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Convicts in Australia
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This article is about convicts transported to Australian penal colonies. For the Australian rules football team, see Australian Convicts.
Convicts in New Holland, 1793, by Juan Ravenet
Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia.[1]
The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 17th century. When transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed to relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Seeking to pre-empt the French colonial empire from expanding into the region, Britain chose Australia as the site of a penal colony, and in 1787, the First Fleet of eleven convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent. Other penal colonies were later established in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony, received convicts from 1850. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868.
Many convicts were transported for petty crimes. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, were punishable by death, and therefore not transportable offences. Once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a social stigma, and for some later Australians, convict origins would be a source of shame. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in one's lineage. Around 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts.[2] The convict era has inspired famous novels, films, and other cultural works, and the extent to which it has shaped Australia's national character has been studied by many writers and historians.[3]
Contents
1 Reasons for transportation
2 Penal settlements
2.1 New South Wales
2.2 Norfolk Island
2.3 Tasmania
2.4 Victoria
2.5 Queensland
2.6 Western Australia
3 Women
4 Political prisoners
5 Cessation of transportation
6 Legacy
6.1 Cultural depictions
7 Notable convicts transported to Australia
8 See also
9 Sources
10 References
11 External links
Reasons for transportation[edit]
Main article: Penal transportation
William Hogarth's Gin Lane, 1751
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, began rising considerably after 1740. By the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin.[4] Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions and long working hours were prevalent in 19th-century Britain. Dickens' novels perhaps best illustrate this; even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour (the Factory Acts) passed in the United Kingdom.[5] Crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that "from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around."[6]
Prison hulks in the River Thames
Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have police forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a circular prison, but the penitentiary was seen by many government officials as a peculiar American concept. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the local court by their victims.[citation needed] Pursuant to the so-called "Bloody Code", by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty,[7] almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the theft of an animal, even the theft of a rabbit from a warren.
The Industrial Revolution led to an increase in petty crime due to the economic displacement of much of the population, building pressure on the government to find an alternative to confinement in overcrowded gaols. The situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years' War were used as makeshift floating prisons.[8] Eight of every 10 prisoners were in jail for theft. The Bloody Code was gradually rescinded in the 1800s because judges and juries considered its punishments too harsh. Since lawmakers still wanted punishments to deter potential criminals, they increasingly applied transportation as a more humane alternative to execution.[9] Transportation had been employed as a punishment for both major and petty crimes since the seventeenth century. Around 60,000 convicts were transported to the British colonies in North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Transportation to the Americas ceased following Britain's defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The number of convicts transported to North America is not verified although it has been estimated to be 50,000 by John Dunmore Lang and 120,000 by Thomas Keneally. The British American colony of Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province.[10]
Penal settlements[edit]
New South Wales[edit]
Main article: History of New South Wales
The First Fleet arrives in Botany Bay, 21 January 1788, by William Bradley (1802)
The Costumes of the Australasians: watercolour by Edward Charles Close shows the co-existence of convicts, their military gaolers, and free settlers.
Alternatives to the American colonies were investigated and the newly discovered and mapped East Coast of New Holland was proposed. The details provided by James Cook during his expedition to the South Pacific in 1770 made it the most suitable.
On 18 August 1786 the decision was made to send a colonisation party of convicts, military, and civilian personnel to Botany Bay under the command of Admiral Arthur Phillip who was to be the Governor of the new colony. There were 775 convicts on board six transport ships. They were accompanied by officials, members of the crew, marines, the families thereof and their own children who together totaled 645. In all, eleven ships were sent in what became known as the First Fleet. Other than the convict transports, there were two naval escorts and three storeships. The fleet assembled in Portsmouth and set sail on 13 May 1787.[11]
The fleet arrived at Botany Bay on 20 January 1788. It soon became clear that it would not be suitable for the establishment of a colony due to "the openness of this bay, and the dampness of the soil, by which the people would probably be rendered unhealthy" and Philip decided to examine Port Jackson, a bay mentioned by Captain Cook, about three leagues to the north. On 22 January a small expedition led by Phillips sailed to Port Jackson, arriving in the early afternoon:[11]
Here all regret arising from the former disappointments was at once obliterated; and Governor Phillip had the satisfaction to find one of the finest harbours in the world, in which a thousand sail of the line might ride in perfect security. The different coves of this harbour were examined with all possible expedition, and the preference was given to one which had the finest spring of water, and in which ships can anchor so close to the shore, that at a very small expence quays may be constructed at which the largest vessels may unload. This cove is about half a mile in length, and a quarter of a mile across at the entrance. In honour of Lord Sydney, the Governor distinguished it by the name of Sydney Cove.[11]
There they established the first permanent European colony on the Australian continent, New South Wales, on 26 January. The area has since developed into the city of Sydney. This date is still celebrated as Australia Day.
There was initially a high mortality rate amongst the members of the first fleet due mainly to shortages of food. The ships carried only enough food to provide for the settlers until they could establish agriculture in the region. Unfortunately, there were an insufficient number of skilled farmers and domesticated livestock to do this, and the colony waited for the arrival of the Second Fleet. The second fleet was an unprecedented disaster that provided little in the way of help and upon its delivery in June 1790 of still more sick and dying convicts, which actually worsened the situation in Port Jackson.
Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Bourke was the ninth Governor of the Colony of New South Wales between 1831 and 1837. Appalled by the excessive punishments doled out to convicts, Bourke passed 'The Magistrates Act', which limited the sentence a magistrate could pass to fifty lashes (previously there was no such limit). Bourke's administration was controversial, and furious magistrates and employers petitioned the crown against this interference with their legal rights, fearing that a reduction in punishments would cease to provide enough deterrence to the convicts.
Bourke, however, was not dissuaded from his reforms and continued to create controversy within the colony by combating the inhumane treatment handed out to convicts, including limiting the number of convicts each employer was allowed to seventy, as well as granting rights to freed convicts, such as allowing the acquisition of property and service on juries. It has been argued that the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840[12] can be attributed to the actions of Bourke and other men like Australian-born lawyer William Charles Wentworth. It took another 10 years, but transportation to the colony of New South Wales was finally officially abolished on 1 October 1850.[13]
If a convict was well behaved, the convict could be given a ticket of leave, granting some freedom. At the end of the convict's sentence, seven years in most cases, the convict was issued with a Certificate of Freedom. He was then free to become a settler or to return to England. Convicts who misbehaved, however, were often sent to a place of secondary punishment like Port Arthur, Tasmania or Norfolk Island, where they would suffer additional punishment and solitary confinement.
