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Cerium
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Cerium, 58Ce
General properties
Pronunciation
/ˈsɪəriəm/
Appearance
silvery white
Standard atomic weight (Ar, standard)
7002140116000000000♠140.116(1)[1]
Cerium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Ce
↓
Th
lanthanum ← cerium → praseodymium
Atomic number (Z)
58
Group, period
group n/a, period 6
Block
f-block
Element category
lanthanide
Electron configuration
[Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2[2]
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 19, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phase (at STP)
solid
Melting point
1068 K (795 °C, 1463 °F)
Boiling point
3716 K (3443 °C, 6229 °F)
Density (near r.t.)
6.770 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)
6.55 g/cm3
Heat of fusion
5.46 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
398 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
26.94 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at T (K)
1992 2194 2442 2754 3159 3705
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
4, 3, 2, 1 (a mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.12
Ionization energies
1st: 534.4 kJ/mol
2nd: 1050 kJ/mol
3rd: 1949 kJ/mol
(more)
Atomic radius
empirical: 181.8 pm
Covalent radius
204±9 pm
Spectral lines
Miscellanea
Crystal structure
double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp)

β-Ce
Crystal structure
face-centered cubic (fcc)

γ-Ce
Speed of sound thin rod
2100 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion
γ, poly: 6.3 µm/(m·K) (at r.t.)
Thermal conductivity
11.3 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity
β, poly: 828 nΩ·m (at r.t.)
Magnetic ordering
paramagnetic[3]
Magnetic susceptibility
(β) +2450.0·10−6 cm3/mol (293 K)[4]
Young's modulus
γ form: 33.6 GPa
Shear modulus
γ form: 13.5 GPa
Bulk modulus
γ form: 21.5 GPa
Poisson ratio
γ form: 0.24
Mohs hardness
2.5
Vickers hardness
210–470 MPa
Brinell hardness
186–412 MPa
CAS Number
7440-45-1
History
Naming
after dwarf planet Ceres, itself named after Roman deity of agriculture Ceres
Discovery
Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, Wilhelm Hisinger (1803)
First isolation
Carl Gustaf Mosander (1838)
Main isotopes of cerium
Isotope
Abundance
Half-life (t1/2)
Decay mode
Product
134Ce
syn 3.16 d ε 134La
136Ce
0.186% stable
138Ce
0.251% stable
139Ce
syn 137.640 d ε 139La
140Ce
88.449% stable
141Ce
syn 32.501 d β− 141Pr
142Ce
11.114% stable
143Ce
syn 33.039 d β− 143Pr
144Ce
syn 284.893 d β− 144Pr
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Cerium is a chemical element with symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Cerium is a soft, ductile and silvery-white metal that tarnishes when exposed to air, and it is soft enough to be cut with a knife. Cerium is the second element in the lanthanide series, and while it often shows the +3 oxidation state characteristic of the series, it also exceptionally has a stable +4 state that does not oxidize water. It is also traditionally considered one of the rare-earth elements. Cerium has no biological role and is not very toxic.
Despite always being found in combination with the other rare-earth elements in minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite, cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidized to the +4 state. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by neodymium, lanthanum, and praseodymium. It is the 26th most abundant element, making up 66 ppm of the Earth's crust, half as much as chlorine and five times as much as lead.
Cerium was the first of the lanthanides to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. It was first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses: for example, cerium(IV) oxide is used to polish glass and is an important part of catalytic converters. Cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
1.1 Physical
1.2 Isotopes
2 Chemistry
2.1 Cerium(IV)
3 History
4 Occurrence and production
5 Applications
6 Biological role and precautions
7 References
8 Bibliography
Characteristics[edit]
Physical[edit]
Cerium is the second element of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides lanthanum to its left and praseodymium to its right, and above the actinide thorium. It is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of silver.[5] Its 58 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f15d16s2, of which the four outer electrons are valence electrons. Immediately after lanthanum, the 4f orbitals suddenly contract and are lowered in energy to the point that they participate readily in chemical reactions; however, this effect is not yet strong enough at cerium and thus the 5d subshell is still occupied.[6] Most lanthanides can use only three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are too strongly bound: cerium is an exception because of the stability of the empty f-shell in Ce4+ and the fact that it comes very early in the lanthanide series, where the nuclear charge is still low enough until neodymium to allow the removal of the fourth valence electron.[7]
Phase diagram of cerium
Four allotropic forms of cerium are known to exist at standard pressure, and are given the common labels of α to δ:[8]
The high-temperature form, δ-cerium, has a bcc (body-centred cubic) crystal structure and exists above 726 °C.
