] the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier.[553] The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits,[554] as service was nominally for life.[555]
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £1.10s for every recruit.[556] As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units.[557] After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £3,[558] and increased it again the following year, to £3.3s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17–45 to 16–50 years of age.[559]
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang", was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service.[560] Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders.[561] Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit.[562] Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs,[563] while many deserted at the first opportunity.[564] Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting.[565]
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally,[24] 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas.[23] Of the 171,000 sailors[28] who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict.[41] At its height, the Navy had 94 ships-of-the-line,[566] 104 frigates[567] and 37 sloops[568] in service.
Loyalists and Hessians
Hessian soldiers of the Leibregiment
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia,[569] and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic,[570] such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops.[151] In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse-Kassel (16,992), Hesse-Hannau (2,422), Ansbach-Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck-Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt-Zerbst (1,160).[31] King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.[571]
Without any major allies,[270] the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas.[273][274] Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity.[572] To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them.[573] Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war,[29] and provided some of the best troops in the British service;[574] the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry[575] commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.[576][577][578]
Leadership
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war.[579] Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause". The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders.[580]
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks.[581] Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army.[582] Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices.[583] The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high-ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for [their] consumption".[584] Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment.[585] Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.[586]
Logistics
Grenadier of the 40th Regiment of Foot in 1767, armed with a Brown Bess musket
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire.[587] No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army.[588] Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers.[589]
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill-suited to comfort and agile movement.[590] During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100°F (37.8°C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat.[591] The standard-issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel.[592] British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign.[593] Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations,[594] which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.[595]
Soldiers of the Black Watch armed with Brown Bess muskets, c. 1790.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801.[596] Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan,[597] while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire.[598] Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog".[599]
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain.[600] The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land.[601] Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed.[602] After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. The food that could be bought in America was purchased at vastly inflated prices.[603] Soldiers stationed in the West Indies perhaps suffered the worst; the garrison commander of Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua frequently complained of the near-total lack of regular supply from Britain, and the food that could be bought was so expensive that the pay of the troops was inadequate to cover the costs.[604]
Food supplies were frequently in terrible condition, infested with mould, weevils, worms, and maggots.[605] Provisions were frequently destroyed by rats,[606] and their containers were too fragile to sustain a long ocean voyage or the rigors of campaigning.[607] The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil.[608] British troops stationed in America were often on the verge of starvation.[609]
Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer.[610] The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers" and "worm castles",[611] and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages.[612] The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea.[520] Rum was issued as part of a daily ration and was a popular drink among soldiers and sailors alike, often mixed with fresh water to make grog.[613][603]
Discipline
Flogging of a delinquent in Germany, 17th century
Discipline was harsh in the armed forces, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences—and not used sparingly.[614] For instance, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign,[615] while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer.[616] Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.[617]
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self-discipline pervaded all ranks of the British forces. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms.[618] Many drank heavily, and this was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings" while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command.[619] During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses where they had been quartered.[620] Some reports indicated that British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants.[621] This is contrasted diaries of Hessian soldiers, who recorded their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners.[622]
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety among the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries.[623] British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers". The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect.[624]
During peacetime, the Army's idleness led to it being riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in many administrative difficulties once campaigning began.[625]
Strategic deficiencies
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning.[147][148] The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony.[149] A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses.[626] Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss,[627] the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults.[628] The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.[629][630]
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle.[631] Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again".[632] Conversely, the United States Army's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility.[633]
William Howe
A 1777 mezzotint of Sir William Howe, British Commander-in-Chief from 1775–1778
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans.[633][632] Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington,[634] and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army.[168] At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage.[173][174] After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington's retreating army.[177][635][179] Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause[184] and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington's defeats,[162] Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise.[200]
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat.[203] The decision left Burgoyne precariously isolated,[204] and left the Americans confounded at the decision.[205] Alden argues Howe may have been motivated by political opportunism; if Burgoyne was successful, he would receive the credit for a decisive victory, and not Howe.[206] However, the confusion was further compounded by the lack of explicit and contradictory instructions from London.[636] When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time-consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so confused Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.[230]
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine,[231][232] and again after the Battle of Germantown.[235] At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear,[637] and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides.[236] While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war.[239][240][241] Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.[243]
Contrary to Howe's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill.[638][639] During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns.[640] Howe's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies.[641][642]
During the winter of 1776–1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton.[643] While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other's efforts.[644] Howe's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions.[645]
Clinton and Cornwallis
General Charles Cornwallis, who led British forces in the southern campaign.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain,[377] and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens.[380] Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support.[381] Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized.[360][646] As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse,[383] and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition.[647] Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year.[648][390]
In a last-ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North.[391] London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision-making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction.[392] Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions.[649] Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year,[650] owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart.[395]
As the Franco-American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected,[651] despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers.[405] Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat.[652] These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America.[653]
Like Howe before him, Clinton's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland.[654] That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed.[655] Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food.[656] By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue" if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce" of that year's allotted stores from Britain.[657]
Campaign issues
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived.[658] The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict,[659] yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston.[660] Britain's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade's effects.[527]
Black Loyalist soldiers fought alongside British regulars in the 1781 Battle of Jersey, from The Death of Major Peirson
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland.[661] For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists.[662] Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war.[663] Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering.[664][665] The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map".[666]
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London[358] and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown.[667] Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists,[359][360] which never transpired on the scale required.[646] Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15–20% of the population (vs. 40-45% Patriots)[668] and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780.[669] The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars,[670] which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances.[671] The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South.[377]
Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland.[273][274] As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with.[672] The small size of Britain's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage.[271] The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat.[276] In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica,[673] whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined.[451]
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long-term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict.[674]
Patriots
Main articles: Continental Army and Minutemen
1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the Battle of Guilford
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports—the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long-established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.[675]
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.[15]
At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown[676] proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.[677]
The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual.[678] When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.[679]
Population density in the American Colonies in 1775
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.[572]
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy.[680] And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington's army had 20,000 men, with two-thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias.[681] At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war.[682] The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships.[524] John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.[683]
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable, on the American side, to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities; and, on the British side, to the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic, as well as the dependence on local supplies, which the Patriots tried to cut off. The largest force Washington commanded was certainly under 17,000,[684] and may have been no more than 13,000 troops, and even the combined American and French forces at the siege of Yorktown amounted to only about 19,000.[685] By comparison, Duffy notes that in an era when European rulers were generally revising their forces downward, in favor of a size that could be most effectively controlled (the very different perspective of mass conscript armies came later, during the French Revolutionary and then the Napoleonic Wars), the largest army that Frederick the Great ever led into battle was 65,000 men (at Prague in 1757), and at other times he commanded between 23,000 and 50,000 men, considering the latter the most effective number.[685]
African Americans
1780 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign shows a black infantryman from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment.
African Americans—slave and free—served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all-black unit came from Saint-Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.[686][687]
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30% of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war.[688] This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists.[689] Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.[690][691]
American Indians
A watercolor painting depicting a variety of Continental Army soldiers.
Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown, 1781
Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men.[692] The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain.[693]
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah.[694] Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River—mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.[695]
Race and class
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom.[696] About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.[697][698]
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.[699]
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave-owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large-scale desertion, so that Virginia's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.[700]
See also
American Revolutionary War portal
United States Army portal
Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War
Bibliography of George Washington
Commemoration of the American Revolution
Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War
British Army during the American War of Independence
First Treaty of San Ildefonso
First League of Armed Neutrality
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
George Washington in the American Revolution
Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War
List of American Revolutionary War battles
List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War
List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War
List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution
List of plays and films about the American Revolution
List of revolutions and rebellions
Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War
Treaty of El Pardo (1778)
Notes
Jump up ^ This article primarily refers to the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies who supported the American Revolution as "Americans", with occasional references to "Patriots" or "Revolutionaries". Colonists who supported the British and opposed the Revolution are referred to as "Loyalists" or "Tories". The geographical area of the thirteen colonies is often referred to simply as "America".
References
Jump up ^ (from 1777)
Jump up ^ (from 1778)
Jump up ^ The term "French Empire" colloquially refers to the empire under Napoleon, but it is used here for brevity to refer to France proper and to the colonial empire that the Kingdom of France ruled
Jump up ^ (from 1779)
Jump up ^ (1780–83)
Jump up ^ (1780–84)
Jump up ^ (until 1779)
Jump up ^ Hanover supplied troops per Personal union treaty, not as mercenaries
Jump up ^ Lowell, Edward J (1884), "The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War", Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York, Chapter II. Quote: "Five battalions of the Hanoverian subjects of George III were despatched to Gibraltar and Menorca"
Jump up ^ (from 1779)
^ Jump up to: a b A ceasefire in America was proclaimed by Congress on April 11, 1783 in response to a ceasefire agreement between Great Britain and France on January 20, 1783. The final peace treaty was signed on September 3, 1783 and ratified in the U.S. on January 14, 1784, with final ratification exchanged in Europe on May 12, 1784. Hostilities in India continued until July 1783.
Jump up ^ Jaques, Tony (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O. p. 720. ISBN 9780313335389. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Jaques (2007), p. 666
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Duncan, Louis C. MEDICAL MEN IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1931).