Norfolk Island[edit]
Main article: History of Norfolk Island
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2015)
Norfolk Island military barracks
Within a month of the arrival of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove, a group of convicts and free settlers were sent to take control of Norfolk Island, a small island 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) east of the coast of New South Wales. More convicts were sent, and many of them proved to be unruly; early 1789 saw a failed attempt to overthrow Lieutenant Philip Gidley King, the island's commandant. This was followed by the wreck of HMS Sirius on one of the island's reefs while attempting to land stores.
Tasmania[edit]
Main article: History of Tasmania
Penitentiary at the Port Arthur convict settlement, Tasmania
In 1803, a British expedition was sent from Sydney to Tasmania (then known as Van Diemen's Land) to establish a new penal colony there. The small party, led by Lt. John Bowen, established a settlement at Risdon Cove, on the eastern side of the Derwent River. Originally sent to Port Philip, but abandoned within weeks, another expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel David Collins arrived soon after. Collins considered the Risdon Cove site inadequate, and in 1804 he established an alternative settlement on the western side of the river at Sullivan's Cove, Tasmania. This later became known as Hobart, and the original settlement at Risdon Cove was deserted. Collins became the first Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land.
When the convict station on Norfolk Island was abandoned in 1807-1808, the remaining convicts and free settlers were transported to Hobart and allocated land for re-settlement. However, as the existing small population was already experiencing difficulties producing enough food, the sudden doubling of the population was almost catastrophic.
Starting in 1816, more free settlers began arriving from Great Britain. On 3 December 1825 Tasmania was declared a colony separate from New South Wales, with a separate administration.
Macquarie Harbour Penal Station, depicted by convict artist William Buelow Gould, 1833
The Macquarie Harbour penal colony on the West Coast of Tasmania was established in 1820 to exploit the valuable timber Huon Pine growing there for furniture making and shipbuilding. Macquarie Harbour had the added advantage of being almost impossible to escape from, most attempts ending with the convicts either drowning, dying of starvation in the bush, or (on at least two occasions) turning cannibal. Convicts sent to this settlement had usually re-offended during their sentence of transportation, and were treated very harshly, labouring in cold and wet weather, and subjected to severe corporal punishment for minor infractions.
In 1830, the Port Arthur penal settlement was established to replace Macquarie Harbour, as it was easier to maintain regular communications by sea. Although known in popular history as a particularly harsh prison, in reality its management was far more humane than Macquarie Harbour or the outlying stations of New South Wales. Experimentation with the so-called model prison system took place in Port Arthur. Solitary confinement was the preferred method of punishment.
Many changes were made to the manner in which convicts were handled in the general population, largely responsive to British public opinion on the harshness of their treatment. Until the late 1830s most convicts were either retained by Government for public works or assigned to private individuals as a form of indentured labour. From the early 1840s the Probation System was employed, where convicts spent an initial period, usually two years, in public works gangs on stations outside of the main settlements, then were freed to work for wages within a set district.
Transportation to Tasmania ended in 1853 (see section below on Cessation of Transportation).
Victoria[edit]
William Buckley's transportation and escape to live with the Wathaurong in 1803, as depicted by 19th-century Aboriginal artist Tommy McRae.
In 1803 two ships arrived in Port Phillip, which Lt. John Murray in the Lady Nelson had discovered and named the previous year. The Calcutta under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Collins transported 300 convicts, accompanied by the supply ship Ocean. Collins had previously been Judge Advocate with the First Fleet in 1788. He chose Sullivan Bay near the present-day Sorrento, Victoria for the first settlement - some 90 km south of present-day Melbourne. About two months later the settlement was abandoned due to poor soil and water shortages and Collins moved the convicts to Hobart. Several convicts had escaped into the bush and were left behind to unknown fates with the local aboriginal people. One such convict, the subsequently celebrated William Buckley, lived in the western side of Port Phillip for the next 32 years before approaching the new settlers and assisting as an interpreter for the indigenous peoples.
A second settlement was established at Westernport Bay, on the site of present-day Corinella, in November 1826. It comprised an initial 20 soldiers and 22 convicts, with another 12 convicts arriving subsequently. This settlement was abandoned in February 1828, and all convicts returned to Sydney.[14]
The Port Phillip District was officially sanctioned in 1837 following the landing of the Henty brothers in Portland Bay in 1834, and John Batman settled on the site of Melbourne.
Between 1844 and 1849 about 1,750 convicts arrived there from England. They were referred to either as "Exiles" or the "Pentonvillians" because most of them came from Pentonville Probationary Prison. Unlike earlier convicts who were required to work for the government or on hire from penal depots, the Exiles were free to work for pay, but could not leave the district to which they were assigned. The Port Phillip District was still part of New South Wales at this stage. Victoria separated from New South Wales and became an independent colony in 1851.
Queensland[edit]
Main article: History of Queensland
In 1823 John Oxley sailed north from Sydney to inspect Port Curtis and Moreton Bay as possible sites for a penal colony. At Moreton Bay he found the Brisbane River, which Cook had guessed would exist, and explored the lower part of it. In September 1824, he returned with soldiers and established a temporary settlement at Redcliffe. On 2 December 1824, the settlement was transferred to where the Central Business District (CBD) of Brisbane now stands. The settlement was at first called Edenglassie. In 1839 transportation of convicts to Moreton Bay ceased and the Brisbane penal settlement was closed. In 1842 free settlement was permitted and people began to colonize the area voluntarily. On 6 June 1859 Queensland became a colony separate from New South Wales.
Western Australia[edit]
Main article: Convict era of Western Australia
Fremantle Prison gatehouse. The prison was built by convict labour in the 1850s.
Although a convict-supported settlement was established in Western Australia from 1826 to 1831, direct transportation of convicts did not begin until 1850. It continued until 1868. During that period, 9,668 convicts were transported on 43 convict ships. The first convicts to arrive were transported to New South Wales, and sent by that colony to King George Sound (Albany) in 1826 to help establish a settlement there. At that time the western third of Australia was unclaimed land known as New Holland. Fears that France would lay claim to the land prompted the Governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, to send Major Edmund Lockyer, with troops and 23 convicts, to establish a settlement at King George Sound. Lockyer's party arrived on Christmas Day, 1826. A convict presence was maintained at the settlement for over four years. On 7 March 1831 control of the settlement was transferred to the Swan River Colony, and the troops and convicts were withdrawn.[15]
In April 1848, Charles Fitzgerald, Governor of Western Australia, petitioned Britain to send convicts to his state because of labor shortages. Britain rejected sending fixed term convicts, but offered to send first offenders in the final years of their terms.