The stable form below 726 °C to approximately room temperature is γ-cerium, with an fcc (face-centred cubic) crystal structure.
The dhcp (double hexagonal close-packed) form of β-cerium is the equilibrium structure approximately from room temperature to −150 °C.
The fcc α-cerium exists below about −150 °C; it has a density of 8.16 g/cm3.
Other solid phases occurring only at high pressures are shown on the phase diagram.
Both γ and β forms are quite stable at room temperature, although the equilibrium transformation temperature is estimated at around 75 °C.[8]
Cerium has a variable electronic structure. The energy of the 4f electron is nearly the same as that of the outer 5d and 6s electrons that are delocalized in the metallic state, and only a small amount of energy is required to change the relative occupancy of these electronic levels. This gives rise to dual valence states. For example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. It appears that the valence changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed.[9]
At lower temperatures the behavior of cerium is complicated by the slow rates of transformation. Transformation temperatures are subject to substantial hysteresis and values quoted here are approximate. Upon cooling below −15 °C, γ-cerium starts to change to β-cerium, but the transformation involves a volume increase and, as more β forms, the internal stresses build up and suppress further transformation.[8] Cooling below approximately −160 °C will start formation of α-cerium but this is only from remaining γ-cerium. β-cerium does not significantly transform to α-cerium except in the presence of stress or deformation.[8] At atmospheric pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting point.[5][10][11]
Isotopes[edit]
Main article: Isotopes of cerium
Naturally occurring cerium is made up of four isotopes: 136Ce (0.19%), 138Ce (0.25%), 140Ce (88.4%), and 142Ce (11.1%). All four are observationally stable, though the light isotopes 136Ce and 138Ce are theoretically expected to undergo inverse double beta decay to isotopes of barium, and the heaviest isotope 142Ce is expected to undergo double beta decay to 142Nd or alpha decay to 138Ba. Additionally, 140Ce would release energy upon spontaneous fission. None of these decay modes have yet been observed, though the double beta decay of 136Ce, 138Ce, and 142Ce has been experimentally searched for. The current experimental limits for their half-lives are:[12]
136Ce: >3.8×1016 y
138Ce: >1.5×1014 y
142Ce: >5×1016 y
All other cerium isotopes are synthetic and radioactive. The most stable of them are 144Ce with a half-life of 284.9 days, 139Ce with a half-life of 137.6 days, 143Ce with a half-life of 33.04 days, and 141Ce with a half-life of 32.5 days. All other radioactive cerium isotopes have half-lives under four days, and most of them have half-lives under ten minutes.[12] The isotopes between 140Ce and 144Ce inclusive occur as fission products of uranium.[12] The primary decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 140Ce is inverse beta decay or electron capture to isotopes of lanthanum, while that of the heavier isotopes is beta decay to isotopes of praseodymium.[12]
The great rarity of the proton-rich 136Ce and 138Ce is explained by the fact that they cannot be made in the most common processes of stellar nucleosynthesis for elements beyond iron, the s-process (slow neutron capture) and the r-process (rapid neutron capture). This is so because they are bypassed by the reaction flow of the s-process, and the r-process nuclides are blocked from decaying to them by more neutron-rich stable nuclides. Such nuclei are called p-nuclei, and their origin is not yet well understood: some speculated mechanisms for their formation include proton capture as well as photodisintegration.[13] 140Ce is the most common isotope of cerium, as it can be produced in both the s- and r-processes, while 142Ce can only be produced in the r-process. Another reason for the abundance of 140Ce is that it is a magic nucleus, having a closed neutron shell (it has 82 neutrons), and hence it has a very low cross-section towards further neutron capture. Although its proton number of 58 is not magic, it is granted additional stability, as its eight additional protons past the magic number 50 enter and complete the 1 g7/2 proton orbital.[13] The abundances of the cerium isotopes may differ very slightly in natural sources, because 138Ce and 140Ce are the daughters of the long-lived primordial radionuclides 138La and 144Nd.[12]