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Lanning (2009). American Revolution 100: The Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Significance. Sourcebooks. pp. 195–96. ISBN 9781402241703.
^ Jump up to: a b Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. A Companion to the American Revolution (Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), p. 328.
Jump up ^ Paullin, Charles Oscar (1906). The navy of the American Revolution: its administration, its policy and its achievements. The Burrows Brothers Co.
Jump up ^ "Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War". Usmm.org. Retrieved May 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Howarth 1991, p. 16
Jump up ^ Montero, Francisco Maria (1860), Historia de Gibraltar y de su campo (in Spanish), Imprenta de la Revista Médica, p. 356
Jump up ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 79.
^ Jump up to: a b Jonathan Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (Yale University Press, 1985), p. 110.
^ Jump up to: a b "Red Coats Facts – British Soldiers in the American Revolution". totallyhistory.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "The British Army 1775–1783" (PDF). orbat. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2013. Retrieved September 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 63: "Of 7,500 men in the Gibraltar garrison in September (including 400 in hospital), some 3,430 were always on duty"
Jump up ^ Winfield, Rif, British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1714–1792 (Seaforth Publishing, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-700-6
Jump up ^ Winfield, Rif, British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714–1792: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates (Seaforth Publishing, 2007)
^ Jump up to: a b Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen).
^ Jump up to: a b Savas and Dameron (2006), p. xli
Jump up ^ Knesebeck, Ernst von dem (1845), "Geschichte de churhannoverschen Truppen in Gibraltar, Menorca und Ostindien", Published by Im Verlage der Helwingschen Hof-Buchhandlung. Note: The strength of a Hanoverian battalion is listed as 473 men
^ Jump up to: a b Lowell, Edward J (1884), "The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War", Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York, Chapter II
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.
^ Jump up to: a b Howard H. Peckham, ed., The Toll of Independence: Engagements and Battle Casualties of the American Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).
^ Jump up to: a b Burrows, Edwin G. (Fall 2008). "Patriots or Terrorists". American Heritage. 58 (5). Archived from the original on March 23, 2013. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Dawson, Warrington. "The 2112 Frenchmen who died in the United States from 1777 to 1783 while fighting for the American Independence". Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route. Journal de la societe des Americanistes. Archived from the original on June 5, 2017. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Spanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war". Necrometrics.
^ Jump up to: a b Annual Register, 1783 (1785), pp. 199–200.
^ Jump up to: a b Parliamentary Register (1781), pp. 263–65.
Jump up ^ "Eighteenth Century Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Parliamentary Register (1781), p. 269.
^ Jump up to: a b Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen)
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edwin. "Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War." Basic Books. New York, 2008. Page 203.
Jump up ^ Modern British writers generally favor "American War of Independence", rather than "American Rebellion" or "War of American Independence". "National Curriculum England". Retrieved April 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ The colony of Georgia joined later.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Richard (editor). Atlas of World Military History. HarperCollins, 2000, p. 101 "Washington's success in keeping the army together deprived the British of victory, but French intervention won the war."
Jump up ^ "status quo ante bellum". Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved June 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Pestana, Carla Gardina (2004). The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution: 1640–1661. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press. p. 120.
Jump up ^ Purvis, Thomas L. (23 April 1997). A dictionary of American history. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-57718-099-9. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 140. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975  . doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. JSTOR 2123771 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ Thomas, Robert P. (1964). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings". Journal of Economic History. 25 (4): 615–638. JSTOR 2116133.
Jump up ^ Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts". Economic History Review. 24 (4): 533–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x.
Jump up ^ Lepore (1998), The Name of War (1999) pp 5–7
Jump up ^ Curtis P. Nettels, The Roots of American Civilization: A History of American Colonial Life (1938) p. 297.
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, David (1987). The Glorious Revolution in America. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6177-0. OCLC 14212813. , pp. 148–56, 155–57, 169–70
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, pp. 180, 192–93, 197
Jump up ^ Barnes, Viola Florence (1960) [1923]. The Dominion of New England: A Study in British Colonial Policy. New York: Frederick Ungar. ISBN 978-0-8044-1065-6. OCLC 395292. , pp. 169–70
Jump up ^ Webb, Stephen Saunders (1998). Lord Churchill's Coup: The Anglo-American Empire and the Glorious Revolution Reconsidered. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0558-4. OCLC 39756272. , pp. 190–91
Jump up ^ Lustig, Mary Lou (2002). The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, 1637–1714. Madison, WI: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3936-8. OCLC 470360764. , p. 201
Jump up ^ Palfrey, John (1864). History of New England: History of New England During the Stuart Dynasty. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 1658888. , p. 596
Jump up ^ Evans, James Truslow (1922). The Founding of New England. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Press. OCLC 1068441. , p. 430
Jump up ^ John A. Garraty; Mark C. Carnes (2000). "Chapter Three: America in the British Empire". A Short History of the American Nation (8th ed.). Longman. ISBN 0-321-07098-4. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Max Savelle, Empires to Nations: Expansion in America, 1713–1824, p.93 (1974)
Jump up ^ Draper pg. 100. The quote provided by Draper came from Leo Francis Stock’s Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments respecting North America (1937) vol. 4. pg. 182
Jump up ^ Miller, John C. (1943). Origins of the American Revolution. Boston: Little, Brown and company. , pp. 95-e99
Jump up ^ Guizot, M. A popular history of France, from the earliest times. Vol IV, University of Michigan, 2005, ISBN 978-1-4255-5724-9, p.166.
Jump up ^ "American Revolution". Britannica.com. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Debt & Taxes, John Makim & Norman Ornstein P.54
Jump up ^ Spain & the Independence of the United States; An Intrinsic Gift. Thomas E, Chavez P.22
Jump up ^ Gladney, Henry M. (2014). No Taxation without Representation: 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ Liberty and Property: Political Ideology in Eighteenth-century Britain – H. T. Dickinson – Google Books. Books.google.com. 1977. p. 218. ISBN 9780416729306. Retrieved 2015-01-07.
Jump up ^ Charles Howard McIlwain (1938). The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation. p. 51. ISBN 9781584775683.
Jump up ^ Paul Boyer; et al. (2014). The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. Cengage Learning. p. 142. ISBN 9781285193397.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 48; Thomas, Duties Crisis, 76
Jump up ^ Young, Shoemaker, 183–85.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 69
Jump up ^ "What was the Boston Massacre?". Boston Massacre Society.
Jump up ^ "Boston Tea Party". History.com.
Jump up ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/mass_gov_act.asp
Jump up ^ Ian R. Christie and Benjamin W. Labaree, Empire or Independence, 1760–1776 (New York: Norton, 1976) p. 188.
Jump up ^ Ammerman, David (1974). In the Common Cause: American Response to the Coercive Acts of 1774. New York: Norton. , p. 9
Jump up ^ Ammerman points out that the act only permitted soldiers to be quartered in unoccupied buildings—although they were still private property. (Ammerman, In the Common Cause, 10)
Jump up ^ Ammerman, In the Common Cause, 15.
Jump up ^ Gary B. Nash; Carter Smith (2007). Atlas Of American History. Infobase Publishing. p. 64. ISBN 9781438130132.
Jump up ^ Peter Knight (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 184–85. ISBN 9781576078129.
Jump up ^ Georgia did not attend
Jump up ^ Ferling, John. (2003). A Leap in the Dark. Oxford University Press. p. 112.
Jump up ^ Kindig, Thomas E. (1995). "Galloway's Plan for the Union of Great Britain and the Colonies". Declaration of Independence. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: Independence Hall Association, publishing electronically as ushistory.org. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 14, 2015. The plan was considered very attractive to most of the members, as it proposed a popularly elected Grand Council which would represent the interests of the colonies as a whole, and would be a continental equivalent to the English Parliament. After a sincere debate, it was rejected by a six to five vote on October 22, 1774. It may have been the arrival of the Suffolk County (Boston) resolutions that killed it.
^ Jump up to: a b Kramnick, Isaac (ed); Thomas Paine (1982). Common Sense. Penguin Classics. p. 21.
Jump up ^ "Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: and as the English colonists are not represented, and from their local and other circumstances, cannot properly be represented in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of their sovereign, in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed: But, from the necessity of the case, and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries, we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament, as are bonfide, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce, for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits of its respective members; excluding every idea of taxation internal or external, for raising a revenue on the subjects, in America, without their consent." quoted from the Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress October 14, 1774.
Jump up ^ Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History. Routledge, 1999. pp. 47
Jump up ^ Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 47–48
Jump up ^ Alan Axelrod, The Real History of the American Revolution: A New Look at the Past, p. 83
Jump up ^ Fischer, p. 76
Jump up ^ Fischer, p. 85
Jump up ^ Chidsey, p. 6. This is the total size of Smith's force.
Jump up ^ Ketchum, pp. 18,54
Jump up ^ Ketchum, pp. 2–9
Jump up ^ Ketchum pp. 110–111
Jump up ^ Adams, Charles Francis, "The Battle of Bunker Hill", in American Historical Review (1895–1896), pp. 401–13.
Jump up ^ Higginbotham (1983), pp. 75–77.
Jump up ^ Ketchum, p. 183, 198–209
Jump up ^ Hugh F. Rankin, ed. (1987). Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through the Eyes of Those who Fought and Lived it. Da Capo Press. p. 63. ISBN 9780306803079. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England in the Eighteenth CentuIry (1882), pp. 449–50.
Jump up ^ McCullough, p.53
Jump up ^ Frothingham, pp. 100–101
Jump up ^ John R. Alden (1989). A History of the American Revolution. Da Capo Press. pp. 188–90. ISBN 9780306803666.
Jump up ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 293
Jump up ^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 91
Jump up ^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 93
Jump up ^ Quebec was officially ceded in 1763
Jump up ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 242
Jump up ^ Gabriel, Michael P. (2002). Major General Richard Montgomery: The Making of an American Hero. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3931-3. , p. 141
Jump up ^ Mark R. Anderson, The Battle for the Fourteenth Colony: America's War of Liberation in Canada, 1774–1776 (University Press of New England; 2013).
Jump up ^ Alden, The American Revolution (1954) p. 206
Jump up ^ Willard Sterne Randall, "Benedict Arnold at Quebec", MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History, Summer 1990, Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp 38–49.
Jump up ^ Davies, Blodwen (1951). Quebec: Portrait of a Province. Greenberg. p. 32.Carleton's men had won a quick and decisive victory
Jump up ^ Lanctot (1967), pp. 141–146
Jump up ^ Thomas A. Desjardin, Through a Howling Wilderness: Benedict Arnold's March to Quebec, 1775 (2006).
Jump up ^ Stanley, pp. 127–128
Jump up ^ Watson (1960), p. 203.
Jump up ^ Arthur S. Lefkowitz, Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War (2007).
Jump up ^ Smith (1907), volume 2, pp. 459–552
Jump up ^ Selby and Higginbotham, p. 2
Jump up ^ Levy, Andrew (Jan 9, 2007). The First Emancipator: Slavery, Religion, and the Quiet Revolution of Robert Carter. Random House Trade Paperbacks. p. 74. ISBN 978-0375761041.
Jump up ^ Scribner, Robert L. (1983). Revolutionary Virginia, the Road to Independence. University of Virginia Press. pp. xxiv. ISBN 0-8139-0748-9.
Jump up ^ Russell, p. 73
Jump up ^ McCrady, p. 89
Jump up ^ Landrum, John Belton O'Neall (1897). Colonial and Revolutionary History of Upper South Carolina. Greenville, SC: Shannon. OCLC 187392639. , pp. 80–81
Jump up ^ Wilson, David K (2005). The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-573-3. OCLC 56951286. , p. 33
Jump up ^ Hibbert, C: Rebels and Redcoats, p.106
Jump up ^ Kepner, F, "A British View of the Siege of Charleston, 1776", The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 11, No. 1. (Feb., 1945), p. 94 Jstor link
Jump up ^ Bicheno, H: Rebels and Redcoats, p.154, 158
Jump up ^ Field, Edward (1898). Esek Hopkins, commander-in-chief of the continental navy during the American Revolution, 1775 to 1778. Providence: Preston & Rounds. OCLC 3430958. , p. 104
Jump up ^ McCusker, John J (1997). Essays in the economic history of the Atlantic world. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16841-0. OCLC 470415294. , p. 185-187
Jump up ^ Riley, pp. 101–102
Jump up ^ Field, pp. 117–118
Jump up ^ Field, pp. 120–125
Jump up ^ "DECLARATION OF TAKING UP ARMS: RESOLUTIONS OF THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS". Constitution Society. Retrieved 2013-09-23.
Jump up ^ Ketchum, p.211
Jump up ^ Maier, American Scripture, 25. The text of the 1775 king's speech is online, published by the American Memory project.
Jump up ^ Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 168; Ferling, Leap in the Dark, 123–24.
Jump up ^ Maier, American Scripture, 25
Jump up ^ Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, The Men who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale UP, 2013).
Jump up ^ Frank A. Biletz (2013). Historical Dictionary of Ireland. Scarecrow Press. p. 8.
^ Jump up to: a b Lecky. A History of England. pp. 162–65.
Jump up ^ Vincent Morley (2002). Irish Opinion and the American Revolution, 1760–1783. Cambridge UP. pp. 154–57.
^ Jump up to: a b Ketchum, pp. 208–209
^ Jump up to: a b Frothingham (1903), p. 298
^ Jump up to: a b John C. Miller (1959). Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford UP. pp. 410–12.
^ Jump up to: a b Scheer, p. 64
^ Jump up to: a b http://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/hessiansotherge00lowe
Jump up ^ David Smith (2012). New York 1776: The Continentals' First Battle. Osprey Publishing. pp. 21–23.
Jump up ^ Christie and Labaree, Empire or Independence, 270; Maier, American Scripture, 31–32.
Jump up ^ Maier, American Scripture, 33–34
Jump up ^ Boyd, Evolution, 19
Jump up ^ Maier, American Scripture, 160–61
Jump up ^ Fischer (2004), p. 29.
Jump up ^ Maier, American Scripture, 156–57
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of the American Revolution Mark M. Botner III, (1974) P. 1094.
Jump up ^ Liberty's Exiles; American Loyalists & the Revolutionary World. Maya Jasanoff (2011)
Jump up ^ The American Revolution; Colin Bonwick (1991) P.152
^ Jump up to: a b c Encyclopedia of American History. Richard B. Morris and Jeffrey B. Morris, eds., 6th Edition (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1982), p. 130.
Jump up ^ Flight of the Tories from the Republic, The Tories of the American Revolution. North Callahan (1967) P. 120.
Jump up ^ Land confiscation Records of north Carolina, Vol.1 (1779–1800) Stewart Dunaway, p. 9
Jump up ^ Fischer, pp. 76–78
Jump up ^ Fischer, pp. 89, 381
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1973), p. 104
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, Charles Francis, "Battle of Long Island", in American Historical Review (1895–1896), p. 657.
Jump up ^ Fischer, pp. 88–102
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1973), p. 117
Jump up ^ Thomas J. McGuire (2011). Stop the Revolution: America in the Summer of Independence and the Conference for Peace. Stackpole Books. pp. 165–66.
Jump up ^ Fischer, pp. 102–107
^ Jump up to: a b Fischer (2004), pp. 102–11.
^ Jump up to: a b Barnet Schecter, The battle for New York: The city at the heart of the American Revolution (2002).
Jump up ^ Ketchum p. 111, 130
Jump up ^ Fischer, pp. 109–125
^ Jump up to: a b Ridpath, John Clark (1915). The new complete history of the United States of America, Volume 6. Cincinnati: Jones Brothers. OCLC 2140537. , p. 2531
Jump up ^ David McCullough (2006). 1776. p. 122.
^ Jump up to: a b Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), p. 221.
Jump up ^ Larry Lowenthal, Hell on the East River: British Prison Ships in the American Revolution (2009).
Jump up ^ Mary Tucker (March 1, 2002). Washington Crossing the Delaware. Lorenz Educational Press. pp. 22–23.
Jump up ^ Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), p. 223.
Jump up ^ Schecter, pp. 266–267
^ Jump up to: a b Fischer, pp. 138–142
Jump up ^ Lecky. A History of England. pp. 70–78.
Jump up ^ McCullough 2006, p. 195.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1973), p. 191, 269
Jump up ^ Charles Francis Adams, "The Battle of Long Island," American Historical Review Vol. 1, No. 4 (Jul. 1896), pp. 650–670 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Schecter, pp. 259–263
Jump up ^ Fischer p. 254. Casualty numbers vary slightly with the Hessian forces, usually between 21–23 killed, 80–95 wounded, and 890–920 captured (including the wounded).
Jump up ^ Fischer (2004), pp. 206–59.
Jump up ^ Wood, W. J (1995). Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80617-7. ISBN 0-306-81329-7 (2003 paperback reprint), p. 72-74
Jump up ^ Fischer p. 307
Jump up ^ Ketchum p. 286
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1973), pp. 388–389
Jump up ^ Schecter, p. 268
Jump up ^ McCullough p. 290
Jump up ^ Lengel p. 208
Jump up ^ Fischer (2004), pp. 345–58.
^ Jump up to: a b Lecky, William, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century, Vol. IV (1891), p. 57.
^ Jump up to: a b Ketchum (1997), p. 84
Jump up ^ John Martin Carroll; Colin F. Baxter (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b Ketchum, Saratoga (1999), p. 81
^ Jump up to: a b Martin, p. 11-15