Most convicts in Western Australia spent very little time in prison. Those who were stationed at Fremantle were housed in the Convict Establishment, the colony's convict prison, and misbehaviour was punished by stints there. The majority, however, were stationed in other parts of the colony. Although there was no convict assignment in Western Australia, there was a great demand for public infrastructure throughout the colony, so that many convicts were stationed in remote areas. Initially, most offenders were set to work creating infrastructure for the convict system, including the construction of the Convict Establishment itself.
In 1852 a Convict Depot was built at Albany, but closed 3 years later. When shipping increased the Depot was re-opened. Most of the convicts had their Ticket-of-Leave and were hired to work by the free settlers. Convicts also manned the pilot boat, rebuilt York Street and Stirling Terrace; and the track from Albany to Perth was made into a good road. An Albany newspaper noted their commendable behaviour and wrote, "There were instances in which our free settlers might take an example".
Western Australia's convict era came to an end with the cessation of penal transportation by Britain. In May 1865, the colony was advised of the change in British policy, and told that Britain would send one convict ship in each of the years 1865, 1866 and 1867, after which transportation would cease. In accordance with this, the last convict ship to Western Australia, the Hougoumont, left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868.
Women[edit]
Main article: Convict Women in Australia
Approximately 20% of the transportees were women. For protection, most quickly attached themselves to male officers or convicts. Although they were routinely referred to as courtesans, relatively few had been prostitutes in England as prostitution, like murder, was not a transportable offence.[16]
Political prisoners[edit]
Painting of the 1804 Castle Hill convict rebellion
Fenian convicts escape from Fremantle in the 1876 Catalpa rescue.
Political prisoners made up a small proportion of convicts. They arrived in waves corresponding to political unrest in Britain and Ireland. They included the First Scottish Martyrs in 1794; British Naval Mutineers (from the Nore Mutiny) in 1797 and 1801; Irish rebels in 1798, 1803, 1848 and 1868; Scots Rebels (1820); Yorkshire Rebels (1820 and 1822); leaders of the Merthyr Tydfil rising of 1831; the Tolpuddle Martyrs (1834); Swing Rioters and Luddites (1828–1833); American and French-Canadian prisoners from the Upper Canada rebellion and Lower Canada Rebellion (1839), and Chartists (1842).[17]
Cessation of transportation[edit]
With increasing numbers of free settlers entering New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) by the mid-1830s, opposition to the transportation of felons into the colonies grew. The most influential spokesmen were newspaper proprietors who were also members of the Independent Congregation Church such as John Fairfax in Sydney and the Reverend John West in Launceston, who argued against convicts both as competition to honest free labourers and as the source of crime and vice within the colony. Bishop Bernard Ullathorne, a Catholic prelate who had been in Australia since 1832 returned for a visit to England in 1835. While there he was called upon by the government to give evidence before a Parliamentary Commission on the evils of transportation, and at their request wrote and submitted a tract on the subject. His views in conjunction with others in the end prevailed. The anti-transportation movement was seldom concerned with the inhumanity of the system, but rather the hated stain it was believed to inflict on the free (non-emancipist) middle classes.
Transportation to New South Wales ended in 1840, by which time some 150,000 convicts had been sent to the colonies. The sending of convicts to Brisbane in its Moreton Bay district had ceased the previous year, and administration of Norfolk Island was later transferred to Van Diemen's Land.
The continuation of transportation to Van Diemen's Land saw the rise of a well-coordinated anti-transportation movement, especially following a severe economic depression in the early 1840s. Transportation was temporarily suspended in 1846 but soon revived with overcrowding of British gaols and clamour for the availability of transportation as a deterrent. By the late 1840s most convicts being sent to Van Diemen's Land (plus those to Victoria) were designated as "exiles" and were free to work for pay while under sentence. In 1850 the Australasian Anti-Transportation League was formed to lobby for the permanent cessation of transportation, its aims being furthered by the commencement of the Australian gold rushes the following year. The last convict ship to be sent from England, the St. Vincent, arrived in 1853, and on 10 August Jubilee festivals in Hobart and Launceston celebrated 50 years of European settlement with the official end of transportation.
Transportation continued in small numbers to Western Australia. The last convict ship, the Hougoumont, left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868. In all, about 164,000 convicts were transported to the Australian colonies between 1788 and 1868 on board 806 ships. Convicts were made up of English and Welsh (70%), Irish (24%), Scottish (5%) and the remaining 1% from the British outposts in India and Canada, Maoris from New Zealand, Chinese from Hong Kong and slaves from the Caribbean.
Only South Australia and the Northern Territory had never accepted convicts directly from England but they still accepted ex-convicts from the other states. Many convicts were allowed to travel as far as New Zealand to make a new life after being given limited freedom, even if they were not allowed to return home to England. At this time the Australian population was approximately 1 million and the colonies could now sustain themselves without the need for convict labour.[18]
Legacy[edit]
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed 11 Australian Convict Sites on its World Heritage List. The listing recognises the sites as "the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts."[19]
Cultural depictions[edit]
Marcus Clarke (c. 1866), author of For the Term of His Natural Life, Australia's most famous convict novel
Convict Alexander Pearce has inspired three feature films (drawings by convict Thomas Bock, 1824).
Convict George Barrington is (perhaps apocryphally) recorded as having written the prologue for the first theatrical play performed by convicts in Australia, one year after the First Fleet's arrival. It is known as "Our Country's Good", based on the now-famous closing stanza:
From distant climes, o'er wide-spread seas, we come,
Though not with much éclat or beat of drum,
True patriots all: for, be it understood:
We left our country for our country's good.
The poems of Frank the Poet are among the few surviving literary works done by a convict while still incarcerated. His best-known work is "A Convict's Tour of Hell". A version of the convict ballad "Moreton Bay", detailing the brutal punishments meted out by commandment Patrick Logan and his death at the hands of Aborigines, is also attributed to Frank. Other convict ballads include "Jim Jones at Botany Bay". The ballad "Botany Bay", which describes the sadness felt by convicts forced to leave their loved ones in England, was written at least 40 years after the end of transportation.
Perhaps the most famous convict in all of fiction is Abel Magwitch, a main character of Charles Dickens' 1861 novel Great Expectations. The most famous convict novel is Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), followed by John Boyle O'Reilly's Moondyne (1879). The Broad Arrow by Caroline Woolmer Leakey was one of the first novels to depict the convict experience, and one of the only to feature a female convict as its protagonist (Marcus Clarke drew on Leakey's book in writing For the Term of His Natural Life).[20] Thomas Keneally explores the convict era in his novels Bring Larks and Heroes (1967) and The Playmaker (1987). Convicts feature heavily in Patrick White's take on the Eliza Fraser story, the 1976 novel A Fringe of Leaves. Convictism is canvassed in Bryce Courtenay's "Australian trilogy": The Potato Factory (1995), Tommo & Hawk (1997) and Solomon's Song (1999). The title character of Peter Carey's 1997 novel Jack Maggs is a reworking of Dickens' Magwitch character. Many modern works of Tasmanian Gothic focus on the state's convict past, including Gould's Book of Fish (2001) by Richard Flanagan, a fictionalised account of convict artist William Buelow Gould's imprisonment at Macquarie Harbour. Kate Grenville based the novel The Secret River (2005) on the life of her convict ancestor Solomon Wiseman.