Chemistry[edit]
Cerium tarnishes in air, forming a spalling oxide layer like iron rust; a centimeter-sized sample of cerium metal corrodes completely in about a year.[14] It burns readily at 150 °C to form the pale-yellow cerium(IV) oxide, also known as ceria:[15]
Ce + O2 → CeO2
This may be reduced to cerium(III) oxide with hydrogen gas.[16] Cerium metal is highly pyrophoric, meaning that when it is ground or scratched, the resulting shavings catch fire.[17] This reactivity conforms to periodic trends, since cerium is one of the first and hence one of the largest lanthanides.[18] Cerium(IV) oxide has the fluorite structure, similarly to the dioxides of praseodymium and terbium. Many nonstoichiometric chalcogenides are also known, along with the trivalent Ce2Z3 (Z = S, Se, Te). The monochalcogenides CeZ conduct electricity and would better be formulated as Ce3+Z2−e−. While CeZ2 are known, they are polychalcogenides with cerium(III): cerium(IV) chalcogenides remain unknown.[16]
Cerium(IV) oxide
Cerium is a highly electropositive metal and reacts with water. The reaction is slow with cold water but speeds up with increasing temperature, producing cerium(III) hydroxide and hydrogen gas:[15]
2 Ce (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Ce(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Cerium metal reacts with all the halogens to give trihalides:[15]
2 Ce (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 CeF3 (s) [white]
2 Ce (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 CeCl3 (s) [white]
2 Ce (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 CeBr3 (s) [white]
2 Ce (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 CeI3 (s) [yellow]
Reaction with excess fluorine produces the stable white tetrafluoride CeF4; the other tetrahalides are not known. Of the dihalides, only the bronze diiodide CeI2 is known; like the diiodides of lanthanum, praseodymium, and gadolinium, this is a cerium(III) electride compound.[19] True cerium(II) compounds are restricted to a few unusual organocerium complexes.[20][21]
Cerium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless Ce3+ ions, which exist as a [Ce(H2O)9]3+ complexes:[15]
2 Ce (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Ce3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−
4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
The solubility of cerium is much higher in methanesulfonic acid.[22] Cerium(III) and terbium(III) have ultraviolet absorption bands of relatively high intensity compared with the other lanthanides, as their configurations (one electron more than an empty or half-filled f-subshell respectively) make it easier for the extra f electron to undergo f→d transitions instead of the forbidden f→f transitions of the other lanthanides.[23] Cerium(III) sulfate is one of the few salts whose solubility in water decreases with rising temperature.[24]
Ceric ammonium nitrate
Cerium(IV) aqueous solutions may be prepared by reacting cerium(III) solutions with the strong oxidising agents peroxodisulfate or bismuthate. The value of E⦵(Ce4+/Ce3+) varies widely depending on conditions due to the relative ease of complexation and hydrolysis with various anions, though +1.72 V is a usually representative value; that for E⦵(Ce3+/Ce) is −2.34 V. Cerium is the only lanthanide which has important aqueous and coordination chemistry in the +4 oxidation state.[25] Due to ligand-to-metal charge transfer, aqueous cerium(IV) ions are orange-yellow.[26] Aqueous cerium(IV) is metastable in water[27] and is a strong oxidising agent that oxidizes hydrochloric acid to give chlorine gas.[25] For example, ceric ammonium nitrate is a common oxidising agent in organic chemistry, releasing organic ligands from metal carbonyls.[28] In the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, cerium oscillates between the +4 and +3 oxidation states to catalyse the reaction.[29] Cerium(IV) salts, especially cerium(IV) sulfate, are often used as standard reagents for volumetric analysis in cerimetric titrations.[30]
The nitrate complex [Ce(NO3)6]2− is the most common cerium complex encountered when using cerium(IV) is an oxidising agent: it and its cerium(III) analogue [Ce(NO3)6]3− have 12-coordinate icosahedral molecular geometry, while [Ce(NO3)5]2− has 10-coordinate bicapped dodecadeltahedral molecular geometry. Cerium nitrates also form 4:3 and 1:1 complexes with 18-crown-6 (the ratio referring to that between cerium and the crown ether). Halogen-containing complex ions such as CeF4−