^ Jump up to: a b John E. Ferling, The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (2010) p.
^ Jump up to: a b Alden, The American Revolution (1954) p. 118
Jump up ^ Samuel B. Griffith, The War for American Independence: From 1760 to the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781
^ Jump up to: a b Ketchum (1997), p. 104
Jump up ^ Martin, p. 11
Jump up ^ Fisher, Sydney George. The Struggle for American Independence Vol. II (1908) pp. 73–74
Jump up ^ Black, Jeremy (1991). War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-06713-5. , p. 126
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), p. 84.
Jump up ^ Pancake (1977), p.125
Jump up ^ Nickerson (1967), pp. 146–157, 438
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), p. 244-249
Jump up ^ Pancake (1977), p. 145
Jump up ^ Nickerson (1967), pp. 271–275
Jump up ^ Gabriel, Michael P. (2012). The Battle of Bennington: Soldiers and Civilians. The History Press. ISBN 978-1609495152.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), pp. 285–323.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), p. 283
Jump up ^ Nickerson (1967), pp. 296.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), pp. 337–378.
Jump up ^ Nickerson (1967), pp. 343–405.
Jump up ^ Nickerson (1967), pp. 327.
Jump up ^ Luzader, John F. Saratoga: A Military History of the Decisive Campaign of the American Revolution. New York: Savas Beatie. ISBN 978-1-932714-44-9. pp. 249.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), pp. 403–425.
Jump up ^ Edmund Morgan, The Birth of the Republic: 1763–1789 (1956) pp 82–83
Jump up ^ Higginbotham (1983), pp. 188–98
Jump up ^ Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), pp. 287–89.
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, Charles Francis. Campaign of 1777 Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Volume 44 (1910–11) pp. 25–26
^ Jump up to: a b Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, pp. 181–86
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, Charles Francis. "Campaign of 1777", Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. 44 (1910–11), p. 43.
Jump up ^ Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution. (2 volumes. New York: Macmillan, 1952.) History of land battles in North America., p. 362
Jump up ^ Stephen R. Taaffe, The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778 (2003), pp. 95–100 except and text search.
^ Jump up to: a b Rose, Michael (2007), Washington's War: From Independence to Iraq, [1], Retrieved on May 24, 2017
^ Jump up to: a b McGuire, p. 254
Jump up ^ Cadwalader, Richard McCall (1901). Observance of the One Hundred and Twenty-third Anniversary of the Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British Army. Fort Washington and the Encampment of White Marsh, November 2, 1777:. pp. 20–28. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Freedman, 2008, p. 1-30
^ Jump up to: a b Noel Fairchild Busch, Winter Quarters: George Washington and the Continental Army at Valley Forge (Liveright, 1974).
^ Jump up to: a b "A Concluding Commentary" Supplying Washington's Army (1981).
^ Jump up to: a b "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783" American Military History Volume I (2005).
Jump up ^ Paul Douglas Lockhart, The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army (2008).
^ Jump up to: a b Frances H. Kennedy (2014). The American Revolution: A Historical Guidebook. Oxford UP. p. 163.
Jump up ^ Text incorporated from Valley Forge National Historical Park website, which is in the public domain.
Jump up ^ Freedman, 2008, p. 70-83
Jump up ^ Reid, Authority to Tax, 51.
Jump up ^ Stockley (2001), p. 11-12
Jump up ^ Terry M. Mays (2009). Historical Dictionary of the American Revolution. Scarecrow Press. p. 7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jones, Howard (2002). Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913. Scholarly Resources Inc. p. 5. ISBN 0-8420-2916-8.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, Ronald, and Peter J. Albert, eds. Diplomacy and Revolution: The Franco-American Alliance of 1778 (United States Capitol Historical Society, 1981)
Jump up ^ "Journal of the American Revolution, The Gunpowder shortage (September 9, 2013).[2]
Jump up ^ James Brown Scott, Historical Introduction, p.8–9 in Samuel Flagg Bemis, Ed. The American Secretaries of State and their diplomacy V.1–2, 1963.
Jump up ^ "Springfield Armory". Nps.gov. April 25, 2013. Retrieved May 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ Georges Édouard Lemaître (2005). Beaumarchais. Kessinger Publishing. p. 229.
Jump up ^ Thomas G. Paterson; et al. (2009). American Foreign Relations, Volume 1: A History to 1920. Cengage Learning. pp. 13–15.
Jump up ^ Perkins, James Breck, France In The Revolution (1911).
Jump up ^ Corwin, Edward Samuel, French Policy and the American Alliance (1916), pp. 121–48.
Jump up ^ Morris, Richard B. (1983) [1965]. The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence. , p. 15
Jump up ^ Renaut, Francis P. (1922). Le Pacte de famille et l’Amérique: La politique coloniale franco-espagnole de 1760 à 1792. Paris. , p. 290
Jump up ^ Caughey, John W. (1998). Bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana 1776–1783. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company. ISBN 1-56554-517-6. , p. 87
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Barbara A. (Autumn 2012). "America's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez". MHQ (Military History Quarterly). pp. 98–104. , p. 99
Jump up ^ E. Chavez, Thomas (1997). Spain's Support Vital to United States Independence, 1777–1783. United States. Dept. of Defense. pp. United States.
Jump up ^ Sparks, Jared (1829–1830). The Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution. Boston: Nathan Hale and Gray & Bowen. , p. 1:408
Jump up ^ Fernández y Fernández, Enrique (1885). Spain's Contribution to the independence of the United States. Embassy of Spain: United States of America. , p. 4
Jump up ^ Clarfield, Gerard. United States Diplomatic History: From Revolution to Empire. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1992.
Jump up ^ Stockley, Andrew (1 January 2001). Britain and France at the Birth of America: The European Powers and the Peace Negotiations of 1782–1783. University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-615-3. Retrieved 28 August 2015. , p. 19
Jump up ^ Chartrand, René (2006). Gibraltar 1779–83: The Great Siege. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-977-6. Retrieved 16 November 2015. , p. 9
Jump up ^ John Ferling (2007). Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence. Oxford UP. p. 294.
Jump up ^ Syrett (1998), p. 17
^ Jump up to: a b Scott, Hamish M. (1990). British Foreign Policy in the Age of the American Revolution. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820195-3. , p. 264-72
^ Jump up to: a b Cf., Richard Pares, (1936): 429–65
Jump up ^ Syrett, David (1998). The Royal Navy in European Waters During the American Revolutionary War. Univ of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-238-7. , p. 18
^ Jump up to: a b c Ketchum (1997), p. 405–448
^ Jump up to: a b c d Higginbotham (1983), pp. 175–88
Jump up ^ Trevelyan (1912), vol. 1, p. 4., p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 (Boston:Little, Brown, 1890), p. 534
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, pp. 28–32
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, pp. 42–62
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, pp. 95–138
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, pp. 62–69
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, pp. 88–91, 151–152, 164
Jump up ^ Nickerson, Hoffman (1967) [1928]. The Turning Point of the Revolution. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat. OCLC 549809. , p. 412
Jump up ^ Chartrand, René (2006). Gibraltar 1779–83: The Great Siege. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-977-6. Retrieved 16 November 2015. , p. 9
Jump up ^ Harvey, Robert (2001), A Few Bloody Noses: The American War of Independence, London, ISBN 0719561418, OCLC 46513518 , p. 385-87
Jump up ^ Chartrand, René (2006). Gibraltar 1779–83: The Great Siege. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-977-6. Retrieved 16 November 2015. , p. 37
Jump up ^ Selig, Robert A; et al. (1999), "5, sect 3", Rochambeau in Connecticut, Connecticut Historical Commission, retrieved 7 December 2007 [permanent dead link].
Jump up ^ Patterson, Alfred Temple (1960), The Other Armada: The Franco-Spanish attempt to invade Britain in 1779, Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press , p. 3
Jump up ^ "Bonhomme Richard". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Black, Jeremy (1992). "Naval Power, Strategy and Foreign Policy, 1775-1791". In Michael Duffy (Ed.). Parameters of British Naval Power, 1650–1850. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press. pp. 95–120; here: p. 105. ISBN 978-0-85989-385-5. Retrieved 12 April 2013. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Jump up ^ Volo, M. James. Blue Water Patriots: The American Revolution Afloat, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (2008) ISBN 978-0-7425-6120-5, p. 77
Jump up ^ Campbell, Thomas. Annals of Great Britain from the ascension of George III to the peace of Amiens, Printed by Mundell and co., for Silvester Doig and Andrew Stirling (1811)., p.56
Jump up ^ Gordon, William. The history of the rise, progress, and establishment of the Independence of the United States of America, Books for Libraries Press (1969) ISBN 978-0-8369-5024-3, p. 4
Jump up ^ Campbell p.36
Jump up ^ Syrett, p.136
Jump up ^ Parkinson N, C. The Trade Winds: A Study of British Overseas Trade during the French wars, 1793–1815. Routledge; Reprint edition. ISBN 978-0-415-38191-8, p.38
Jump up ^ Syrett, p. 136
Jump up ^ The encyclopaedia of London, p.483
Jump up ^ Guthrie, William. A New Geographical, Historical And Commercial Grammar And Present State Of The World.Complete With 30 Fold Out Maps – All Present. J. Johnson Publishing (1808), p. 354, OCLC 222956803
Jump up ^ Ramsay, David. Universal History Americanized, or an Historical View of the World from the Earliest Records to the Nineteenth Century, with a Particular Reference to the State of Society, Literature, Religion, and Form of Government of the United States of America. Vol. VI (1819), p. 184
Jump up ^ Mirza, Rocky M. (2007). The Rise and Fall of the American Empire: A Re-Interpretation of History, Economics and Philosophy: 1492–2006. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4251-1383-4. Retrieved 14 November 2015. , p. 185
Jump up ^ Boromé, Joseph (January 1969). "Dominica during French Occupation, 1778–1784". The English Historical Review (Volume 884, No. 330): 36–58. JSTOR 562321.
Jump up ^ Mirza, p. 185
Jump up ^ Mahan, pp. 429–432
Jump up ^ Colomb, Philip (1895). Naval Warfare, its Ruling Principles and Practice Historically Treated. London: W. H. Allen. OCLC 2863262. , pp. 388–389
Jump up ^ Colomb, 389–391
Jump up ^ Castex, Jean-Claude (2004). Dictionnaire des batailles navales franco-anglaises. Presses Université Laval. ISBN 978-2-7637-8061-0. , pp. 196–199
Jump up ^ Mahan, pp. 438–439
Jump up ^ Jaques, Tony (2007) Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978-0-313-33538-9., p. 638
Jump up ^ Sweetman, Jack (1997) The great admirals: command at sea, 1587–1945. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press ISBN 978-0-87021-229-1., p. 146
Jump up ^ Gayarré, Charles (1867). History of Louisiana : The Spanish domination, Volume 3. New York: Widdleton. OCLC 1855106. , p. 122
Jump up ^ Gayarré, pp. 125–126
^ Jump up to: a b Gayarré, p. 126
Jump up ^ Gayarré, p. 129
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Peter Joseph (1897). Colonial Mobile. Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 9296191. , p. 255
Jump up ^ Bense, Judith Ann (1999). Archaeology of colonial Pensacola. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1661-0. OCLC 40444062. , p. 36
Jump up ^ Chávez, Thomas E (2004). Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-2794-9. OCLC 149117944. , p. 151
Jump up ^ Chávez, p. 152
Jump up ^ Chávez, p. 153
Jump up ^ Chávez, p. 158
Jump up ^ Southey, Robert (2007). The Life of Horatio Lord Nelson. Teddington, UK: Echo Library. ISBN 978-1-4068-3003-3. , p. 9
^ Jump up to: a b Southey p.10
Jump up ^ de Saavedra de Sangronis, Francisco; Francisco Morales Padrón (2004). Diario de don Francisco de Saavedra. Madrid, Spain: Universidad de Sevilla. ISBN 978-84-472-0782-4. , p. 73
Jump up ^ Coleman, Terry (2004). The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend of Horatio Nelson. London, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517322-2. , p. 32
Jump up ^ Linebaugh, Peter; Rediker, Marcus (2005). La hidra de la revolución: marineros, esclavos y campesinos en la historia oculta del Atlántico. Editorial Critica. ISBN 978-84-8432-601-4. , p. 307
Jump up ^ Sudgen, John (2004). Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 1758–1797. New York, USA: Holt. ISBN 0-224-06097-X. , p. 173
Jump up ^ Riddick, John F. (2006). The History of British India: A Chronology. Greenwood Publishing Group. , p. 23-25
Jump up ^ Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South Asia. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1344-1. , p. 79
Jump up ^ "History of Mahé". Archived from the original on December 30, 2013. Retrieved June 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Almon, John; Deberett, John & Stockdale, John (1793). The Parliamentary Register; or History of the Proceedings and Debates of the House of Commons. New York Public Library. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) , p.56
Jump up ^ Cust, Eduard. (1862). "Annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century, Compiled from the Most Authentic Histories of the Period" Volume 3, University of Lausanne., p. 222
Jump up ^ Dalrymple, William (1 October 2005). "ASSIMILATION AND TRANSCULTURATION IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY INDIA: A Response to Pankaj Mishra". Common Knowledge. 11 (3): 445–485. doi:10.1215/0961754X-11-3-445. Retrieved 2 June 2017. As late as 1780, following the disastrous British defeat by Tipu Sultan of Mysore at the Battle of Pollilur, 7,000 British men, along with an unknown number of women, were held captive by Tipu in his sophisticated fortress of Seringapatam.
Jump up ^ Ramaswami, N.S. (1984). Political History of Carnatic under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 225
Jump up ^ Barua, p. 80
Jump up ^ Morrissey, p. 77
Jump up ^ Daughan, George (2011) [2008]. If By Sea: The Forging of the American Navy—from the Revolution to the War of 1812. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02514-5. OCLC 701015376. , pp.174–175
Jump up ^ Morrissey, p. 78
Jump up ^ Dearden, Paul F (1980). The Rhode Island Campaign of 1778. Providence, RI: Rhode Island Bicentennial Federation. ISBN 978-0-917012-17-4. OCLC 60041024. , p.102-106
Jump up ^ Hazard's Register of Pennsylvania: Devoted to the Preservation of Facts and Documents, and Every Kind of Useful Information Respecting the State of Pennsylvania, Volume 4. W.F. Geddes. 1829. p. 54.
Jump up ^ Eaton, Harry (1899). Jersey City and its historic sites. Jersey City, NJ: The Woman's Club. OCLC 6340873.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Paul David (1990). William Tryon and the course of empire: a life in British imperial service. UNC Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-1917-3. , p. 170
Jump up ^ Bicheno, Hugh (2003). Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolutionary War. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-715625-2. OCLC 51963515. , p. 149
Jump up ^ Fischer, Joseph R. (2007). "A Well Executed Failure: The Sullivan campaign against the Iroquois, July–September 1779". Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-837-2.
Jump up ^ Alfred Creigh (1871). History of Washington County. B. Singerly. p. 49.
Jump up ^ Tolson, Jay (July 7–14, 2008). How Washington's Savvy Won the Day. U.S. News & World Report.
Jump up ^ Flexner, James Thomas (April 1984). "Washington "The Indispensable Man"": 154.
Jump up ^ Ketchum, pp. 8,12
Jump up ^ Fleming, Thomas (1973). The Forgotten Victory: The Battle for New Jersey – 1780. New York: Reader's Digest Press. ISBN 0-88349-003-X. , p. 174-175
Jump up ^ Fleming, p. 232, 302
Jump up ^ "July 15, 1780 – Benedict Arnold to John André (Code)", Spy Letters of the American Revolution — from the Collection of the Clements Collection, archived from the original on April 8, 2013, retrieved May 30, 2017
Jump up ^ Willard M. Wallace, Traitorous Hero: The Life and Fortunes of Benedict Arnold (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954), p. 263, 270
Jump up ^ Downes, Council Fires, 211; Nester, Frontier War, 194; Nelson, Man of Distinction, 101.
Jump up ^ James, James Alton, ed. George Rogers Clark Papers. 2 vols. Originally published 1912–1926. Reprinted New York: AMS Press, 1972. ISBN 0-404-01556-5, p. 144-48
Jump up ^ Lowell Hayes Harrison, George Rogers Clark and the War in the West (2001).
Jump up ^ Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-84566-1., p. 159. Grenier argues that "The slaughter the Indians and rangers perpetrated was unprecedented."
Jump up ^ Nelson, Larry L. A Man of Distinction among Them: Alexander McKee and the Ohio Country Frontier, 1754–1799. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87338-620-5 (hardcover). p. 118
Jump up ^ Gaff, Alan D. (2004). Bayonets in the Wilderness. Anthony Waynes Legion in the Old Northwest. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3585-9.
Jump up ^ Scaggs, David Curtis, ed. The Old Northwest in the American Revolution: An Anthology. Madison: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1977. ISBN 0-87020-164-6, p. 132
^ Jump up to: a b Ritcheson, C.; "Loyalist Influence on British Policy Toward the United States After the American Revolution"; Eighteenth-Century Studies; Vol. 7, No. 1; Autumn, 1973; p. 6. Jstor link
^ Jump up to: a b Wickwire; Cornwallis, the American Adventure; p.315.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Letter from Cornwallis to Clinton, August 6th 1780", Clinton Papers; Clements Library, University of Michigan.
Jump up ^ Henry Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000).
Jump up ^ Wood, Virginia Steele (2006). "The Georgia Navy's Dramatic Victory of April 19, 1778". Georgia Historical Quarterly. 90 (2): 165–195. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Morrill, Dan (1993). Southern Campaigns of the American Revolution. Baltimore, MD: Nautical & Aviation Publishing. ISBN 978-1-877853-21-0. OCLC 231619453. , p. 46-47
Jump up ^ Morrill (1993), p. 48-50
Jump up ^ Wilson, David K (2005). The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-573-3. OCLC 232001108. , p. 112
Jump up ^ Hibbert, C.; Rebels and Redcoats; p. 246
Jump up ^ [3], The American Revolution in South Carolina
Jump up ^ John W. Gordon and John Keegan, South Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History (2007).
Jump up ^ Mackey, The War for America, 1964
Jump up ^ Scoggins, Michael C (2005). The Day It Rained Militia: Huck's Defeat and the Revolution in the South Carolina Backcountry, May–July 1780. Charleston, SC: The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-015-0. OCLC 60189717. , p. 46
Jump up ^ Shelton, Kenneth, All That Dare Oppose Them: The Whig Victory at Mobley's Meeting House, June 1780, (2005)
Jump up ^ "The Battle of Ramsaur's Mill • The North Carolina Booklet 4:2 (1904)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2016-08-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael C. Scoggins, The Day It Rained Militia: Huck's Defeat and the Revolution in the South Carolina Backcountry, May–July 1780 (Charleston: The History Press, 2005)