Along with bushrangers and other stock characters of colonial life, convicts were a popular subject during Australia's silent film era. The first convict film was a 1908 adaptiation of Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life, shot on location at Port Arthur with an unheard-of budget of £7000.[21] This was followed by two more films inspired by Clarke's novel: The Life of Rufus Dawes (1911), which draws on Alfred Dampier's stage production of His Natural Life, and the landmark For the Term of His Natural Life (1927), one of the most expensive silent films ever made.[21] W. J. Lincoln directed many convict melodramas including It Is Never Too Late to Mend (1911), an adaptation of Charles Reade's 1856 novel about cruelties of the convict system; Moodyne (1913), based on John Boyle O'Reilly's novel; and Transported (1913). Other early titles include Sentenced for Life, The Mark of the Lash, One Hundred Years Ago, The Lady Outlaw and The Assigned Servant, all released in 1911. Few convict films were made after 1930; even the Australian New Wave of the 1970s, with its emphasis on Australia's colonial past, largely avoided the convict era in favour of nostalgic period pieces set in the bush around the time of Federation. One exception is Journey Among Women (1977), a feminist imagining of what life was like for convict women.[21] Alexander Pearce, the infamous Tasmanian convict and cannibal, is the inspiration for The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce (2008), Dying Breed (2008) and Van Diemen's Land (2009).
Notable convicts transported to Australia[edit]
See also: List of convicts transported to Australia
George Barrington
Billy Blue
Francis Greenway
Jørgen Jørgensen
Moondyne Joe
Esther Abrahams – British Jew, who was one of the Jewish convicts (about 1,000 in all) and common law wife of a leader of the Rum Rebellion.
Samuel Barsby – first convict to be flogged[22]
Joseph Backler - transported for passing forged cheques, became a colonial painter
Billy Blue – black man from Jamaica, New York, established a ferry service
James Blackburn – Famous for contribution to Australian architecture and civil engineering
William Bland – naval surgeon transported for killing a man in a duel; he prospered and was involved in philanthropy, and had a seat in the legislative assembly.[23]
Mary Bryant – famous escapee
William Buckley – famously escaped and lived with Aboriginal people for many years
John Cadman – had been a publican, as a convict became Superintendent of Boats in Sydney; Cadmans Cottage is a cottage granted to him.
Martin Cash – Famous escapee and bushranger
William Chopin – a convict whose work in prison hospitals in Western Australia grounded him in chemistry; on receiving a ticket of leave he was appointed chemist at the Colonial Hospital, but preferred to open his own chemist shop. He was later convicted as an abortionist.
Joseph Sullivan – sentenced to fourteen years transportation for stealing, then killed for murdering his master and the other convicts in the area.
Daniel Connor – sentenced to seven years transportation for sheep stealing, became successful merchant, by the 1890s one of the largest landowners in central Perth.
Daniel Cooper – successful merchant.
William Cuffay (convict and tailor) – Black London Chartist leader who became an important workers' rights leader in Hobart.
John Davies – co-founded The Mercury newspaper.
Margaret Dawson – First Fleeter, "founding mother"
John Eyre – painter and engraver
William Field – notable Tasmanian businessman and landowner
Francis Greenway – famous Australian architect
William Henry Groom – successful auctioneer and politician, served in the inaugural Australian Parliament.
Laurence Hynes Halloran – founded Sydney Grammar School.
William Hutchinson – public servant and pastoralist.
John Irving – doctor transported on First Fleet, was the first convict to receive an absolute pardon.
Mark Jeffrey – wrote famous autobiography
Jørgen Jørgensen – eccentric Danish adventurer influenced by revolutionary ideas who declared himself ruler of Iceland, later became a spy in Britain.
Henry Kable – First Fleet convict, arrived with wife and son (Susannah Holmes, also a convict, and Henry) filed 1st lawsuit in Australia, became wealthy businessman
Lawrence Kavenagh – notorious bushranger
John "Red" Kelly – Irish convict and father of bushranger Ned Kelly
Solomon Levey – wealthy merchant, endowed Sydney Grammar School.
Simeon Lord – pioneer merchant and magistrate in Australia
Nathaniel Lucas – one of the first convicts on Norfolk Island, where he became Master carpenter, later farmed successfully, built windmills, and was Superintendent of carpenters in Sydney.
John Mitchel – Irish nationalist
Francis "Frank the Poet" McNamara – composer of various oral convict ballads, including The Convict's Tour to Hell
John Boyle O'Reilly
John Mortlock – former marine
Thomas Muir – convicted of sedition for advocating parliamentary reform; escaped from N.S.W and after many vicissitudes made his way to revolutionary France.
Isaac Nichols – entrepreneur, first Postmaster
Kevin Izod O'Doherty – Medical student, Young Irelander who was transported for treason.
Robert Palin – once in Australia, committed further crimes, and managed to be executed for a non-capital offence
Alexander Pearce – cannibal escapee
Joseph Potaskie – first Pole to come to Australia.
William Smith O'Brien – famous Irish revolutionary; sent to Van Diemen's Land in 1849 after leading a rebellion in Tipperary
John Boyle O'Reilly – Famous escapee, poet and writer; author of Moondyne
William Redfern – one of the few surgeon convicts
Mary Reibey – operated a fleet of ships
James Ruse – successful farmer
Henry Savery – Australia's first novelist; author of Quintus Servinton
Robert Sidaway – opened Australia's first theatre
James Squire – English Romanichal (Romany) – First Fleet convict and Australia's first brewer and cultivator of hops.
William Sykes – historically interesting because he left a brief diary and a bundle of letters.
John Tawell – served his sentence, became a prosperous chemist, returned to England after 15 years, and after some time murdered a mistress, for which he was hanged.
Samuel Terry – wealthy merchant and philanthropist.
James Hardy Vaux – author of Australia's first full length autobiography and dictionary.
Mary Wade – Youngest female convict transported to Australia (11 years of age) who had 21 children and at the time of her death had over 300 living descendants.
Joseph Wild – explorer
Solomon Wiseman – merchant and operated ferry on Hawkesbury River hence town name Wisemans Ferry.