8, CeF2−
6, and the orange CeCl2−
6 are also known.[25] Organocerium chemistry is similar to that of the other lanthanides, being primarily that of the cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctatetraenyl compounds. The cerium(III) cyclooctatetraenyl compound has the uranocene structure.[31]
Cerium(IV)[edit]
Despite the common name of cerium(IV) compounds, the Japanese spectroscopist Akio Kotani wrote "there is no genuine example of cerium(IV)". The reason for this can be seen in the structure of ceria itself, which always contains some octahedral vacancies where oxygen atoms would be expected to go and could be better considered a non-stoichiometric compound with chemical formula CeO2−x. Furthermore, each cerium atom in ceria does not lose all four of its valence electrons, but retains a partial hold on the last one, resulting in an oxidation state between +3 and +4.[32][33] Even supposedly purely tetravalent compounds such as CeRh3, CeCo5, or ceria itself have X-ray photoemission and X-ray absorption spectra more characteristic of intermediate-valence compounds.[34] The 4f electron in cerocene, Ce(C8H8)2, is poised ambiguously between being localized and delocalized and this compound is also considered intermediate-valent.[33]
History[edit]
The dwarf planet Ceres, after which cerium is named
Cerium was discovered in Bastnäs in Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, both in 1803.[35] Cerium was named by Berzelius after the dwarf planet Ceres, discovered two years earlier.[35][36] The dwarf planet itself is named after the Roman goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships, Ceres.[35]
Cerium was originally isolated in the form of its oxide, which was named ceria, a term that is still used. The metal itself was too electropositive to be isolated by then-current smelting technology, a characteristic of rare-earth metals in general. After the development of electrochemistry by Humphry Davy five years later, the earths soon yielded the metals they contained. Ceria, as isolated in 1803, contained all of the lanthanides present in the cerite ore from Bastnäs, Sweden, and thus only contained about 45% of what is now known to be pure ceria. It was not until Carl Gustaf Mosander succeeded in removing lanthana and "didymia" in the late 1830s that ceria was obtained pure. Wilhelm Hisinger was a wealthy mine-owner and amateur scientist, and sponsor of Berzelius. He owned and controlled the mine at Bastnäs, and had been trying for years to find out the composition of the abundant heavy gangue rock (the "Tungsten of Bastnäs", which despite its name contained no tungsten), now known as cerite, that he had in his mine.[36] Mosander and his family lived for many years in the same house as Berzelius, and Mosander was undoubtedly persuaded by Berzelius to investigate ceria further.[37]
Occurrence and production[edit]
Cerium is the most abundant of all the lanthanides, making up 66 ppm of the Earth's crust; this value is just behind that of copper (68 ppm), and cerium is even more abundant than common metals such as lead (13 pm) and tin (2.1 ppm). Thus, despite its position as one of the so-called rare-earth metals, cerium is actually not rare at all.[38] Cerium content in the soil varies between 2 and 150 ppm, with an average of 50 ppm; seawater contains 1.5 parts per trillion of cerium.[36] Cerium occurs in various minerals, but the most important commercial sources are monazite and bastnäsite, where it makes up about half of the lanthanide content. Cerium is the easiest lanthanide to extract from its minerals because it is the only one that can reach a stable +4 oxidation state in aqueous solution.[39] Because of the decreased solubility of cerium in the +4 oxidation state, cerium is sometimes depleted from rocks relative to the other rare-earth elements and is incorporated into zircon, since Ce4+ and Zr4+ have the same charge and similar ionic radii.[40] In extreme cases, cerium(IV) can form its own minerals separated from the other rare-earth elements, such as cerianite, (Ce,Th)O2.[41]
Crystal structure of bastnäsite-(Ce). Color code: carbon, C, blue-gray; fluorine, F, green; cerium, Ce, white; oxygen, O, red.