Jump up ^ O. C. Stonestreet IV, The Battle of Colson's Mill: Death Knell of the Carolina Tories, (Createspace Publishing, 2014) pp.67–70. ISBN 9781499173888
Jump up ^ Hugh F. Rankin, North Carolina in the American Revolution (1996).
Jump up ^ Buchanan, John (1997). The Road To Guilford Court House: The American Revolution in the Carolinas. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-32716-6. , p. 202
^ Jump up to: a b c Buchanan, p. 241
Jump up ^ Buchanan, p. 275
Jump up ^ Buchanan, p. 292
^ Jump up to: a b Buchanan, p. 326
^ Jump up to: a b Clinton, H.; The American Rebellion; 1783
Jump up ^ Trevelyan, Sir George Otto (1914). George the Third and Charles Fox: The Concluding Part of The American Revolution. New York and elsewhere: Longmans, Green and Co.
^ Jump up to: a b McGrath, Nick. "Battle of Guilford Courthouse". George Washington’s Mount Vernon: Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. Retrieved January 26, 2017. In three hours, Cornwallis’s army took possession of the field, but it was a Pyrrhic victory.... Cornwallis could not afford the casualties his army sustained, and withdrew to Wilmington. By doing so, Cornwallis ceded control of the countryside to the Continentals.
Jump up ^ Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000).
Jump up ^ Greene, Francis Vinton D. General Greene, Appleton and Company 1893, p. 241
Jump up ^ Pancake, John (1985). This Destructive War. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0191-7.
Jump up ^ C. Cate, Alan (2006). Founding Fighters: The Battlefield Leaders who Made American Independence. Greenwood Publishing Group. , p. 162
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Jr., William R. (2012). Andrew Pickens: South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War. Jefferson NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-6694-8.
Jump up ^ Pancake, John (1985). This Destructive War. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0191-7. , p. 221
^ Jump up to: a b Bicheno, H: Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolutionary War, London, 2003
^ Jump up to: a b Cornwallis; An Answer to Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative. Note: Cornwallis wrote this pamphlet shortly after the war in explanation of his actions.
^ Jump up to: a b Cornwallis Correspondence, Public Record Office
Jump up ^ Clinton, H.; The American Rebellion. Note: This lack of notification was one of Clinton's main arguments in his own defense in the controversy which followed the surrender at Yorktown.
Jump up ^ Grainger, John (2005). The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: a Reassessment. Woodbridge, NJ: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-137-2. OCLC 232006312. , p. 29
^ Jump up to: a b Billias, George (1969). George Washington's Generals and Opponents: their Exploits and Leadership. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80560-8. OCLC 229206429. , p. 267-275
Jump up ^ Dull, Jonathan R (1975). The French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774–1787. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06920-3. OCLC 1500030. , p. 247-248
Jump up ^ Grainger, p. 40
Jump up ^ Dull, p. 241
Jump up ^ Ketchum, p. 139
Jump up ^ Grainger, p. 43-44
Jump up ^ Michael Cecere, Great Things are Expected from the Virginians: Virginia in the American Revolution (2009).
Jump up ^ Johnston, Henry Phelps (1881). The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781. New York: Harper & Bros. OCLC 426009. , p. 101
Jump up ^ Middleton, Richard (2014). "Naval Resources and the British Defeat at Yorktown, 1781". The Mariner's Mirror. 100 (1): 29–43. doi:10.1080/00253359.2014.866373.
Jump up ^ Duffy, Michael (1992). Parameters of British Naval Power, 1650–1850. University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-385-5. Retrieved 8 February 2016. , p. 110
^ Jump up to: a b Ketchum, p. 205
Jump up ^ Wickwire, Franklin and Mary (1970). Cornwallis: The American Adventure. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 62690. , p. 362
Jump up ^ Ketchum, p. 214
Jump up ^ Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random House Paperbacks. ISBN 0-8129-6950-2. , p. 337
Jump up ^ Davis, Burke (2007). The Campaign that Won America. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-8368-5393-3. , p. 237
Jump up ^ Fleming, Thomas (1970). The Perils of Peace. New York: The Dial Press. ISBN 978-0-06-113911-6. , p. 16
Jump up ^ Greene, pp. 307–308
Jump up ^ Ketchum, p. 241
Jump up ^ Richard Ferrie, The World Turned Upside Down: George Washington and the Battle of Yorktown (1999).
Jump up ^ Rodger, N.A.M. Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815, (2007), p. 343
Jump up ^ Brayley, Edward Wedlake; James Norris Brewer; Joseph Nightingale (1810). London and Middlesex. Printed by W. Wilson, for Vernor, Hood, and Sharpe.
Jump up ^ http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-gordon-riots-of-1780-london-in-flames-a-nation-in-ruins
Jump up ^ Rogers p.152
Jump up ^ Hallahan, William (2004). The Day the Revolution Ended. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-26240-4. OCLC 249579015. , p.249
Jump up ^ Hallahan, p. 250
Jump up ^ Hallahan, p. 251
Jump up ^ "British Parliament Votes To End War With America!". Norwich Mercury. W. Chase. 1782-03-02.
Jump up ^ Larrabee, Harold A (1964). Decision at the Chesapeake. New York: Clarkson N. Potter. OCLC 426234. , p. 279-280
Jump up ^ Greene, Jerome (2005). The Guns of Independence: The Siege of Yorktown, 1781. New York: Savas Beatie. ISBN 1-932714-05-7. OCLC 60642656. , p. 325
Jump up ^ Fleming, Thomas. The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival After Yorktown. First Smithsonian books, 2008. p.179-180
^ Jump up to: a b "Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham". Past Prime Ministers. UK Government.
Jump up ^ Mackesy, p. 435.
Jump up ^ Hallahan, p. 245
^ Jump up to: a b Greene, p. 325
Jump up ^ Dirks, J. J. B. (1871), De Nederlandsche Zeemagt in Hare verschillende Tijdperken Geschetst. Deel 3 (in Dutch), Rotterdam: H. Nijgh , p. 291
Jump up ^ Edler, pp. 169–176
Jump up ^ Edler, F. (2001) [1911], The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution, Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific, ISBN 0-89875-269-8 , p.193-198
Jump up ^ Edler, p. 200-203
Jump up ^ Davies, Charles Maurice. The history of Holland and the Dutch nation, Volume 3
Jump up ^ Syrett p. 131
Jump up ^ Maj Gen Porter. History of the Corps of Royal Engineers. p. 208.
Jump up ^ Chartrand, Rene. The French Army in the American War of Independence (1994), p. 54-56
Jump up ^ Stockley, p. 19
Jump up ^ "Bajas españolas de las baterías flotantes del ataque a Gibraltar el 13 de septiembre de 1782", Gaceta de Madrid (in Spanish), Todo a Babor, retrieved 11 March 2010 .
Jump up ^ Chartrand p.84
Jump up ^ Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1901). Armada Española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón. VII. Madrid, Spain: Sucesores de Rivadeneyra., p. 329
Jump up ^ (3 years, 7 months and 2 weeks)
Jump up ^ Syrett (2006), p. 105
Jump up ^ Chartrand, René; Courcelle, Patrice (2006), Gibraltar 1779–1783: The Great Siege, Gibraltar: Osprey, ISBN 978-1-84176-977-6, archived from the original on September 27, 2007 , p. 86
Jump up ^ Castex, Jean-Claude (2004). Dictionnaire des batailles navales franco-anglaises. Presses Université Laval. ISBN 978-2-7637-8061-0., p. 175-176
Jump up ^ De Grasse, François Joseph Paul. The Operations of the French fleet under the Count de Grasse in 1781-2
Jump up ^ Henry, Dalton G. (1855) The History of British Guiana: Comprising a General Description of the Colony: A narrative of some of the principal events from the earliest period of products and natural history., p.239
Jump up ^ David F. Marley. Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World, 1492 to the Present ABC-CLIO (1998) ISBN 0-87436-837-5, p. 182
Jump up ^ Jaques, Hood arrived and repulsed de Grasse with victory at sea off Basseterre p. 881
Jump up ^ Black p.59
Jump up ^ Dull, Jonathan. (1985) "A diplomatic history of the American Revolution", ISBN 978-0-3000-3886-6, p. 244
^ Jump up to: a b O'Shaughnessy p. 208
Jump up ^ Trew, Peter. (2005), "Rodney and the Breaking of the Line", Published by Leo Cooper Ltd. ISBN 978-1-8441-5143-1, p. 154-55
Jump up ^ Trew p. 157-62
Jump up ^ Mahan, Alfred T. (1898). Major Operations of the Royal Navy, 1762–1783: Being Chapter XXXI in The Royal Navy. A History. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 46778589. , p. 205-226
Jump up ^ Black, Jeremy (1999). Warfare in the Eighteenth Century. London: Cassell. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-304-35245-6.
Jump up ^ O'Shaughnessy p. 314
Jump up ^ Mahan, p. 225-226
Jump up ^ Nester, William R (2004). The frontier war for American independence. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-0077-1, p. 291
Jump up ^ Nester, p. 291
Jump up ^ Bense, Judith Ann (1999). Archaeology of colonial Pensacola. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1661-0, p. 36
Jump up ^ Dupuy, R. Ernest; Hammerman, Gay; Hayes, Grace P (1977). The American Revolution: A Global War. New York: David McKay. ISBN 0-679-50648-9, p. 151
Jump up ^ Caughey pp. 209–211
Jump up ^ Chavez, Thomas E. Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift, University of New Mexico Press, 2003., p.208
Jump up ^ Marley, David. Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World, 1492 to the Present, ABC-CLIO (1998). ISBN 0-87436-837-5, p. 346
Jump up ^ Chávez, p. 151
Jump up ^ Chávez, p. 163
Jump up ^ Chávez, p. 165
Jump up ^ Jay, Mike, The Unfortunate Colonel Despard, Bantam Press, 2004 ISBN 0-593-05195-5, p. 93
^ Jump up to: a b Chavez, p. 165
Jump up ^ Edler, F. (2001) [1911]. The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 0-89875-269-8.
Jump up ^ Edler, p. 184
Jump up ^ Lohuizen, Jan (1961). The Dutch East India Company and Mysore, 1762–1790. 's-Gravenhage: M. Nijhoff, p. 117
Jump up ^ Nicolas, Paul Harris (1845). Historical record of the Royal Marine Forces, Volume 2. London: Thomas and William Boone. , p. 124
Jump up ^ Castex (2004), p. 340-344
Jump up ^ Castex (p. 315) calls this a French victory, on account of more severe damage to Hughes' fleet. Mahan (p. 566) does not explicitly designate a victor.
Jump up ^ Castex (2004), pp. 269–272
Jump up ^ Sweetman, Jack (1997). The Great Admirals: Command at Sea, 1587–1945. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9780870212291., p. 176
Jump up ^ Fredriksen, John C (2006). Revolutionary War Almanac Almanacs of American wars Facts on File library of American history. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9780816074686., p. 229
Jump up ^ Malleson, George Bruce (1884). Final French Struggles in India and on the Indian Seas. W.H. Allen.
Jump up ^ Vibart, H. M (1881). The military history of the Madras engineers and pioneers, from 1743 up to the present time, Volume 1
Jump up ^ Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 174. ISBN 9788131300343.
Jump up ^ Wilks, Mark. "Historical Sketches of the South of India, in an Attempt to Trace the History of Mysoor" (PDF). Retrieved 4 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Singh, Sarbans (1993). Battle Honours of the Indian Army 1757 – 1971. New Delhi: Vision Books. pp. 102–103. ISBN 8170941156.
Jump up ^ Vibart, H.M. (1881). The Military History of the Madras Engineers and Pioneers, from 1743 up to the present time (Volume 1). London: W.H. Allen & Co. pp. 158–159. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp. 173–175. ISBN 9788131300343.
Jump up ^ Lohuizen, p. 115
Jump up ^ Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar Books. p. 21. ISBN 8187879572. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar Books. p. 24. ISBN 8187879572. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Fortescue, John (1902). A history of the British army. Volume 3. pp. 483–489.
Jump up ^ Fortescue, Sir John William (1902), A history of the British army, 3, Macmillan, pp. 481–485
Jump up ^ Paine, Lincoln P. (2000). Warships of the world to 1900. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-395-98414-7., p. 75
Jump up ^ Mahan, p. 416
Jump up ^ Hagan, Kenneth J. (16 October 2009). "The birth of American naval strategy". In Hagan, Kenneth J.; McMaster, Michael T.; Stoker, Donald. Strategy in the American War of Independence: A Global Approach. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-21039-8. , p. 51
Jump up ^ Fortescue, p. 483-489
Jump up ^ Jerome R. Reich (1997). British friends of the American Revolution. M.E. Sharpe. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-7656-0074-5.
Jump up ^ Rideau, Roger. A Brief History of Canada. Facts on File. p. 79.
Jump up ^ Fiske, John The Critical Period of American History 1783–1789 Archived August 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Boston, Houghton Mifflin (1896), via unimelb.edu.au— accessed 2008-01-11
Jump up ^ Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea." Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61#2–4 (1989): 46–63.
Jump up ^ Charles R. Ritcheson, "The Earl of Shelbourne and Peace with America, 1782–1783: Vision and Reality." International History Review 5#3 (1983): 322–345.
Jump up ^ William E. Lass (1980). Minnesota's Boundary with Canada: Its Evolution Since 1783. Minnesota Historical Society. pp. 63–70.
Jump up ^ Jonathan R. Dull (1987). A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution. Yale UP. pp. 144–151.
Jump up ^ Charles R. Ritcheson, "The Earl of Shelbourne and Peace with America, 1782–1783: Vision and Reality." International History Review (1983) 5#3 pp: 322–345. online
Jump up ^ Quote from Thomas Paterson, J. Garry Clifford and Shane J. Maddock, American foreign relations: A history, to 1920 (2009) vol 1 p 20
Jump up ^ Benn (1993), p. 17.
Jump up ^ Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea" Northwest Ohio Quarterly 1989 61(2–4): 46–63.
Jump up ^ Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783–1842. U of Toronto Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780802083586.
Jump up ^ Frances G, Davenport and Charles O. Paullin, European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies (1917) vol 1 p vii
Jump up ^ Dull, p. 321
Jump up ^ Dull, p. 327-331
Jump up ^ Lawrence S. Kaplan, "The Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge", International History Review, September 1983, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp 431–42.
Jump up ^ Stone, Bailey. The Genesis of the French Revolution: A Global-historical Interpretation, UK, Cambridge University Press (1994).
Jump up ^ Gerald Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, Britain in the Hanoverian age, 1714–1837 (1997) p. 533
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, 181–189
Jump up ^ W., Francis (2002). Gazetteer of South India, Volume 1. Mittal Publications. , p. 161
Jump up ^ Dwight L. Smith, "Josiah Harmar, Diplomatic Courier." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 87.4 (1963): 420–430.
Jump up ^ Richard Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (1983).
Jump up ^ Ellis (2004), p. 87.
Jump up ^ American dead and wounded: Shy, pp. 249–50. The lower figure for number of wounded comes from Chambers, p. 849.
Jump up ^ The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Volume 27 (1903), p. 176.
^ Jump up to: a b "Scurvy". GARD. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Vale, Brian (2008). "The Conquest of Scurvy in the Royal Navy 1793–1800: a Challenge to Current Orthodoxy". The Mariner's Mirror. 94: 160–175.
Jump up ^ Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen).
Jump up ^ Conway (1995) p. 191
^ Jump up to: a b John Pike (October 18, 1907). "Privateers". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved May 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ Marston, Daniel. The American Revolution 1774–1783. Osprey Publishing (2002) ISBN 978-1-84176-343-9. p. 82
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975  . doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. JSTOR 2123771 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)). There is an overwhelming consensus that Americans' economic standard of living on the eve of the Revolution was among the highest in the world.
^ Jump up to: a b Greene and Pole, eds., A Companion to the American Revolution (2004) chapters 42, 48
Jump up ^ Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 (1962) pp 23–44
Jump up ^ "Not worth a continental Archived July 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.", "Creating the United States", Library of Congress. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Trescott, Paul. "Federal-State Financial Relations, 1790–1860". 15: 227–45.
Jump up ^ David Kennedy; et al. (2011). The Brief American Pageant: A History of the Republic, Volume I: To 1877. Cengage Learning. p. 136. ISBN 0495915351.
Jump up ^ Robert Tombs and Isabelle Tombs (2006). That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present. Knopf Doubleday. p. 179. ISBN 9781400040247.
Jump up ^ Conway, Stephen. The War of American Independence 1775–1783. Publisher: E. Arnold (1995) ISBN 0-340-62520-1. 280 pages.
Jump up ^ Schiff, Stacy (2006). A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America. Macmillan. p. 5. ISBN 9781429907996.
Jump up ^ Conway (1995) p. 242
Jump up ^ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p. 81, 119
Jump up ^ Marston (2002) p. 82
Jump up ^ Tombs (2007) p. 179
Jump up ^ Stacy Schiff (2006). A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America. Macmillan. p. 5. ISBN 9781429907996.
Jump up ^ Lynch, John. Bourbon Spain 1700–1808. Publisher: Oxford (1989) ISBN 978-0-631-19245-9. p. 326
Jump up ^ Castillero Calvo, Alfredo (2004). Las Rutas de la Plata: La Primera Globalización. Madrid: Ediciones San Marcos. ISBN 84-89127-47-6., p. 193
Jump up ^ Mulhall, Michael G., Mulhall's Dictionary of Statistics (1884), p. 357.
Jump up ^ Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics U.S. Census Bureau.
Jump up ^ Clode, Charles Matthew (1869), "The Military Forces of the Crown: Their Administration and Government", London, J Murray, p. 268. Note: Figures include the 41st regiment of invalids, but not the 20 independent companies on garrison duty. Troops in India were under the control of the East India Company, and did not become part of the British Army until 1858.
Jump up ^ The Oxford Companion to British History (2 ed.).
Jump up ^ Plant, David, Rule of the Major-Generals, British Civil Wars and Commonwealth website, retrieved June 9, 2017
Jump up ^ Rodger, N.A.M (2004). The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-393-06050-8, p. 137
Jump up ^ "The March of the Guards to Finchley; 18th Century Recruitment". Umich education.
Jump up ^ Belcher, Henry (1911), "The First American Civil War; First Period, 1775–1778, with chapters on the Continental or Revolutionary army and on the forces of the Crown", Volume 1, London Macmillan, p. 250, 258
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 1:992–1008, passim
Jump up ^ War Officer Papers, 4:275, Jenkinson to Clinton, 5 Dec. 1780
Jump up ^ 9th Report on Public Accounts (1783) in 39 House of Commons Journal, H.M. Stationery Office, 1803, pp. 325–344
Jump up ^ Plant, David, "The New Model Army", BCW Project, http://bcw-project.org/military/new-model-army, Retrieved 9 June 2017
Jump up ^ Fortescue, Volume III, p. 41
Jump up ^ Owen, Captain Wheeler (1914), "The War Office Past and Present", Methuen & Co. London, p. 90
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, 3:5, Harvey to Elliot, 10 March 1775
Jump up ^ Clode, Volume II, p.13-14
Jump up ^ Statutes at Large, Ruffhead's Edition (London, 1763–1800), Volume XIII, p. 273-280
Jump up ^ Statutes at Large, Ruffhead's Edition, Volume XIII, p. 316-317