See also[edit]
British prison hulks
Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania
Convict era of Western Australia
Convict assignment
Convict ships to New South Wales
Convict women in Australia
Convict hulk
Cyprus mutiny
French ship Neptune (1818)
First Fleet
List of convicts on the First Fleet
Port Arthur, Tasmania
Transport Board (Royal Navy)
Unfree labour
Sources[edit]
Alan Frost, Botany Bay: The Real Story, Collingwood, Black Inc, 2011, ISBN 978-1-86395-512-6
Alexander, Alison. Editor. The Companion to Tasmanian History. Hobart, 2005. ISBN 1-86295-223-X
Barnard, Simon, A-Z of Convicts in Van Diemen’s Land, Text Publishing, Melbourne, 2014. ISBN 9781922079343
Barnard, Simon, Convict Tattoos: Marked Men and Women of Australia, famous convicts seem to thank Miss Zoe Nguyen for their fame., Text Publishing, Melbourne, 2016. ISBN 9781925410235
Bateson, Charles, The Convict Ships, 1787–1868, Sydney, 1974.
Boyce, James, Van Diemen's Land, Black Inc, Melbourne, 2008. ISBN 9781863954914
Pardons & Punishments: Judge's Reports on Criminals, 1783 to 1830: HO (Home Office) 47, volumes 304 & 305, List and Index Society, The National Archives, Kew, England, TW9 4DU
Gillen, Mollie, The Founders of Australia: a biographical dictionary of the First Fleet, Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1989.
Gordon Greenwood, Australia: A Social and Political History, Angus and Robertson 1955.
Hughes, Robert, The Fatal Shore, London, Pan, 1988.
A Pictorial History of Australia, Rex & Thea Rienits, Hamlyn Publishing group, 1969.
Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish, Closing Hell's Gates: The Death of a Convict Station, Allen and Unwin, 2008. ISBN 9781741751499
Robson, Lloyd. History of Tasmania, 2 Volumes.
Edward Shann, An Economic History of Australia, Georgian House 1930.
John West, History of Tasmania, 1852
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Convicts and the British colonies in Australia". Government of Australia.
Jump up ^ "Online records highlight Australia's convict past", ABC News (25 July 2007). Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Hirst, John (July 2008). "An Oddity From the Start: Convicts and National Character", The Monthly. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "BBC News - Booze". BBC.
Jump up ^ Del Col, Laura (1988). "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Ninteenth-Century [sic] England". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Highes, ibid, p. 28
Jump up ^ Part I: History of the Death Penalty Archived 27 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Floating Prison: British Prison Hulks". Gould Genealogy & History.
Jump up ^ By the Gallows Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Butler, James Davie (1896). "British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies". The American Historical Review. 2 (1): 12–33. doi:10.2307/1833611. JSTOR 1833611.
^ Jump up to: a b c Phillip, Arthur (1789). The Voyage Of Governor Phillip To Botany Bay With An Account Of The Establishment Of The Colonies Of Port Jackson and Norfolk Island (1789). Retrieved 31 January 2015.
Jump up ^ bpwxhtml0508. "Tocal's convict 1822-1840". Tocal.
Jump up ^ Convicts Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Westernport Settlement of 1826–28"
Jump up ^ "King George's Sound Settlement". State Records. State Records Authority of New South Wales. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Hughes, ibid, p372
Jump up ^ "Convicts To Australia ... Research Guide - Political Prisoners". Convicts to Australia.
Jump up ^ "Convicts and the British colonies in Australia". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007.
Jump up ^ "Australian Convict Sites". World Heritage List. UNESCO. 2010. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Henry), Wilde, W. H. (William (1994). The Oxford companion to Australian literature. Hooton, Joy W., Andrews, B. G., 1943-1987. (2nd ed ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019553381X. OCLC 32470151. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Byrnes, Paul. Prisons on Film, Australian Screen. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Kirby, Michael review of Collins, the Courts and The Colony, UNSW Press, 1996. on Law and Justice Foundation of New South Wales website
Jump up ^ D. Richards 'Transported to New South Wales: medical convicts 1788–1850' British Medical Journal Vol 295, 19–26 December 1987, p. 1609
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to convicts.
Searchable database of 123,000+ British Convicts sent to Australia - GenDatabase.com
Family History Convicts Research Guide – State Library of New South Wales
Convict life – State Library of New South Wales
Australian Convict Transportation Registers
The National Archives (UK)
Convict Transportation Registers database
The Albany Historical Society
Convict Queenslanders
Thomas J. Nevin's photographs of Tasmanian convicts 1870s at the State Library of Tasmania
Thomas J. Nevin's photographs of Tasmanian convicts at the National Library of Australia
Visualisation of the British Convict Transportation Registry
The Convict Stockade
"Convicts and the British Colonies". Australian Government. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
State Records NSW (2010). "Order-in-Council ending transportation to New South Wales, 22 May 1840". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 2 October 2015. [CC-By-SA]
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text:
2017 Australian Open – Men's Singles
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Men's Singles
2017 Australian Open
Champion
Roger Federer
Runner-up
Rafael Nadal
Final score
6–4, 3–6, 6–1, 3–6, 6–3
Details
Draw
128 (16Q / 8WC)
Seeds
32
Events
Singles
men women boys girls
Doubles
men women mixed boys girls
Legends
men women mixed
WC Singles
men women quad
WC Doubles
men women quad
← 2016 · Australian Open · 2018 →
Main article: 2017 Australian Open
Novak Djokovic was the two-time defending champion, but lost in the second round to the 117th ranked Denis Istomin from Uzbekistan.[1] It was the first time since the 2008 Wimbledon Championships, where he lost to Marat Safin, that Djokovic failed to make it past the second round of a major and the first time since the 2006 Australian Open that he failed to make it to the third round in Melbourne.
Roger Federer won his fifth Australian Open title, and 18th Major title overall, defeating Rafael Nadal in the final in five sets. With the win, Federer became the first male player to win at least five titles at three Grand Slam tournaments (five at the Australian Open, seven at Wimbledon and five at the US Open).