Bastnäsite, LnIIICO3F, is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides beyond samarium and europium, and hence the extraction of cerium from it is quite direct. First, the bastnäsite is purified, using dilute hydrochloric acid to remove calcium carbonate impurities. The ore is then roasted in the air to oxidize it to the lanthanide oxides: while most of the lanthanides will be oxidized to the sesquioxides Ln2O3, cerium will be oxidized to the dioxide CeO2. This is insoluble in water and can be leached out with 0.5 M hydrochloric acid, leaving the other lanthanides behind.[39]
The procedure for monazite, (Ln,Th)PO4, which usually contains all the rare earths, as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that, the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid, but cerium oxide is insoluble in HNO3 and hence precipitates out.[11] Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter.[39]
Applications[edit]
Carl Auer von Welsbach, who discovered many applications of cerium
The first use of cerium was in gas mantles, invented by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. In 1885, he had previously experimented with mixtures of magnesium, lanthanum, and yttrium oxides, but these gave green-tinted light and were unsuccessful.[42] Six years later, he discovered that pure thorium oxide produced a much better, though blue, light, and that mixing it with cerium dioxide resulted in a bright white light.[43] Additionally, cerium dioxide also acts as a catalyst for the combustion of thorium oxide. This resulted in great commercial success for von Welsbach and his invention, and created great demand for thorium; its production resulted in a large amount of lanthanides being simultaneously extracted as by-products.[44] Applications were soon found for them, especially in the pyrophoric alloy known as "mischmetall" composed of 50% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and the remainder being the other lanthanides, that is used widely for lighter flints.[44] Usually, iron is also added to form an alloy known as ferrocerium, also invented by von Welsbach.[45] Due to the chemical similarities of the lanthanides, chemical separation is not usually required for their applications, such as the mixing of mischmetall into steel to improve its strength and workability, or as catalysts for the cracking of petroleum.[39] This property of cerium saved the life of writer Primo Levi at the Auschwitz concentration camp, when he found a supply of ferrocerium alloy and bartered it for food.[46]
Ceria is the most widely used compound of cerium. The main application of ceria is as a polishing compound, for example in chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP). In this application, ceria has replaced other metal oxides for the production of high-quality optical surfaces.[45] Major automotive applications for the lower sesquioxide are as a catalytic converter for the oxidation of CO and NOx emissions in the exhaust gases from motor vehicles,[47][48] Cerium(IV) sulfate is used as an oxidising agent in quantitative analysis. Cerium(IV) in methanesulfonic acid solutions is applied in industrial scale electrosynthesis as a recyclable oxidant.[49] Ceric ammonium nitrate is used as an oxidant in organic chemistry and in etching electronic components, and as a primary standard for quantitative analysis.[5][50]
The photostability of pigments can be enhanced by the addition of cerium. It provides pigments with light fastness and prevents clear polymers from darkening in sunlight. Television glass plates are subject to electron bombardment, which tends to darken them by creation of F-center color centers. This effect is suppressed by addition of cerium oxide. Cerium is also an essential component of phosphors used in TV screens and fluorescent lamps.[51][52] Cerium sulfide forms a red pigment that stays stable up to 350 °C. The pigment is a nontoxic alternative to cadmium sulfide pigments.[36]
Biological role and precautions[edit]