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, 4:966, Jenkinson to John Livesey and E. Brewer, 13 Apr. 1779
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, 1:996, Sir William Codrington to Barrington, December 1778
Jump up ^ War Office Papers. 1:998, Lieutenant General Parker to Barrington, 19 June 1778.
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, 1:1005, Oughton to Jenkinson, 27 May 1779
Jump up ^ Andrews, Charles McLean (1912), "Guide to the materials for American history, to 1783, in the Public record office of Great Britain", Washington, D.C., Carnegie institution of Washington, Volume II, p. 32
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, 4:966, Jenkinson to Amherst, 26 Oct. 1779
Jump up ^ Jonathan Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (Yale University Press, 1985), p. 110.
Jump up ^ Winfield, Rif, British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1714–1792 (Seaforth Publishing, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-700-6
Jump up ^ Winfield, Rif, British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714–1792: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates (Seaforth Publishing, 2007)
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers. Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 5:92, Dartmouth to Howe, 5 Sept. 1775
Jump up ^ Edler 2001, pp. 28–32
Jump up ^ Knesebeck, Ernst von dem (1845), "Geschichte de churhannoverschen Truppen in Gibraltar, Menorca und Ostindien", Published by Im Verlage der Helwingschen Hof-Buchhandlung. Note: The strength of a Hanoverian battalion is listed as 473 men
^ Jump up to: a b Black (2001), p. 59. On militia see Boatner (1974), p. 707, and Weigley (1973), ch. 2.
Jump up ^ "Lord Dunmore's Proclamation". Digital History. 2007-10-18. Archived from the original on April 22, 2008. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ Buchanan, 327
Jump up ^ Babits, page 46, "British Legion Infantry strength at Cowpens was between 200 and 271 enlisted men". However, this statement is referenced to a note on pages 175–176, which says, "The British Legion infantry at Cowpens is usually considered to have had about 200–250 men, but returns for the 25 December 1780 muster show only 175. Totals obtained by Cornwallis, dated 15 January, show that the whole legion had 451 men, but approximately 250 were dragoons". There would therefore appear to be no evidence for putting the total strength of the five British Legion Light Infantry companies at more than 200.
Jump up ^ Review by: Hugh F. Rankin; Reviewed Work: The Green Dragoon: The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson by Robert D. Bass, The North Carolina Historical Review, Vol. 34, No. 4 (October, 1957), pp. 548–550
Jump up ^ Bass, Robert.D (August 1957). "The Green Dragoon: The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson ". North Carolina Office of Archives and History. JSTOR 23517100.
Jump up ^ Agniel, Lucien (June 1972). "The Late Affair Has Almost Broke My Heart: The American Revolution in the South, 1780–1781". Chatham Press. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), p. 76
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), p. 77
Jump up ^ Duffy, Christopher. The Military Experience in the Age of Reason. p. 61. ISBN 1-85326-690-6.
Jump up ^ Forteseue, The British Army, 1783–1802, p. 34
Jump up ^ Armatys, John; Cordery, Robert George (2005). "The Purchase of Officers' Commissions in the British Army". Colonial Wargames. Archived from the original on July 28, 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Belcher, Volume I, p. 270
Jump up ^ Michael Lanning (2009). American Revolution 100: The Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Significance. Sourcebooks. pp. 193–96. ISBN 9781402241703.
Jump up ^ Duncan, Volume II, p. 15
Jump up ^ Duncan, Francis (1879). "History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery", Volume 1. J. Murray, p. 131, 303, 309
Jump up ^ Sergeant Lamb, "Journal of the American War", p. 75
Jump up ^ Duncan, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Volume 2, p. 15
Jump up ^ Burgoyne, State of the Expedition, p. 148
Jump up ^ "Battle of Monmouth Courthouse". Robinson Library. Self-published. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Lloyd, Ernest Marsh (1908), Review of the History of Infantry, p. 155
Jump up ^ Howe, William, Orderly Book, p. 116
Jump up ^ Howe, Orderly Book, 20 June 1777, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Trevelyan, Volume III, p. 6; Volume IV, p. 158
Jump up ^ Fortescue, The British Army, 1783–1802, p. 83.
Jump up ^ Sawyer, Charles Winthrop (1910), "Firearms in American History", p. 99
Jump up ^ Trevelyan, Volume IV, p. 224
Jump up ^ Trevelyan, Volume IV, p.34
Jump up ^ Minute Book of a Board of General Officers of the British Army in New York, 1781. New York Historical Society Collections, 1916, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Black (2001), p. 14
Jump up ^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North, Volume II, p. 7, 52
^ Jump up to: a b Minute Book (1916), p. 81
Jump up ^ War Office Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 1:51, Graham to Jenkinson, 13 September and 23 November 1779; 1:51, Vaughan to Jenkinson, 2 November 1780
Jump up ^ Treasury Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 64:118, Chamier to Robinson, 9 Nov 1776
Jump up ^ Treasury Papers, 64:103, Day to Robinson, 22 Aug. 1777
Jump up ^ Treasury Papers, 64:200, Marsh to Navy Board, 17 Dec 1779
Jump up ^ Treasury Papers, 64:120, Paumier to Robinson, 20 June & 7 August 1779
Jump up ^ Treasury Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 64:201, Wier to Robinson, 14 September 1780
Jump up ^ "Ships Biscuits – Royal Navy hardtack". Royal Navy Museum. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
Jump up ^ "19th United States Infantry". 19thusregulars.com. Archived from the original on July 15, 2012. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
Jump up ^ Lowell, Edward J and Andrews, Raymond J (June 15, 1997) "The Hessians in the Revolutionary War", Corner House Pub, ISBN 978-0879281168, p. 56
Jump up ^ Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7, p. 77
Jump up ^ Howe, (Sir) William, Orderly Book, edited by B. F. Stevens (London, 1890), pp. 263, 288
Jump up ^ Burgoyne, John, Orderly Book, edited by E. B. O'Callaghan (Albany, 1860), p. 74.
Jump up ^ Howe, Orderly Book, pp 263, 288
Jump up ^ "Life at sea in the age of sail". National Maritime Museum.
Jump up ^ Lamb, Memoir, p. 74
Jump up ^ Riedesel, Mrs. General, Letters and Journals, translated from the original German by W. L. Stone (Albany, 1867) p. 125
Jump up ^ Stedman, Charles, History of the American War (London, 1794), Volume I, p. 309
Jump up ^ Fortescue, The British Army, 1783–1802, p. 35
Jump up ^ Steven Schwamenfeld. "The Foundation of British Strength: National Identity and the Common British Soldier." Ph.D. diss., Florida State University 2007, p. 123-124
Jump up ^ Schwamenfeld (2007), p.123-124
Jump up ^ Schwamenfeld (2007), p. 123
Jump up ^ Clayton, Anthony (2007). The British Officer: Leading the Army from 1660 to the Present. Routledge. ISBN 178159287X, p. 65
Jump up ^ French, pp. 263–265
Jump up ^ Frothingham, p. 155
Jump up ^ Frothingham pp. 191, 194
Jump up ^ Frothingham, p. 156
Jump up ^ Ferling, 2015, p. 127-129
Jump up ^ John E. Ferling, Almost A Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence (2009), pp. 562–77.
^ Jump up to: a b Joseph J. Ellis (2013). Revolutionary Summer: The Birth of American Independence. Random House. ISBN 0307701220.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard W. Stewart, ed., American Military History Volume 1 The United States Army And The Forging Of A Nation, 1775–1917" (2005) ch 4 "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783" (2005), p. 103.
Jump up ^ Adams, Charles Francis, "Battle of Long Island", in American Historical Review (1895–1896), pp. 668–669.
Jump up ^ David McCullough (2006). 1776. p. 122.
Jump up ^ Black, Jeremy (1991). War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-06713-5. , p. 126
Jump up ^ Cadwalader, Richard McCall (1901). Observance of the One Hundred and Twenty-third Anniversary of the Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British Army. Fort Washington and the Encampment of White Marsh, November 2, 1777:. pp. 20–28. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Frothingham pp. 152–153
Jump up ^ Jackson, Kenneth T; Dunbar, David S (2005). Empire City: New York Through the Centuries. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10909-3, p. 20
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 5:93, Howe to Dartmouth, 1st December 1775
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:93, Howe to Germain, 7 June and 7 July 1776
Jump up ^ A View of the Evidence (London, 1783), p. 13
Jump up ^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North, Volume II, p. 57
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:93, Howe to Germain, 30 Nov 1776
Jump up ^ Stedman, American War, Volume I, p. 287
^ Jump up to: a b Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000).
Jump up ^ Trevelyan, Sir George Otto (1914). George the Third and Charles Fox: The Concluding Part of The American Revolution. New York and elsewhere: Longmans, Green and Co.
Jump up ^ Pancake, John (1985). This Destructive War. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0191-7., p. 221
Jump up ^ Clinton, H.; The American Rebellion. Note: This lack of notification was one of Clinton's main arguments in his own defense in the controversy that followed the surrender at Yorktown.
Jump up ^ Grainger, John (2005). The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: a Reassessment. Woodbridge, NJ: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-137-2. OCLC 232006312. , p. 29
Jump up ^ Wickwire, Franklin and Mary (1970). Cornwallis: The American Adventure. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 62690. p. 362
Jump up ^ Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random House Paperbacks. ISBN 0-8129-6950-2., p. 337
Jump up ^ Fleming, Thomas (1970). The Perils of Peace. New York: The Dial Press. ISBN 978-0-06-113911-6, p. 16
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:96, Clinton to Germain, 15 September 1778
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:97, Clinton to Germain, 15 December 1778
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:98, Haldimand to Clinton, 19 July and 29 August 1779
Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers, 5:100, Clinton to Germain, 31st October 1780
Jump up ^ Black (2001), p. 39; Greene and Pole (1999), pp. 298, 306
Jump up ^ Rossman, Vadim (2016), "Capital Cities: Varieties and Patterns of Development and Relocation", Taylor & Francis, ISBN 1317562852, p. 2
Jump up ^ Edward E. Curtis, The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution, Conclusion, (Yale U.P. 1926), [4] Retrieved 10 June 2017
Jump up ^ Black (2001), p. 14.
Jump up ^ Wilson, David K (2005). The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-573-3. OCLC 232001108. p. 112
Jump up ^ Black (2001), pp. 14–16 (Harsh methods), pp. 35, 38 (slaves and Indians), p. 16 (neutrals into revolutionaries).
Jump up ^ Leonard Woods Larabee, Conservatism in Early American History (1948) pp 164–65
Jump up ^ Calhoon, Robert M. The Loyalists in Revolutionary America, 1760–1781 (1973)
Jump up ^ Curtis, "The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution, Conclusion
Jump up ^ Lorenzo Sabine, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution, Vol. I (1864) p. 48; Sabine adds they were certainly wrong.
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole (1999), p. 235
Jump up ^ William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1891). A History of England: In the Eighteenth Century. p. 139.
Jump up ^ Black (2001), p. 12.
Jump up ^ Black (2001), p. 13–14.
Jump up ^ Ferling (2007), p. 294
Jump up ^ Dull, (1985) p. 244
Jump up ^ Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5.
Jump up ^ Pole and Greene, eds. Companion to the American Revolution, ch. 36–39.
Jump up ^ Trevelyan, p. 249.
Jump up ^ Ketchum (1997), pp. 405–48.
Jump up ^ Philander D. Chase. "Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von"; American National Biography Online (2000). Accessed January 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ferling, John (2007), pp. 294–95"
Jump up ^ "Establishment of the Navy, 13 October 1775". United States Navy. Retrieved November 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Crocker (2006), p. 51.
Jump up ^ "Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War". Usmm.org. Retrieved May 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ Higginbotham (1983), pp. 331–46.
Jump up ^ Boatner (1974), p. 264.
^ Jump up to: a b Duffy, Christopher (2005). Military Experience in the Age of Reason. London: Routledge. ISBN 0203976851. p. 13. In the original 1987 edition, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), pp. 64–69.
Jump up ^ Leslie Alexander (2010). Encyclopedia of African American History. ABC-CLIO. p. 356. ISBN 9781851097746.
Jump up ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73
Jump up ^ Kolchin, p.73
Jump up ^ William Weir (2004). The Encyclopedia of African American Military History. Prometheus Books. pp. 31–32. ISBN 9781615928316.
Jump up ^ Cassadra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution", William and Mary Quarterly (2005) 62#2 pp: 243–264. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.
Jump up ^ John Finger, Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 43–64.
Jump up ^ Ward, Harry M. (1999). The war for independence and the transformation of American society. Psychology Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-1-85728-656-4. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ O'Brien, Greg (April 30, 2008). Pre-removal Choctaw history: exploring new paths. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 123–126. ISBN 978-0-8061-3916-6. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ Cassandra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution", William and Mary Quarterly 2005 62#2: 243–264.
Jump up ^ John N. Grant, "Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia, 1776–1815." Journal of Negro History (1973): 253–270. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ James W. St G. Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 (1992).
Jump up ^ William Baller, "Farm Families and the American Revolution," Journal of Family History (2006) 31(1): 28–44. ISSN 0363-1990. Fulltext: online in EBSCO.
Jump up ^ Michael A. McDonnell, "Class War: Class Struggles During the American Revolution in Virginia", William and Mary Quarterly 2006 63(2): 305–344. ISSN 0043-5597 Fulltext: online at History Cooperative.
Further reading
Black, Jeremy. War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783. 2001. Analysis from a noted British military historian.
Benn, Carl Historic Fort York, 1793–1993. Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd. 1993. ISBN 0-920474-79-9.
Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1. Military topics, references many secondary sources.
Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (Cambridge UP, 1995).
Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-507198-0.
Conway, Stephen. The British Isles and the War of American Independence (2002) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199254552.001.0001 online
Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 978-1-4000-5363-6.
Curtis, Edward E. The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution (Yale U.P. 1926) online
Duffy, Christopher. The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, 1715–1789 Routledge, 1987. ISBN 978-0-7102-1024-1.
Edler, Friedrich. The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution. University Press of the Pacific, 1911, reprinted 2001. ISBN 0-89875-269-8.
Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. (2004). ISBN 1-4000-4031-0.
David Hackett Fischer. Washington's Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-517034-2.
Fletcher, Charles Robert Leslie. An Introductory History of England: The Great European War, Volume 4. E.P. Dutton, 1909. OCLC 12063427.
Greene, Jack P. and Pole, J.R., eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999. ISBN 1-55786-547-7. Collection of essays focused on political and social history.
Gilbert, Alan. Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-226-29307-3.
Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. Northeastern University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-930350-44-8. Overview of military topics; online in ACLS History E-book Project.
Morrissey, Brendan. Monmouth Courthouse 1778: The Last Great Battle in the North. Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-772-7.
Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776. (2004)
Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989. ISBN 0-87023-663-6.
Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. Henry Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-4681-X.
Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 1775–1783. London, 1964. Reprinted University of Nebraska Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8032-8192-7. Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership.
McCullough, David. 1776. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005.
Middleton, Richard, The War of American Independence, 1775–1783. London: Pearson, 2012. ISBN 978-0-582-22942-6
Reynolds, Jr., William R. (2012). Andrew Pickens: South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War. Jefferson NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-6694-8.
Riddick, John F. The History of British India: a Chronology. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. ISBN 978-0-313-32280-8.
Savas, Theodore P. and Dameron, J. David. A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution. New York: Savas Beatie LLC, 2006. ISBN 1-932714-12-X.
Schama, Simon. Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution, New York, NY: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2006
O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale UP, 2014).
Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976 (ISBN 0-19-502013-8); revised University of Michigan Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-472-06431-2). Collection of essays.
Stephenson, Orlando W. "The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776", American Historical Review, 30#2 (1925), pp. 271–281 online free.
Taylor, Alan. American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750-1804 (WW Norton & Company, 2016).
Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present Random House, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4000-4024-7.
Trevelyan, George Otto. George the Third and Charles Fox: the concluding part of The American revolution Longmans, Green, 1912.
Watson, J. Steven. The Reign of George III, 1760–1815. 1960. Standard history of British politics.
Weigley, Russell F. The American Way of War. Indiana University Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-253-28029-9.
Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775–1783. New York: Free Press, 2005 (a division of Simon & Schuster). ISBN 0-7432-2687-9. An account of the British politics on the conduct of the war.
Reference literature
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.
Billias, George Athan. George Washington's Generals and Opponents: Their Exploits and Leadership (1994) scholarly studies of key generals on each side.\
Black, Jeremy. "Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence?." Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research. (Fall 1996), Vol. 74 Issue 299, pp 145–154. online video lecture, uses Real Player