This was the first Grand Slam tournament in which Andy Murray started as World No. 1 and top seed. Murray retained the top ranking despite losing to Mischa Zverev in the fourth round, because second seeded Djokovic needed to win the tournament to regain the No. 1 ranking, but lost in the second round. This was the first time since the 2004 French Open that the top two men's seeds both failed to make it past the fourth round of a major.[2]
This was also the first Grand Slam tournament since the 2002 US Open in which Federer was ranked outside the top-10. He went on to reach and win the final of the tournament, making him the oldest man to reach a Grand Slam final since Ken Rosewall made the 1974 US Open final at the age of 39, and the oldest Slam champion since Ken Rosewall had won the 1972 Australian Open at 37 years and 63 days old.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Seeds
2 Qualifying
3 Wildcards
4 Draw
4.1 Key
4.2 Finals
4.3 Top half
4.3.1 Section 1
4.3.2 Section 2
4.3.3 Section 3
4.3.4 Section 4
4.4 Bottom half
4.4.1 Section 5
4.4.2 Section 6
4.4.3 Section 7
4.4.4 Section 8
5 References
6 External links
Seeds[edit]
01. Andy Murray (Fourth round)
02. Novak Djokovic (Second round)
03. Milos Raonic (Quarterfinals)
04. Stan Wawrinka (Semifinals)
05. Kei Nishikori (Fourth round)
06. Gaël Monfils (Fourth round)
07. Marin Čilić (Second round)
08. Dominic Thiem (Fourth round)
09. Rafael Nadal (Final)
10. Tomáš Berdych (Third round)
11. David Goffin (Quarterfinals)
12. Jo-Wilfried Tsonga (Quarterfinals)
13. Roberto Bautista Agut (Fourth round)
14. Nick Kyrgios (Second round)
15. Grigor Dimitrov (Semifinals)
16. Lucas Pouille (First round)
17. Roger Federer (Champion)
18. Richard Gasquet (Third round)
19. John Isner (Second round)
20. Ivo Karlović (Third round)
21. David Ferrer (Third round)
22. Pablo Cuevas (First round)
23. Jack Sock (Third round)
24. Alexander Zverev (Third round)
25. Gilles Simon (Third round)
26. Albert Ramos-Viñolas (First round)
27. Bernard Tomic (Third round)
28. Feliciano López (First round)
29. Viktor Troicki (Third round)
30. Pablo Carreño Busta (Third round)
31. Sam Querrey (Third round)
32. Philipp Kohlschreiber (Third round)
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
Qualifying[edit]
Main article: 2017 Australian Open – Men's Singles Qualifying
Wildcards[edit]
Main article: 2017 Australian Open – Main Draw Wildcard Entries
Draw[edit]
Key[edit]
Q = Qualifier
WC = Wild Card
LL = Lucky Loser
Alt = Alternate
SE = Special Exempt
PR = Protected Ranking
w/o = Walkover
r = Retired
d = Defaulted
Finals[edit]
Quarterfinals Semifinals Final
Mischa Zverev 1 5 2
17 Roger Federer 6 7 6
17 Roger Federer 7 6 1 4 6
4 Stan Wawrinka 5 3 6 6 3
4 Stan Wawrinka 77 6 6
12 Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 62 4 3
17 Roger Federer (details) 6 3 6 3 6
9 Rafael Nadal 4 6 1 6 3
9 Rafael Nadal 6 79 6
3 Milos Raonic 4 67 4
9 Rafael Nadal 6 5 77 64 6
15 Grigor Dimitrov 3 7 65 77 4
11 David Goffin 3 2 4
15 Grigor Dimitrov 6 6 6
Top half[edit]
Section 1[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
1 A Murray 7 77 6
I Marchenko 5 65 2 1 A Murray 6 6 6
Q A Rublev 4 6 77 6 Q A Rublev 3 0 2
Y-h Lu 6 3 60 3 1 A Murray 6 6 6
WC A De Minaur 5 6 2 77 6 31 S Querrey 4 2 4
G Melzer 7 3 6 62 1 WC A De Minaur 65 0 1
WC Q Halys 712 64 3 4 31 S Querrey 77 6 6
31 S Querrey 610 77 6 6 1 A Murray 5 7 2 4
19 J Isner 6 6 65 6 M Zverev 7 5 6 6
K Kravchuk 3 4 77 1 19 J Isner 77 77 4 67 7
G García-López 3 65 4 M Zverev 64 64 6 79 9
M Zverev 6 77 6 M Zverev 6 4 6 6
M Jaziri 6 6 6 M Jaziri 1 6 3 0
Q G Soeda 3 4 3 M Jaziri 6 6 7
Q A Bublik 6 3 6 6 Q A Bublik 2 3 5
16 L Pouille 0 6 3 4
Section 2[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
10 T Berdych 6 0
Q L Vanni 1 0r 10 T Berdych 6 78 6
R Harrison 6 6 6 R Harrison 3 66 2
N Mahut 3 4 2 10 T Berdych 2 4 4
Q B Fratangelo 77 5 6 2 2 17 R Federer 6 6 6
Q N Rubin 64 7 3 6 6 Q N Rubin 5 3 63
Q J Melzer 5 6 2 2 17 R Federer 7 6 77
17 R Federer 7 3 6 6 17 R Federer 64 6 6 4 6
26 A Ramos Viñolas 6 5 6 4 3 5 K Nishikori 77 4 1 6 3
Q L Lacko 4 7 1 6 6 Q L Lacko 2 6 6 6
M Granollers 7 3 2 0 D Sela 6 3 2 4
D Sela 5 6 6 6 Q L Lacko 4 4 4
N Almagro 0r 5 K Nishikori 6 6 6
J Chardy 4 J Chardy 3 4 3
A Kuznetsov 7 1 4 78 2 5 K Nishikori 6 6 6
5 K Nishikori 5 6 6 66 6
Section 3[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
4 S Wawrinka 4 6 7 4 6
M Kližan 6 4 5 6 4 4 S Wawrinka 6 6 6
F Delbonis 3 4 4 S Johnson 3 4 4
S Johnson 6 6 6 4 S Wawrinka 3 6 6 79
J Duckworth 4 64 77 4 29 V Troicki 6 2 2 67
P Lorenzi 6 77 64 6 P Lorenzi 3 6 63 6 3
D Džumhur 4 4 6 6 3 29 V Troicki 6 1 77 3 6
29 V Troicki 6 6 2 2 6 4 S Wawrinka 77 77 77
22 P Cuevas 3 3 0 A Seppi 62 64 64
D Schwartzman 6 6 6 D Schwartzman 3 3 6 4
S Darcis 3 6 6 6 S Darcis 6 6 2 6
WC S Groth 6 3 2 2 S Darcis 6 4 61 62
P-H Mathieu 4 64 77 5 A Seppi 4 6 77 77
A Seppi 6 77 63 7 A Seppi 1 61 6 6 10
G Elias 1 2 2 14 N Kyrgios 6 77 4 2 8
14 N Kyrgios 6 6 6
Section 4[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
12 J-W Tsonga 6 6 65 6
T Monteiro 1 3 77 2 12 J-W Tsonga 6 6 6
D Lajović 6 6 6 D Lajović 2 2 3
S Robert 3 3 3 12 J-W Tsonga 77 7 68 6
K Khachanov 6 3 711 6 23 J Sock 64 5 710 3
A Mannarino 4 6 69 3 K Khachanov 3 4 4
P-H Herbert 4 64 3 23 J Sock 6 6 6