Cerium has no known biological role in humans, but is not very toxic either; it does not accumulate in the food chain to any appreciable extent. Because it often occurs together with calcium in phosphate minerals, and bones are primarily calcium phosphate, cerium can accumulate in bones in small amounts that are not considered dangerous. Cerium, like the other lanthanides, is known to affect human metabolism, lowering cholesterol levels, blood pressure, appetite, and risk of blood coagulation. Cerium nitrate is an effective topical antimicrobial treatment for third-degree burns,[36][53] although large doses can lead to cerium poisoning and methemoglobinemia.[54] The early lanthanides act as essential cofactors for the methanol dehydrogenase of the methanotrophic bacterium Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum SolV, for which lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium alone are about equally effective.[55]
Like all rare-earth metals, cerium is of low to moderate toxicity. A strong reducing agent, it ignites spontaneously in air at 65 to 80 °C. Fumes from cerium fires are toxic. Water should not be used to stop cerium fires, as cerium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas. Workers exposed to cerium have experienced itching, sensitivity to heat, and skin lesions. Cerium is not toxic when eaten, but animals injected with large doses of cerium have died due to cardiovascular collapse.[36] Cerium is more dangerous to aquatic organisms, on account of being damaging to cell membranes, but this is not an important risk because it is not very soluble in water.[36]
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Jump up ^ Kreh, Robert P.; Spotnitz, Robert M.; Lundquist, Joseph T. (1989). "Mediated electrochemical synthesis of aromatic aldehydes, ketones, and quinones using ceric methanesulfonate". The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 54 (7): 1526–1531. doi:10.1021/jo00268a010.
Jump up ^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1242–4
Jump up ^ Daniel L. Reger; Scott R. Goode; David Warren Ball (2 January 2009). Chemistry: Principles and Practice. Cengage Learning. p. 482. ISBN 978-0-534-42012-3. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1244–8
Jump up ^ Sroor, Farid M.A.; Edelmann, Frank T. (2012). "Lanthanides: Tetravalent Inorganic". Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry. doi:10.1002/9781119951438.eibc2033. ISBN 978-1-119-95143-8.
Jump up ^ McGill, Ian (2005), "Rare Earth Elements", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 31, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, p. 190, doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_607
Jump up ^ Brener, L.; McKennis, J. S.; Pettit, R. (1976). "Cyclobutadiene in Synthesis: endo-Tricyclo[4.4.0.02,5]deca-3,8-diene-7,10-dione". Org. Synth. 55: 43. doi:10.15227/orgsyn.055.0043.
Jump up ^ B. P. Belousov (1959). "Периодически действующая реакция и ее механизм" [Periodically acting reaction and its mechanism]. Сборник рефератов по радиационной медицине (in Russian). 147: 145. Cite uses deprecated parameter |trans_title= (help)
Jump up ^ Gschneidner K.A., ed. (2006). "Chapter 229: Applications of tetravalent cerium compounds". Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Volume 36. The Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 286–288. ISBN 978-0-444-52142-2.
Jump up ^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1248–9
Jump up ^ Sella, Andrea. "Chemistry in its element: cerium". 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Schelter, Eric J. (20 March 2013). "Cerium under the lens". Nature Chemistry. 5 (4): 348. Bibcode:2013NatCh...5..348S. doi:10.1038/nchem.1602. PMID 23511425. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Krill, G.; Kappler, J. P.; Meyer, A.; Abadli, L.; Ravet, M. F. (1981). "Surface and bulk properties of cerium atoms in several cerium intermetallic compounds: XPS and X-ray absorption measurements". Journal of Physics F: Metal Physics. 11 (8): 1713–1725. Bibcode:1981JPhF...11.1713K. doi:10.1088/0305-4608/11/8/024. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Visual Elements: Cerium". London: Royal Society of Chemistry. 1999–2012. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 120–125. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7.
Jump up ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The Discovery of the Elements: XI. Some Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium:Zirconium, Titanium, Cerium and Thorium". The Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (7): 1231–1243. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1231W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1231.