Conway, Stephen. The War of American Independence 1775–1783. Publisher: E. Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0-340-62520-1. 280 pages.
Lowell, Edward J. The Hessians in the Revolution Williamstown, Massachusetts, Corner House Publishers, 1970, Reprint
Bancroft, George. History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent. (1854–78), vol. 7–10.
Bobrick, Benson. Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint).
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Ryerson, Richard A., eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (ABC-CLIO, 2006) 5 volume paper and online editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics
Frey, Sylvia R. The British Soldier in America: A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period (University of Texas Press, 1981).
Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution through British Eyes. New York: Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-02895-X.
Kwasny, Mark V. Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783. Kent, Ohio: 1996. ISBN 0-87338-546-2. Militia warfare.
Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789. Oxford University Press, 1984; revised 2005. ISBN 0-19-516247-1. online edition
Savas, Theodore; J. David Dameron (2006). Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution. Savas Beatie. ISBN 9781611210118. Contains a detailed listing of American, French, British, German, and Loyalist regiments; indicates when they were raised, the main battles, and what happened to them. Also includes the main warships on both sides, And all the important battles.
Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783 (2008) 802 pp., detailed coverage of diplomacy from London viewpoint
Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution (1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units
Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution. (2 volumes. New York: Macmillan, 1952.) History of land battles in North America.
Wood, W. J. Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781. ISBN 0-306-81329-7 (2003 paperback reprint). Analysis of tactics of a dozen battles, with emphasis on American military leadership.
Men-at-Arms series: short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions:
Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78 (1994)
Zlatich, Marko. General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83 (1994)
Chartrand, Rene. The French Army in the American War of Independence (1994)
May, Robin. The British Army in North America 1775–1783 (1993)
The Partisan in War, a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789.
External links
Look up American Revolutionary War in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to American Revolutionary War.
Liberty – The American Revolution from PBS
American Revolutionary War 1775–1783 in the News
Important battles of the American Revolutionary War
Bibliographies
Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution
Bibliographies of the War of American Independence https://web.archive.org/web/20151101171424/http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar.htm compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
Political bibliography from Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture
[hide]
v
t
e
American Revolutionary War
[show]
Origins of the American Revolution
Philosophy
American Enlightenment
John Locke
Colonial history
Liberalism
Republicanism
Freedom of religion
Rights of Englishmen
Common Sense
Spirit of '76
"All men are created equal"
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness"
"Consent of the governed"
Royalists
Pitt–Newcastle ministry
Bute ministry
Grenville ministry
First Rockingham ministry
Chatham ministry
Grafton ministry
North ministry
Second Rockingham ministry
Shelburne ministry
Fox–North coalition
Loyalists
Black Loyalist
Related British Acts
of Parliament
Navigation
Iron
Molasses
Royal Proclamation of 1763
Sugar
Currency
Quartering
Stamp
Declaratory
Townshend
Tea
Quebec
Intolerable
Conciliatory Resolution
Restraining
Proclamation of Rebellion
Prohibitory
Colonials
Stamp Act Congress
Declaration of Rights and Grievances
Virginia Association
Sons of Liberty
Patriots
Committees of correspondence
Committees of safety
Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania
Massachusetts Circular Letter
First Continental Congress
Continental Association
Minutemen
Second Continental Congress
Olive Branch Petition
Declaration of Independence
Articles of Confederation
Events
French and Indian War
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Boston Massacre
Gaspee Affair
Hutchinson Letters Affair
Boston Tea Party
Powder Alarm
[show]
Combatants
Campaigns
Theaters
Battles
Events
Colonies
Combatants
Thirteen Colonies
Continental Congress
Army
Navy
Marines
Kingdom of Great Britain
Parliament
British Army
Royal Navy
German allies
Colonial allies
France
army
navy
Hortalez et Cie
Campaigns and
theaters
Boston
Canada
New York and New Jersey
Saratoga
Philadelphia
Northern
Southern
Western
Yorktown
Naval battles
Major battles
Lexington and Concord
Boston
Capture of Fort Ticonderoga
Bunker Hill
Quebec
Valcour Island
Long Island
Harlem Heights
Fort Washington
Trenton
Assunpink Creek
Princeton
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga
Bennington
Saratoga
Brandywine
Germantown
Monmouth
St. Lucia
Grenada
Stony Point
Sullivan Expedition
Savannah
Gibraltar
Cape St. Vincent
Charleston
Springfield
Camden
Kings Mountain
Cowpens
Guilford Court House
Lochry's Defeat
Yorktown
Saintes
Cuddalore
Other events
Staten Island Peace Conference
"First Salute"
Washington's crossing of the Delaware River
Conway Cabal
Valley Forge
Entry of France into war
Carlisle Peace Commission
Gordon Riots
Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1781
Sint Eustatius
Newburgh Conspiracy
Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783
Related conflicts
Cherokee–American wars
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Involvement (by
colony or location)
Rebel colonies
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Virginia
Loyal colonies
East Florida
Nova Scotia
Quebec
West Florida
[show]
Leaders
British
Military
Arbuthnot
Brant
Burgoyne
Campbell
Carleton
Clinton
Cornwallis
Fraser
Gage
Graves
Richard Howe
William Howe
Knyphausen
Rodney
Civilian
King George III
Amherst
Barrington
Germain
North
Rockingham
Sandwich
Shelburne
Colonial
Military
Washington
Alexander
Allen
Arnold
Barry
Claghorn
Clark
Duportail
Gates
Greene
Hamilton
Hopkins
Jones
de Kalb
Knox
Lafayette
Charles Lee
Lincoln
Mercer
Montgomery
Nicholson
Putnam
Rodney
St. Clair
Schuyler
von Steuben
Sullivan
Ward
Wayne
Civilian
John Adams
Samuel Adams
Carroll
Dickinson
Franklin
Hancock
Hanson
Henry
Huntington
Jay
Jefferson
Laurens
Richard Henry Lee
McKean
Morris
Revere
Rush
Witherspoon
Colonial allies
French
Louis XVI
Beaumarchais
d'Estaing
de Grasse
de Guichen
Luzerne
de Rochambeau
Suffren
Vergennes
[show]
Aftermath
Treaty of Paris (1783)
Constitutional Convention
Constitution
Bill of Rights
The Federalist Papers
Shays' Rebellion
Jay Treaty
[show]
Related topics
Categories
Related topics
Military
Prisoners
Society of the Cincinnati
The Turtle
Political
Founding Fathers
Diplomacy
Liberty Tree
Yankee Doodle
Other topics
African Americans
Timeline
Women
Categories
Casualties
Diplomacy
Films
Flags
Military operations
Military personnel
Military units and formations
Museums
Novels
Ships
Sites
[show]
Sister projects
American Revolutionary War at Wiktionary
Source texts at Wikisource
Textbooks at Wikibooks
Images and media at the Commons
Quotations at Wikiquote
News stories at Wikinews
♦ American Revolutionary War Portal ♦
[show]
v
t
e
The Continental Army of the American Revolutionary War
Departments
Units
By State
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Virginia
By Year
1775
1776
1777–1784
Extra
Extra Continental regiments and Additional Continental regiments
Other units
1st Canadian
2nd Canadian
Ottendorf's Corps
Militia units that participated alongside
Other
Cavalry Units
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Armand's
Pulaski's
Artillery Regiments
Knox's
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Events
Conway Cabal
Newburgh Conspiracy
Pennsylvania Line Mutiny
Pompton Mutiny
Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783
Manual
Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States
Related
Board of War
George Washington in the American Revolution
[show]
v
t
e
Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces
listed chronologically
Domestic
Shays' Rebellion
Whiskey Rebellion
Fries's Rebellion
Mormon War
Dorr Rebellion
Bleeding Kansas
Utah War
Civil War
Indian Wars
Brooks–Baxter War
Range War
Lincoln County War
Johnson County War
Coal Creek War
Homestead strike
Battle of Blair Mountain
Bonus Army
Battle of Athens
Foreign
Revolutionary War
Quasi-War
First Barbary War
War of 1812
Second Barbary War
First Sumatran expedition
Second Sumatran expedition
Ivory Coast Expedition
Mexican–American War
First Fiji Expedition
Second Opium War
Second Fiji Expedition
Formosa Expedition
Korean Expedition
Spanish–American War
Philippine–American War
Boxer Rebellion
Banana Wars
Border War
World War I
Russian Civil War
World War II
Korean War
Vietnam War
U.S. invasion of the Dominican Republic
Invasion of Grenada
Lebanese Civil War
Invasion of Panama
Gulf War
Somali Civil War
Bosnian War
Kosovo War
Afghanistan War
Iraq War
War in North-West Pakistan
Libyan Civil War
Intervention against ISIL
Iraq
Syria
Cameroon
Libya
Related articles
List of conflicts in the U.S.
List of wars involving the U.S.
Timeline of U.S. military operations
Length of U.S. participation in major wars
Overseas expansion
Military history
Covert regime-change actions
Casualties of war
Peace movement
List of anti-war organizations
Conscientious objector
War on Terror
[show]
v
t
e
Colonial conflicts involving the English/British Empire
17th
century
Virginia (1609–46)
Swally (1612)
Ormuz (1622)
Saint Kitts (1626)
Quebec (1628)
Pequot War (1634–38)
Acadia (1654–67)
Anglo-Spanish War (1654–60)
Jamaica (1655–1739)
King Philip's War (1675–78)
King William's War (1688–97)
Ghana (1694–1700)
18th
century
Queen Anne's War (1702–13)
Tuscarora War (1711–15)
Yamasee War (1715–17)
Father Rale's War/Dummer's War (1722–25)
War of Jenkins' Ear (1740–42)
King George's War (1744–48)
Carnatic Wars (1746–63)
Nova Scotia (1749–55)
French and Indian War (1754–63)
Seven Years' War (1756–63)
Anglo–Cherokee War (1758–61)
Jamaica (1762)
Anglo-Spanish War (1762–63)
Pontiac's War (1763–66)
Lord Dunmore's War (1774)
American Revolutionary War (1775–83)
First Anglo–Maratha War (1775–82)
Second Anglo–Mysore War (1779–84)
Gold Coast (1781–82)
Sumatra (1782–84)
Australian Frontier Wars (1788–1934)
Nootka Sound (1789)
Third Anglo–Mysore War (1789–92)
Cotiote (Wayanad) War (1793–1806)
Cape Colony (1795)
Jamaica (1795–96)
Ceylon (1795)
Kandyan Wars (1796–1818)
Malta (1798–1800)
Fourth Anglo–Mysore War (1798–99)
Dwyer's Guerrilla Campaign (1799–1803)
19th
century
Newfoundland (1800)
Castle Hill convict rebellion
Second Anglo–Maratha War (1803–05)
Suriname (1804)
Guiana (1804)
Cape Colony (1806)
Río de la Plata (1806–07)
Egypt (1807)
Froberg mutiny (1807)
Reunion (1809)
Seychelles (1809)
Mauritius (1810)
Java (1810–11)
Xhosa Wars (1811–79)
Martinique (1809)
Guadeloupe (1810)
USA (1812–15)
Nepal (1814–16)
Guadeloupe (1815)
Cape Colony (1815)
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18)
Guiana (1823)
Anglo-Ashanti wars (1824–1901)
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26)
Black War (Van Diemen's Land, 1828–32)
Jamaica (1831–32)
Malacca (1831–33)
Lower Canada (1837–38)
Upper Canada (1837–38)
Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–41)
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42)
First Opium War (1839–42)
New Zealand Wars (1845–72)
First Anglo–Sikh War (1845–46)
Río de la Plata (1845–50)
Ceylon (1848)
Second Anglo–Sikh War (1848–49)
Second Anglo–Burmese War (1852)
Eureka Rebellion (1852)
Anglo–Persian War (1856–57)
Second Opium War (1856–60)
Indian Rebellion (1857–59)
Ambela Campaign (1863–64)
Bhutan War (1864–65)
Fenian Rebellion in Canada (1866–71)
Abyssinia (1868)
Manitoba (1870)
Perak (1875–76)
Anglo–Zulu War (1879)
Second Anglo-Afghan War (1879–80)
Basutoland (1880–81)
First Boer War (1880–81)
Mahdist War (1881–99)
Anglo-Egyptian War (1882)
Saskatchewan (1885)
Central Africa (1886–89)
Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885)
Mashonaland (1890)
Hunza-Nagar Campaign (1891)
Anglo-Manipur War (1891)
Matabeleland (1893–94)
North Borneo (1894–1905)
Chitral Expedition (1895)
Jameson Raid South Africa (1896)
Anglo–Zanzibar War (1896)
Matabeleland (1896–97)
Benin Expedition (1897)
Siege of Malakand (1897)
First Mohmand Campaign (1897–98)
Tirah Campaign (1897–98)
Six-Day War (1899)
Boxer Rebellion (1898–1901)
Second Boer War (1899–1902)
20th
century
Somaliland (1900–20)
West Africa (1901–02)
Tibet expedition (1903–04)
Bambatha Rebellion (1906)
Nyasaland (1915)
Nigeria (1915)
Nigeria (1918)
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)
Waziristan campaign (1919–1920)
Iraq (1920)
Malabar Rebellion (1921)
Kurdistan (1922–24)
Transjordan (1923)
Pink's War (1925)
Ikhwan Revolt (1927–30)
Barzani revolt (1931–32)
Second Mohmand Campaign (1935)
Palestine (1936–39)
Waziristan campaign (1936–1939)
Ethiopia (1943)
Indochina (1945–46)
Indonesia (1945)
Sarawak (1946–50)
Malayan Emergency (1948–60)
Mau Mau Uprising Kenya (1952–60)
Oman (1954–59)
Cyprus Emergency (1955–59)
Suez Crisis (1956)
Oman (1962–76)
Brunei (1962)
Sarawak (1962–90)
Malaysia (1962–66)
Aden (1963–67)
Falklands (1982)
[show]
v
t
e
History of the United States
Timeline
Prehistory
Pre-Columbian
Colonial
America's Critical Period
1776–89
1789–1849
1849–65
1865–1918
1918–45
1945–64
1964–80
1980–91
1991–2008
2008–present
Topics
American Century
Cities
Constitution
Demographic
Diplomatic
Economic
Education
Immigration
Medical
Merchant Marine
Military
Musical
Religious
Slavery
Southern
Technological and industrial
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Voting rights
Women
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
United States articles
History
By event
Timeline of U.S. history
Pre-Columbian era
Colonial era
Thirteen Colonies
military history
Continental Congress
American Revolution
War
American frontier
America's Critical Period
Drafting and ratification of Constitution
Federalist Era
War of 1812
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Mexican–American War
Civil War
Reconstruction Era
Indian Wars
Gilded Age
Progressive Era
African-American civil rights movement 1865–1896 / 1896–1954 / 1954–1968
Spanish–American War
Imperialism
World War I
Roaring Twenties
Great Depression
World War II
home front
Nazism in the United States
American Century
Cold War
Korean War
Space Race
Feminist Movement
Vietnam War
Post-Cold War (1991–2008)
War on Terror
War in Afghanistan
Iraq War
Recent events (2008–present)
By topic
Outline of U.S. history
Demographic
Discoveries
Economic
debt ceiling
Inventions
before 1890
1890–1945
1946–91
after 1991
Military
Postal
Technological and industrial
Geography
Territory
counties
federal district
federal enclaves
Indian reservations
insular zones
minor outlying islands
populated places
states
Earthquakes
Extreme points
Islands
Mountains
peaks
ranges
Appalachian
Rocky
National Park Service
National Parks
Regions
East Coast
West Coast
Great Plains
Gulf
Mid-Atlantic
Midwestern
New England
Pacific
Central
Eastern
Northern
Northeastern
Northwestern
Southern
Southeastern
Southwestern
Western
Rivers
Colorado
Columbia
Mississippi
Missouri
Ohio
Rio Grande
Yukon
Time
Water supply and sanitation
Politics
Federal
Executive
Cabinet
Civil service
Executive departments
Executive Office
Independent agencies
Law enforcement
President of the United States
Public policy
Legislative
House of Representatives
current members
Speaker
Senate
current members
President pro tempore
Vice President
Judicial
Courts of appeals
District courts
Supreme Court
Law
Bill of Rights
civil liberties
Code of Federal Regulations
Constitution
federalism
preemption
separation of powers
Federal Reporter
United States Code
United States Reports
Intelligence
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Federal Bureau of Investigation
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
National Reconnaissance Office
National Security Agency
Office of the Director of National Intelligence
Uniformed
Armed Forces
Army
Marine Corps
Navy
Air Force
Coast Guard
National Guard
NOAA Corps
Public Health Service Corps
51st state
political status of Puerto Rico
District of Columbia statehood movement
Elections
Electoral College
Foreign relations
Foreign policy
Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Ideologies
anti-Americanism
exceptionalism
nationalism
Local government
Parties
Democratic
Republican
Third parties
Red states and blue states
Purple America
Scandals
State government
governor
state legislature
state court
Uncle Sam
Economy
By sector
Agriculture
Banking
Communications
Energy
Insurance
Manufacturing
Mining
Tourism
Trade
Transportation
Companies
by state
Currency
Exports
Federal budget
Federal Reserve System
Financial position
Labor unions
Public debt
Social welfare programs
Taxation
Unemployment
Wall Street
Society
Culture
Americana
Architecture
Cinema
Cuisine
Dance
Demography
Education
Family structure
Fashion
Flag
Folklore
Languages
American English
Indigenous languages
ASL
Black American Sign Language
HSL
Plains Sign Talk
Arabic
Chinese
French
German
Italian
Russian
Spanish
Literature
Media
Journalism
Internet
Newspapers
Radio
Television
Music
Names
People
Philosophy
Public holidays
Religion
Sexuality
Sports
Theater
Visual art
Social class
Affluence
American Dream
Educational attainment
Homelessness
Home-ownership
Household income
Income inequality
Middle class
Personal income
Poverty
Professional and working class conflict
Standard of living
Wealth
Issues
Ages of consent
Capital punishment
Crime
incarceration
Criticism of government
Discrimination
affirmative action
antisemitism
intersex rights
islamophobia
LGBT rights
racism
same-sex marriage
Drug policy
Energy policy
Environmental movement
Gun politics
Health care
abortion
health insurance
hunger
obesity
smoking
Human rights
Immigration
illegal
International rankings
National security
Mass surveillance
Terrorism
Separation of church and state
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
Authority control
LCCN: sh85140139
GND: 4131739-7
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Revolutionary_War&oldid=828125890"
Categories:
American Revolutionary War
Global conflicts
Rebellions against the British Empire
Wars of independence
Conflicts in 1775
Conflicts in 1776
Conflicts in 1777
Conflicts in 1778
Conflicts in 1779
Conflicts in 1780
Conflicts in 1781
Conflicts in 1782
Conflicts in 1783
Proxy wars
Hidden categories:
CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
Pages with login required references or sources
CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from November 2017
Articles with permanently dead external links
CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)
Webarchive template wayback links
Wikipedia pages under 30-500 editing restriction
Use mdy dates from June 2013
Articles that may be too long from January 2018
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Kiswahili
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
La .lojban.
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Mirandés
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Patois
Polski
Português
Română
Русиньскый
Русский
Sardu
Scots
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Võro
文言
Winaray
吴语
粵語
中文
83 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 28 February 2018, at 18:31.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href title