23 J Sock 6 77 6 12 J-W Tsonga 64 6 6 6
27 B Tomic 6 6 6 D Evans 77 2 4 4
T Bellucci 2 1 4 27 B Tomic 7 77 4 77
V Estrella Burgos 79 7 0 6 V Estrella Burgos 5 64 6 65
A Bedene 67 5 6 3 27 B Tomic 5 62 63
F Bagnis 68 3 1 D Evans 7 77 77
D Evans 710 6 6 D Evans 3 7 6 6
PR J Janowicz 6 6 2 2 3 7 M Čilić 6 5 3 3
7 M Čilić 4 4 6 6 6
Bottom half[edit]
Section 5[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
6 G Monfils 6 6 6
J Veselý 2 3 2 6 G Monfils 6 6 1 6
A Dolgopolov 6 6 3 79 A Dolgopolov 3 4 6 0
B Ćorić 3 4 6 67 6 G Monfils 6 77 6
Q T Fabbiano 4 61 4 32 P Kohlschreiber 3 61 4
D Young 6 77 6 D Young 5 3 0
N Basilashvili 4 6 62 4 32 P Kohlschreiber 7 6 6
32 P Kohlschreiber 6 3 77 6 6 G Monfils 3 3 6 4
24 A Zverev 6 3 5 6 6 9 R Nadal 6 6 4 6
R Haase 2 6 7 3 2 24 A Zverev 6 6 6
Q F Tiafoe 6 63 6 6 Q F Tiafoe 2 3 4
M Kukushkin 1 77 3 2 24 A Zverev 6 3 77 3 2
M Youzhny 3 0r 9 R Nadal 4 6 65 6 6
M Baghdatis 6 3 M Baghdatis 3 1 3
F Mayer 3 4 4 9 R Nadal 6 6 6
9 R Nadal 6 6 6
Section 6[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
13 R Bautista Agut 6 6 6
G Pella 3 1 1 13 R Bautista Agut 6 6 6
Y Nishioka 6 1 6 6 Y Nishioka 2 3 3
Q A Bolt 4 6 2 4 13 R Bautista Agut 7 66 77 6
D Medvedev 5 6 65 1 21 D Ferrer 5 78 63 4
Q E Escobedo 7 4 77 6 Q E Escobedo 6 4 4 2
WC O Jasika 3 0 2 21 D Ferrer 2 6 6 6
21 D Ferrer 6 6 6 13 R Bautista Agut 66 6 4 1
25 G Simon 6 6 6 3 M Raonic 78 3 6 6
WC M Mmoh 1 3 3 25 G Simon 6 6 6
J Donaldson 6 6 1 4 4 R Dutra Silva 4 1 1
R Dutra Silva 3 0 6 6 6 25 G Simon 2 65 6 3
G Müller 78 77 6 3 M Raonic 6 77 3 6
T Fritz 66 65 3 G Müller 3 4 64
D Brown 3 4 2 3 M Raonic 6 6 77
3 M Raonic 6 6 6
Section 7[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
8 D Thiem 4 6 6 6
J-L Struff 6 4 4 3 8 D Thiem 6 6 66 6
J Thompson 62 4 6 6 6 J Thompson 2 1 78 4
J Sousa 77 6 3 2 1 8 D Thiem 6 4 6 6
PR T Haas 62 4 0r B Paire 1 6 4 4
B Paire 77 6 0 B Paire 77 4 6 3 6
F Fognini 7 6 7 F Fognini 63 6 3 6 3
28 F López 5 3 5 8 D Thiem 7 64 2 2
20 I Karlović 66 3 7 6 22 11 D Goffin 5 77 6 6
H Zeballos 78 6 5 2 20 20 I Karlović 6 6 6
A Pavlásek 4 6 2 3 WC A Whittington 4 4 4
WC A Whittington 6 4 6 6 20 I Karlović 3 2 4
PR D Tursunov 2 61 3 11 D Goffin 6 6 6
Q R Štěpánek 6 77 6 Q R Štěpánek 4 0 3
Q R Opelka 4 6 2 6 4 11 D Goffin 6 6 6
11 D Goffin 6 4 6 4 6
Section 8[edit]
First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round
15 G Dimitrov 77 6 6
WC C O'Connell 62 3 3 15 G Dimitrov 1 6 6 6
H Chung 6 6 6 H Chung 6 4 4 4
R Olivo 2 3 2 15 G Dimitrov 6 6 6
R Albot 4 64 7 68 18 R Gasquet 3 2 4
C Berlocq 6 77 5 710 C Berlocq 1 1 1
Q B Mott 4 4 2 18 R Gasquet 6 6 6
18 R Gasquet 6 6 6 15 G Dimitrov 2 77 6 6
30 P Carreño Busta 6 3 3 6 3 WC D Istomin 6 62 2 1
LL P Polansky 0 6 6 2 0r 30 P Carreño Busta 6 6 6
K Edmund 6 7 6 K Edmund 2 4 2
S Giraldo 2 5 3 30 P Carreño Busta 4 6 4 6 2
WC D Istomin 6 6 3 7 WC D Istomin 6 4 6 4 6
Q I Dodig 1 4 6 5 WC D Istomin 710 5 2 77 6
F Verdasco 1 64 2 2 N Djokovic 68 7 6 65 4
2 N Djokovic 6 77 6
References[edit]
General
Men's Singles drawsheet on ausopen.com
Specific
Jump up ^ "Novak Djokovic says ‘there was not much I could do’ after shock defeat". Guardian. 19 January 2017. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Roger Federer beats Rafael Nadal in thrilling Australian Open final". Guardian. 29 January 2017. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.espn.com/tennis/story/_/id/18557011/roger-federer-advances-australian-open-final-victory-stan-wawrinka
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Eine kleine Nachtmusik
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Eine kleine Nachtmusik[1] (Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major), K. 525, is a 1787 composition for a chamber ensemble by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The German title means "a little serenade", though it is often rendered more literally but less accurately as "a little night music."[2] The work is written for an ensemble of two violins, viola, and cello with optional double bass but is often performed by string orchestras.[3]
Contents
1 Composition, publication, and reception
2 Movements
2.1 I. Allegro
2.2 II. Romanze
2.3 III. Menuetto
2.4 IV. Rondo
3 Possible extra movement
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Composition, publication, and reception[edit]
The serenade was completed in Vienna on 10 August 1787,[3] around the time Mozart was working on the second act of his opera Don Giovanni.[4] It is not known why it was composed.[5] Hildesheimer, noting that most of Mozart's serenades were written on commission, suggests that this serenade, too, was a commission, whose origin and first performance were not recorded.[6]
The traditionally used name of the work comes from the entry Mozart made for it in his personal catalog, which begins, "Eine kleine Nacht-Musik."[7] As Zaslaw and Cowdery point out, Mozart almost certainly was not giving the piece a special title, but only entering in his records that he had completed a little serenade.[8]
The work was not published until about 1827, long after Mozart's death, by Johann André in Offenbach am Main.[3] It had been sold to this publisher in 1799 by Mozart's widow Constanze, part of a large bundle of her husband's compositions.