Jump up ^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1294
^ Jump up to: a b c d Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1229–1232
Jump up ^ Thomas, J. B.; Bodnar, R. J.; Shimizu, N.; Chesner, C. A. (2003). "Melt inclusions in zircon". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 53 (1): 63–87. Bibcode:2003RvMG...53...63T. doi:10.2113/0530063.
Jump up ^ Graham, A. R. (1955). "Cerianite CeO2: a new rare-earth oxide mineral". American Mineralogist. 40: 560–564.
Jump up ^ "Lighting" (11th ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (1911). Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Jump up ^ Wickleder, Mathias S.; Fourest, Blandine; Dorhout, Peter K. (2006). "Thorium". In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (PDF). 3 (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. pp. 52–160. doi:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1228
^ Jump up to: a b Klaus Reinhardt and Herwig Winkler in "Cerium Mischmetal, Cerium Alloys, and Cerium Compounds" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_139
Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Tom (6 November 2009). "Book Of A Lifetime: The Periodic Table, By Primo Levi". The Independent. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Bleiwas, D.I. (2013). Potential for Recovery of Cerium Contained in Automotive Catalytic Converters. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Jump up ^ "Argonne's deNOx Catalyst Begins Extensive Diesel Engine Exhaust Testing". Argonne National Laboratory.
Jump up ^ Arenas, L.F.; Ponce de León, C.; Walsh, F.C. (2016). "Electrochemical redox processes involving soluble cerium species". Electrochimica Acta. 205: 226–247. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2016.04.062.
Jump up ^ Gupta, C. K. & Krishnamurthy, Nagaiyar (2004). Extractive metallurgy of rare earths. CRC Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-415-33340-7.
Jump up ^ Cerium dioxide. nanopartikel.info (2011-02-02)
Jump up ^ Trovarelli, Alessandro (2002). Catalysis by ceria and related materials. Imperial College Press. pp. 6–11. ISBN 978-1-86094-299-0.
Jump up ^ Dai, Tianhong; Huang, Ying-Ying; Sharma, Sulbha K.; Hashmi, Javad T.; Kurup, Divya B.; Hamblin, Michael R. (2010). "Topical Antimicrobials for Burn Wound Infections". Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 5 (2): 124–151. doi:10.2174/157489110791233522. PMC 2935806  . PMID 20429870.
Jump up ^ Attof, Rachid; Magnin, Christophe; Bertin-Maghit, Marc; Olivier, Laure; Tissot, Sylvie; Petit, Paul (2007). "Methemoglobinemia by cerium nitrate poisoning". Burns. 32 (8): 1060–1. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2006.04.005. PMID 17027160.
Jump up ^ Pol, Arjan; Barends, Thomas R. M.; Dietl, Andreas; Khadem, Ahmad F.; Eygensteyn, Jelle; Jetten, Mike S. M.; Op Den Camp, Huub J. M. (2013). "Rare earth metals are essential for methanotrophic life in volcanic mudpots". Environmental Microbiology. 16 (1): 255–64. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12249. PMID 24034209.
Bibliography[edit]
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
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Periodic table
(Large cells)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
H He
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
chemical
properties
[show]
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Cerium compounds
(NH4)4Ce(SO4)4•2 H2O
(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6
CeB6
CeBr3
Ce2(CO3)3
CeCl3
CeF3
CeI3
Ce(OH)3
Ce(NO3)3
Ce(NO3)4
Ce2(C2O4)3
Ce2O3
Ce3O4
CeO2
Ce2(SO4)3
Ce(SO4)2
Ce(acac)3
Ce(CH3SO3)3
Authority control
LCCN: sh85022138
GND: 4147480-6
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text:
The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Tracy McConnell
How I Met Your Mother character
The Mother appearing in "The Locket"
First appearance
"Lucky Penny (unseen)"
"Something New" (seen)
Last appearance
"Last Forever"
Created by
Carter Bays
Craig Thomas
Portrayed by
Cristin Milioti
Information
Aliases
The Mother
Gender
Female
Spouse(s)
Ted Mosby
Significant other(s)
Max (deceased former boyfriend)
Louis (ex-boyfriend)
Children
Penny Mosby (daughter, born in 2015, played by Lyndsy Fonseca)
Luke Mosby (son, born in 2017, played by David Henrie)
Nationality
American
Tracy McConnell, better known as "The Mother", is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted, tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from "Lucky Penny" to "The Time Travelers" as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New" and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.