attrs: class id

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: td

value: b

attrs: href class title

value: span

value: i

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long

values: The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17, 1775

values:
/wiki/St._Lawrence_River
mw-redirect
St. Lawrence River

values:
/wiki/Oneida_tribe
mw-redirect
Oneida tribe

values:
/wiki/Tuscarora_(tribe)
mw-redirect
Tuscarora (tribe)

values:
/wiki/Catawba_(tribe)
mw-redirect
Catawba (tribe)

values:
/wiki/Cheraw_(tribe)
mw-redirect
Cheraw (tribe)

values:
/wiki/Pee_Dee_people
mw-redirect
Pee Dee people

values: list-style: none none; margin-left: 0px; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; line-height: inherit; display: none;

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border:none; padding:0;
NavFrame1

values:
/wiki/Electorate_of_Brunswick-Luneburg
mw-redirect
Electorate of Brunswick-Luneburg

values: Wappen Deutsches Reich - Fürstentum Waldeck und Pyrmont.png

values:
/wiki/Waldeck_(state)
mw-redirect
Waldeck (state)

values: Blason Principauté d'Anhalt-Zerbst (XVIIIe siècle).svg

values:
/wiki/Mohawk_nation
mw-redirect
Mohawk nation

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border:none; padding:0;
NavFrame2

values: List of military leaders in the American Revolutionary War

values: List of United States state navies in the American Revolutionary War

values: British Army during the American Revolutionary War

values: Template:Campaignbox American Revolutionary War

values: Template talk:Campaignbox American Revolutionary War

values:
/wiki/Invasion_of_Canada_(1775)
mw-redirect
Invasion of Canada (1775)

values: Western theater of the American Revolutionary War

values: Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War

values: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War

values: Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: United States Declaration of Independence

values:
/wiki/Saratoga_Campaign
mw-redirect
Saratoga Campaign

values: France in the American Revolutionary War

values: Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis

values: Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau

values: Two ships in a harbor, one in the distance. On board, men stripped to the waist and wearing feathers in their hair throw crates of tea overboard. A large crowd, mostly men, stands on the dock, waving hats and cheering. A few people wave their hats from windows in a nearby building.