Today, the serenade is widely performed and recorded; indeed, both Jacobson and Hildesheimer opine that the serenade is the most popular of all Mozart's works.[9] Of the music, Hildesheimer writes, "even if we hear it on every street corner, its high quality is undisputed, an occasional piece from a light but happy pen."[6]
Movements[edit]
The work has four movements:
Allegro
Romanze: Andante
Menuetto: Allegretto
Rondo: Allegro
I. Allegro[edit]
The first theme
1. Allegro
Performed by the Advent Chamber Orchestra
Problems playing this file? See media help.
This first movement is in sonata-allegro form. It opens with an ascending Mannheim rocket theme. The second theme is more graceful and in D major, the dominant key of G major. The exposition closes in D major and is repeated. The development section begins on D major and touches on D minor and C major before the work returns to G major for the recapitulation. There is a brief coda.
II. Romanze[edit]
The second movement, with the tempo marked Andante, is a Romanze in the subdominant key of C major. A feeling of intimacy and tenderness prevails throughout this movement. It is in rondo form, taking the shape A–B–A–C–A plus a final coda. The keys of the sections are C major for A and B, C minor for C. The middle appearance of A is truncated, consisting of only the first half of the theme. Heartz describes the movement as evoking gavotte rhythm: each of its sections begins in the middle of the measure, with a double upbeat.[10]
III. Menuetto[edit]
The third movement, marked Allegretto, is a minuet and trio, both in 3
4 time. The minuet is in the home key of G major, the contrasting trio in the dominant key of D major. As is normal in this form, the minuet is played again da capo following the trio.
IV. Rondo[edit]
4. Rondo
Electronic version, arranged by Steamboat Electric/Hans-Peter Scholz
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The fourth and last movement is in lively tempo, marked Allegro; the key is again G major. The movement is written in modified sonata form where the first subject from the recapitulation is placed after the second. Mozart specifies repeats not just for the exposition section but also for the following development and recapitulation section. The work ends with a long coda.
Possible extra movement[edit]
In the catalog entry mentioned above, Mozart listed the work as having five movements ("Allegro – Minuet and Trio – Romance – Minuet and Trio – Finale.").[8] The second movement in his listing, a minuet and trio, was long thought lost and no one knows if Mozart or someone else removed it. Musicologist Alfred Einstein suggested, however, that a minuet in Piano Sonata in B♭ major, K. 498a, is the missing movement.[11] The sonata's minuet has been recorded in an arrangement for strings made by Jonathan Del Mar for Nimbus Records.[12]
See also[edit]
Parodies by Peter Schickele:
Eine kleine Nichtmusik
A Little Nightmare Music
References[edit]
Jump up ^ German pronunciation: [ˈʔaɪnə ˈklaɪnə ˈnaxtmuˌziːk]
Jump up ^ See "Nachtmusik" and "Notturno" entries in Grove Music Online.
^ Jump up to: a b c Holoman 1992, p. 397.
Jump up ^ Einstein, Alfred; Arthur Mendel, Nathan Broder (translators) (1962). Mozart, His Character, His Work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-19-500732-9.
Jump up ^ Holoman 1992, p. 398.
^ Jump up to: a b Hildesheimer (1991, 215)
Jump up ^ The full entry reads (in German) "Eine kleine Nachtmusik, bestehend in einem Allegro.Menuett und Trio.–Romance.Menuett und Trio, und Finale.–2 violini, viola e bassi."; "A little serenade, consisting of an allegro, a minuet and trio, a romance, [another] minuet and trio, and a finale. For two violins, viola, and bass instruments." Mozart's "incipit" (quotation for identification purposes) consists of the first two bars of the first movement. The catalog is posted at the web site Archived 2012-10-19 at the Wayback Machine. of the British Library. Quotation of text is from German Wikipedia, "Eine kleine Nachtmusik."
^ Jump up to: a b Zaslaw and Cowdery (1991, 250)
Jump up ^ Jacobson (2003, 38), Hildesheimer (1991, 215)
Jump up ^ Heartz (2009:185)
Jump up ^ Einstein, Alfred; Arthur Mendel, Nathan Broder (translators) (1965). Mozart: His Character, His Work. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-19-500732-9. OCLC 31827291.
Jump up ^ "Nimbus Records, track list". Archived from the original on 2009-04-26.
Sources
Heartz, Daniel (2009) Mozart, Haydn and Early Beethoven, 1781–1802. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Hildesheimer, Wolfgang (1991) Mozart. Translated by Marion Faber. Macmillan. ISBN 0-374-52298-7.
Holoman, D. Kern (1992). Evenings with the orchestra: a Norton companion for concertgoers. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02936-0.
Jacobson, Julius H. (2003) The Classical Music Experience: Discover the Music of the World's Greatest Composers, vol. 2, narrated by Kevin Kline, Sourcebooks, Inc. ISBN 1-57071-950-0.
Zaslaw, Neal and Cowdery, W. (1991) The Compleat Mozart: A Guide to the Musical Works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Norton. (1991), ISBN 0-393-02886-0.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eine kleine Nachtmusik.
Serenade in G. Eine kleine Nachtmusik KV 525: Score and critical report (in German) in the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe
Eine kleine Nachtmusik: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Performance of Eine kleine Nachtmusik by A Far Cry from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Serenades by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
No. 4 in D, K. 203 ("Colloredo")
No. 5 in D, K. 204
No. 6 in D, K. 239 ("Serenata Notturna")
No. 7 in D, K. 250 ("Haffner")
No. 9 in D, K. 320 ("Posthorn")
No. 10 in B♭, K. 361 ("Gran Partita")
No. 11 in E♭, K. 375
No. 12 in C minor, K. 388
No. 13 in G, K. 525 ("Eine kleine Nachtmusik")
List of compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Classical music portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eine_kleine_Nachtmusik&oldid=860497740"
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Serenades and divertimenti by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Chamber music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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