The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky's wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.
An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[1][2] In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Casting
2 Character history
2.1 Name
3 Death
4 Notes
5 References
Casting[edit]
During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.[4][5]
They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene—for the last episode of season 8—having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I didn’t know what it meant." Milioti learned of the character's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.[5][6]
Character history[edit]
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.[note 1]
The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.[7]
In "Wait for It", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.[7]
On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.
Later, in "Girls Versus Suits", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back." In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.
Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.[7]
In the season 6 opener "Big Days" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician's Code" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.
In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?," Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding.
The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in "How Your Mother Met Me" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.
The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish". In "The Locket", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.
In "Bass Player Wanted", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom's best man punched him for "no reason." Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.
In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her singing from his room next door.
In "Gary Blauman", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.
In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
Name[edit]
The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother". The children react in surprise and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking,[9] which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother's name is Tracy.[10]
Death[edit]
See also: Last Forever
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick" and his children saying that she has been "gone" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother's death.[11] Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning.[12] Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character"[9] and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy.[13] Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request", that the finale "advanced too quickly" and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue".[9]
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage.[14][15] On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene.[16][17] In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[18][1]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that "Pilot" is set.[7] The pilot is set on September 19, 2005.[8]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Debnath, Neela (7 September 2014). "How I Met Your Mother alternative finale leaks online ahead of DVD release". The Independent. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). "Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending". Rolling Stone.
Jump up ^ MacGregor, Rachel (September 23, 2014). "8 reasons why How I Met Your Mother should’ve used its alternative ending". Metro UK.
Jump up ^ Stransky, Tanner (2013-05-13). "'How I Met Your Mother': Burning questions about the mother". Entertainment Weekly.
^ Jump up to: a b Fallon, Kevin (2013-05-14). "‘How I Met Your Mother’ Mother Revealed: Meet Cristin Milioti". The Daily Beast.
Jump up ^ Fallon, Kevin (2015-11-03). "How Cristin Milioti Met ‘Fargo’—And Left ‘How I Met Your Mother’ Behind". The Daily Beast.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "How Your Mother Met Me". How I Met Your Mother. Season 9. Episode 16. January 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pilot". How I Met Your Mother. Season 1. Episode 1. September 19, 2005. CBS.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kuchman, Bill (April 4, 2014). "'How I Met Your Mother' 'Last Forever' Recap: A Divisive Finale and What It Means for 'HIMYM'". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rullo, Samantha (10 March 2014). "What is The Mother's Name on 'How I Met Your Mother'? Episode Title Might Hold the Secret". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ "HIMYM Tomatometer Watch: Series Finale Currently Rotten - Majority of critics disappointed by 'Last Forever'". Rotten Tomatoes. April 2, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/cristin-milioti-sobbed-found-characters-fate-met-mother/story?id=25947923
Jump up ^ Kuchman, Bill (March 31, 2014). "'HIMYM' Finale Instant Reaction". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Guerrero, Danger (April 4, 2014). "Now There's A Petition To 'Rewrite And Reshoot' The 'How I Met Your Mother' Ending". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Maresca, Rachel (April 3, 2014). "'How I Met Your Mother' series finale sparks online petition from fans who want ending changed". New York Daily News. Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Update for those who've been asking: Alt #himym ending will be on s9 DVD and also in the series box set. https://twitter.com/CarterBays/status/452299544995184640
Jump up ^ James, Lauren (April 5, 2014). "'How I Met Your Mother' May Get Alternate Ending After Petition, Says Carter Bays". Contact Music. Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). "Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending". Rolling Stone. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
[hide]
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How I Met Your Mother
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The Mother (Tracy McConnell)
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