values: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

values:
/wiki/Quartering_Act
mw-redirect
Quartering Act

values:
/wiki/Natural_rights
mw-redirect
Natural rights

values:
/wiki/Battle_of_Nassau
mw-redirect
Battle of Nassau

values: Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)

values:
/wiki/City_of_Halifax
mw-redirect
City of Halifax

values:
/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763-1791)
mw-redirect
Province of Quebec (1763-1791)

values:
/wiki/Arnold%27s_expedition_to_Quebec
mw-redirect
Arnold's expedition to Quebec

values:
/wiki/George_III_of_Great_Britain
mw-redirect
George III of Great Britain

values:
/wiki/Speech_from_the_Throne
mw-redirect
Speech from the Throne

values:
/wiki/Irish_Catholic
mw-redirect
Irish Catholic

values:
/wiki/Brooklyn_Heights,_Brooklyn
mw-redirect
Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn

values: Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War

values:
/wiki/Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania
mw-redirect
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

values: Washington's crossing of the Delaware River

values:
/wiki/Barry_St._Ledger
mw-redirect
Barry St. Ledger

values:
/wiki/Reconnaissance_in_force
mw-redirect
Reconnaissance in force

values: Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette

values:
/wiki/Foreign_minister_of_France
mw-redirect
Foreign minister of France

values: Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–France)

values: Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda

values:
/wiki/Spanish-Portuguese_War_(1776-77)
mw-redirect
Spanish-Portuguese War (1776-77)

values:
/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis
mw-redirect
Annus Mirabilis

values:
/wiki/Theatre_(military)
mw-redirect
Theatre (military)

values:
/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies
mw-redirect
Dutch West Indies

values:
/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778-1783)
mw-redirect
Anglo-French War (1778-1783)

values: Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, duc de Mahon

values: François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé

values:
/wiki/Charles_Hector,_comte_d%27Estaing
mw-redirect
Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing

values:
/wiki/Spanish_Louisiana
mw-redirect
Spanish Louisiana

values:
/wiki/Baton_Rouge
mw-redirect
Baton Rouge

values:
/wiki/San_Fernando_de_Omoa
mw-redirect
San Fernando de Omoa

values: William Dalrymple (British Army officer)

values:
/wiki/Sir_John_Dalling,_1st_Baronet
mw-redirect
Sir John Dalling, 1st Baronet

values:
/wiki/Horatio_Nelson
mw-redirect
Horatio Nelson

values:
/wiki/Fort_San_Juan_(Nicaragua)
mw-redirect
Fort San Juan (Nicaragua)

values:
/wiki/Malabar_coast
mw-redirect
Malabar coast

values:
/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_India
mw-redirect
Mahé, India

values:
/wiki/Carnatic_(region)
mw-redirect
Carnatic (region)

values:
/wiki/William_Baille
mw-redirect
William Baille

values:
/wiki/Battle_of_Springfield
mw-redirect
Battle of Springfield

values:
/wiki/Continental_dollar
mw-redirect
Continental dollar

values:
/wiki/Miami_tribe
mw-redirect
Miami tribe

values:
/wiki/War_of_attrition
mw-redirect
War of attrition

values:
/wiki/Marriot_Arbuthnot
mw-redirect
Marriot Arbuthnot

values:
/wiki/Francois_Joseph_Paul_de_Grasse
mw-redirect
Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse

values:
/wiki/Lord_George_Germain
mw-redirect
Lord George Germain

values:
/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence
mw-redirect
Vote of no confidence

values: Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham

values: The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 1782

values:
/wiki/James_Murray_(Quebec_governor)
mw-redirect
James Murray (Quebec governor)

values:
/wiki/Saint_Domingue
mw-redirect
Saint Domingue

values:
/wiki/Havana,_Cuba
mw-redirect
Havana, Cuba

values: Archibald Campbell (British Army officer)

values:
/wiki/Hector_Munro,_8th_of_Novar
mw-redirect
Hector Munro, 8th of Novar

values:
/wiki/Edward_Hughes_(admiral)
mw-redirect
Edward Hughes (admiral)

values:
/wiki/Bailli_de_Suffren
mw-redirect
Bailli de Suffren

values:
/wiki/James_Stuart_(d._1793)
mw-redirect
James Stuart (d. 1793)

values:
/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1783)
mw-redirect
Treaty of Versailles (1783)

values: 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic

values:
/wiki/Prisoners_of_war
mw-redirect
Prisoners of war

values:
/wiki/Lemon_juice
mw-redirect
Lemon juice

values: Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War

values:
/wiki/National_debt
mw-redirect
National debt

values: Purchase of commissions in the British Army

values:
/wiki/40th_Regiment_of_Foot
mw-redirect
40th Regiment of Foot

values:
/wiki/Baker_Rifle
mw-redirect
Baker Rifle

values:
/wiki/Battle_of_Guilford_Courthouse
mw-redirect
Battle of Guilford Courthouse

values:
/wiki/Sally_(military)
mw-redirect
Sally (military)

values:
/wiki/The_Death_of_Major_Peirson
mw-redirect
The Death of Major Peirson

values:
/wiki/Theater_(military)
mw-redirect
Theater (military)

values:
/wiki/Battle_of_Guilford
mw-redirect
Battle of Guilford

values:
/wiki/Revolutionary_War_Drill_Manual
mw-redirect
Revolutionary War Drill Manual

values:
/wiki/American_Colonies
mw-redirect
American Colonies

values: Battles of the American Revolutionary War

values:
/wiki/United_States_Military
mw-redirect
United States Military

values: African Americans in the Revolutionary War

values:
/wiki/Comte_de_Rochambeau
mw-redirect
Comte de Rochambeau

values:
/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy
mw-redirect
Iroquois Confederacy

values:
/wiki/Seneca_nation
mw-redirect
Seneca nation

values:
/wiki/Onondaga_(tribe)
mw-redirect
Onondaga (tribe)

values:
/wiki/Cayuga_nation
mw-redirect
Cayuga nation

values:
/wiki/North_Carolina_Colony
mw-redirect
North Carolina Colony

values:
/wiki/Muscogee_people
mw-redirect
Muscogee people

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War

values: Commemoration of the American Revolution

values: Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War

values: British Army during the American War of Independence

values: George Washington in the American Revolution

values: Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War

values: List of American Revolutionary War battles

values: List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War

values: List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War

values: List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution

values: List of plays and films about the American Revolution

values: Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.usmm.org/revolution.html

values:
nofollow
http://totallyhistory.com/red-coats/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://necrometrics.com/wars18c.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2123771

values: The site requires registration to access this page.

values:
/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_History
mw-redirect
Journal of Economic History

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2116133

values:
/wiki/Economic_History_Review
mw-redirect
Economic History Review

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/14212813

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/395292

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/39756272

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/470360764

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1658888

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1068441

values: Category:CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown

values:
nofollow
http://www.bostonmassacre.net/
external text

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

values: Robert L. Scribner (page does not exist)

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/187392639

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/56951286

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2197961

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/3430958

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/470415294

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2140537

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833753

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nps.gov/vafo

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/549809

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46513518

values: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/222956803

values:
/wiki/David_Ramsay_(congressman)
mw-redirect
David Ramsay (congressman)

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/562321

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2863262

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1855106

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/9296191

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/40444062

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/149117944

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/701015376

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/60041024

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/6340873

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/51963515

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031609

values:
nofollow
http://www.clements.umich.edu/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/231619453

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/232001108

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/60189717

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/232006312

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/229206429

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1500030

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/426009

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/62690

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/249579015

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/426234

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/60642656

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46778589

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/23517100

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62690

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/232001108

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3491601

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716777

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12063427

values:
/wiki/Schama,_Simon
mw-redirect
Schama, Simon

values:
nofollow
external text
http://hdl.handle.net/1811/30022

values:
nofollow
https://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://revolutionarywar.cloudworth.com/
external text

values: United States Army Center of Military History

values: Template talk:American Revolutionary War

values: col navbox-title 2 ;background-color:#DCDCDC;

values: Freedom of religion in the United States

values: Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness

values: Committees of safety (American Revolution)

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup

values:
*_Combatants
*_Campaigns
*_Theaters
*_Battles
*_Events
*_Colonies

values: George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River

values: North Carolina in the American Revolution

values: South Carolina in the American Revolution

values: Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)

values: William Barrington, 2nd Viscount Barrington

values: Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)

values: Constitutional Convention (United States)

values: Prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War

values: Category:American Revolutionary War casualties

values: Category:Diplomacy during the American Revolutionary War

values: Category:American Revolutionary War films

values: Category:Flags of the American Revolution

values: Category:Military operations of the American Revolutionary War

values: Category:Military personnel of the American Revolutionary War

values: Category:Military units and formations of the American Revolutionary War

values: Category:American Revolutionary War museums

values: Category:American Revolutionary War novels

values: Category:American Revolution ships of the United States

values: Category:American Revolutionary War sites

values:
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page
extiw
wikibooks:Main Page

values:
https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Main_Page
extiw
wikiquote:Main Page

values:
https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Main_Page
extiw
wikinews:Main Page

values: border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-inner

values: Template talk:Continental Army (page does not exist)

values: List of Continental Army units (1777–1784)

values: List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War

values:
/wiki/Pennsylvania_Line_Mutiny
mw-redirect
Pennsylvania Line Mutiny

values: Template:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces

values: Template talk:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces

values: Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War

values: American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)

values: American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War

values: American military intervention in Cameroon

values: American intervention in Libya (2016–present)

values: List of wars involving the United States

values: Timeline of United States military operations

values: Length of U.S. participation in major wars

values: Covert United States foreign regime change actions

values: United States military casualties of war

values: Template talk:British colonial campaigns

values:
/wiki/United_Irish_Uprising
mw-redirect
United Irish Uprising

values: Invasion of Guyana (1804) (page does not exist)

values: Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata

values:
/wiki/Matale_Rebellion
mw-redirect
Matale Rebellion

values:
/wiki/Mat_Salleh_Rebellion
mw-redirect
Mat Salleh Rebellion

values:
/wiki/Brunei_Revolt
mw-redirect
Brunei Revolt

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/America%27s_Critical_Period
mw-redirect
America's Critical Period

values: History of the United States (1789–1849)

values: History of the United States (1865–1918)

values: History of the United States (1991–2008)

values: History of the United States (2008–present)

values: Category:Histories of cities in the United States

values: History of the United States Constitution

values: Demographic history of the United States

values: Timeline of United States diplomatic history

values: History of education in the United States

values: History of immigration to the United States

values: History of medicine in the United States

values: History of the United States Merchant Marine

values: History of religion in the United States

values: Technological and industrial history of the United States

values: Territorial evolution of the United States

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

values: African-American civil rights movement (1865–1896)

values: African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954)

values: African-American civil rights movement (1954–1968)

values: Military history of the United States during World War II

values: United States home front during World War II

values: Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (1946–91)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)

values: Postage stamps and postal history of the United States

values: Lists of populated places in the United States

values: List of earthquakes in the United States

values: List of extreme points of the United States

values: List of mountain peaks of the United States

values: List of areas in the United States National Park System

values:
/wiki/Pacific_States
mw-redirect
Pacific States

values: Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States

values: United States federal executive departments

values: Executive Office of the President of the United States

values: Independent agencies of the United States government

values: Federal law enforcement in the United States

values: Current members of the United States House of Representatives

values: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

values: Current members of the United States Senate

values: President pro tempore of the United States Senate

values: Separation of powers under the United States Constitution

values: United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps

values: Political ideologies in the United States

values: List of federal political scandals in the United States

values: List of companies of the United States by state

values: Chinese language and varieties in the United States

values: Educational attainment in the United States

values: Professional and working class conflict in the United States

values: Criticism of the United States government

values: Federal drug policy of the United States

values: Environmental movement in the United States

values: Illegal immigration to the United States

values: International rankings of the United States

values: Separation of church and state in the United States

values:
/wiki/Book:United_States
mw-redirect
Book:United States

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4131739-7

values: Category:Rebellions against the British Empire

values: Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)

values: Category:Pages with login required references or sources

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from November 2017

values: Category:Articles with permanently dead external links

values: Category:CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Wikipedia pages under 30-500 editing restriction

values: Category:Articles that may be too long from January 2018

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: Amerikaanse Rewolusionêre Oorlog – Afrikaans

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: حرب الاستقلال الأمريكية – Arabic

values: Guerra d'Independencia d'os Estatos Unitos – Aragonese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values: Guerra d'Independencia de los Estaos Xuníos – Asturian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: آمریکا بیرلشمیش ایالتلری ایستیقلال ساواشی – South Azerbaijani

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values: মার্কিন স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধ – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values: Bí-kok To̍k-li̍p Chiàn-cheng – Chinese (Min Nan)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Америка үҙаллылығы өсөн һуғыш – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Вайна за незалежнасць ЗША – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Вайна за незалежнасьць ЗША – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values: Американска война за независимост – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values: Brezel dieubidigezh ar Stadoù Unanet – Breton

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values: Guerra de la Independència dels Estats Units – Catalan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values: Amerikanischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg – German

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Αμερικανική Επανάσταση – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: Guerra de Independencia de los Estados Unidos – Spanish

values: Usona Milito de Sendependeco – Esperanto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: Ameriketako Estatu Batuen Independentzia Gerra – Basque

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: جنگ انقلاب آمریکا – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis – French

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values: Amerikaanske Unôfhinklikenskriich – Western Frisian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values: An Rèabhlaid Ameireaganach – Scottish Gaelic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gd
display: none;

values: Guerra de Independencia dos Estados Unidos de América – Galician

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 미국 독립 전쟁 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Անկախության պատերազմ Հյուսիսային Ամերիկայում – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: अमेरिकी क्रन्तिकारी युद्ध – Hindi

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values: Perang Revolusi Amerika Serikat – Indonesian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-id
display: none;

values: Guerra de Independentia del Statos Unite – Interlingua

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values: Guerra d'indipendenza americana – Italian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: ಅಮೇರಿಕದ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿಕಾರಿ ಯುದ್ಧ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: ამერიკის რევოლუციური ომი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values: Amerikas Savienoto Valstu Neatkarības karš – Latvian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values: Amerikaneschen Onofhängegkeetskrich – Luxembourgish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo
display: none;

values: Amerikai függetlenségi háború – Hungarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Американска војна за независност – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: അമേരിക്കൻ സ്വാതന്ത്ര്യസമരം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values: Guerra de la Andependéncia de ls Stados Ounidos – Mirandese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values: Amerikaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog – Dutch

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: アメリカ独立戦争 – Japanese

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: Den amerikanske uavhengighetskrigen – Norwegian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Den amerikanske revolusjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values: Guèrra d'Independéncia dels Estats Units d'America – Occitan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਇਨਕਲਾਬੀ ਜੰਗ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values: Amoerkan Revaluushaneri Waar – Jamaican Creole English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values: Wojna o niepodległość Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Guerra de Independência dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values: Războiul de Independență al Statelor Unite ale Americii – Romanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Америцка война за независимость – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Война за независимость США – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ru
display: none;

values: Gherra de Indipendèntzia de Istados Unidos – Sardinian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values: Lufta Revolucionare Amerikane – Albanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values: ඇමරිකානු විප්ලවීය යුද්ධය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values: American Revolutionary War – Simple English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Ameriška vojna za neodvisnost – Slovenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Амерички рат за независност – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values: Američki rat za nezavisnost – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Digmaang Mapanghimagsik sa Amerika – Tagalog

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: அமெரிக்கப் புரட்சிப் போர் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: АКШ бәйсезлеге өчен сугыш – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: สงครามปฏิวัติอเมริกา – Thai

values: Війна за незалежність США – Ukrainian

values: امریکی جنگ انقلاب – Urdu

values: 美國獨立戰爭 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-American_Revolutionary_War rootpage-American_Revolutionary_War skin-vector action-view