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Parental care in birds
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Archaeopteryx fossil in the Museum fur Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany[1]
Parental care refers to the level of investment provided by the mother and the father to ensure development and survival of their offspring. In most birds, parents invest profoundly in their offspring as a mutual effort, making a majority of them socially monogamous for the duration of the breeding season. This happens regardless of whether there is a paternal uncertainty.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 Different modes of parental care
2.1 Bi-parental care
2.1.1 Maternal vs paternal care
2.2 Mono-parental care
2.3 Parental care in polyandrous species
3 Factors affecting parental care
3.1 Ecological conditions
3.2 Female birds can predetermine the sex of their chicks
3.3 Timing and temperature (homeothermy) of reproduction
4 Benefits and costs of parental care
4.1 Evolutionary advantages
4.1.1 Offspring quantity is boosted by weaker birds who release steroids
4.2 Anatomical and physiological advantages
5 Methods of providing care
5.1 Iberian rock sparrows
5.2 Shorebirds
6 Correlation between ornamental cues and parental care
6.1 Iberian rock sparrows (Petronia petronia)
6.2 Common yellowthroats (Geothlypis trichas)
6.3 Pied flycatchers
7 References
Origin[edit]
Birds originally branched from theropod dinosaurs and underwent body miniaturization over a 50 million year period. Changes in anatomy are rearrangement of body mass, adults retain juvenile traits including large brain mass and eyes despite a smaller snout (paedomorphism), and aerial abilities. (Michael S. Y. Lee, Andrea Cau, Darren Naish, and Gareth J. Dyke)[2]
The Archaeopteryx was the first fossil bird recorded with evolved feathers.[3] The forelimb in the Archaeopteryx could have been used for parental care of offspring because enlarged feathers were possibly used to shield offspring from the suns' rays and for flight. (Carey, J.R., and Adams. J (2001))[4] Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, and Aurornis.[5]
Kavanau (1987) was the first to find that unique bi-parental care seen in modern birds probably evolved from extinct birds. They developed the ability to provide protection, escorting, nurturing and egg guarding abilities for their young. Evolution of homeothermy and flight most likely occurred in bi-parental birds with precocial chicks. Kavanau said extant birds (David J. Varricchio)[6] evolved and learned flight through evolution to access ground nests faster. (Kavanau)[7]
Van Rhijn (1984, 1990), Handford and Mares (1985), and Elzanowski (1985) were the first to announce the earliest form of parental care as being mono-parental male care.[8][9] [10]
Wesolowsi (1994) contradicted Kavanau's reasoning by saying flight evolved due to parental care not reproduction as previously thought. While flight was being enhanced in evolutionary stages, lack of parental care meant that the increasing amount of large eggs required a higher level of investment. This created young that were able to take flight shortly after hatching which is known as precocial, in the form of unassisted paternal (male only) care. The next stage of evolution replaced this with bi-parental care (with a few exceptions). Ligon (1999) suggested with Vehrencamp (2000) that male incubation existed first and later gave way to shared and finally female only incubation.
A possible evolutionary timeline (Kavanau):
Theropod dinosaurs → Birds evolved unique bi-parental care→ Avian birds evolved homeothermy and flight
Burley and Johnson (2002), Tullberg et al. (2002), Prum (2002), and Varricchio et al. (1999) questioned the male evolutionary shift from no care to male care. They proposed like Kavanau's model that parental care came first leading to bi-parental care in extant birds.
The origin of parental care in birds is still a controversial topic today. (Tomasz Wesolowski )[11]
Different modes of parental care[edit]
Bi-parental care[edit]
Bi-parental care is the most common form in birds, especially in passerines. A mating pair equally contributes to feeding and guarding the offspring. It occurs in approximately 85% of bird species.[12] The hatchling benefits from the mutual care at the cost of the parents' future reproductive success. Each parent tries to find a mate who will not desert the nest and has high qualities that showcase their parental skills (e.g. ornamental cues). The good parent hypothesis states that birds can invest more energy towards their own survival rate by choosing an ideal mate.
Wire-tailed swallow feeding the offspring
Evolution in potential mates to advertise their parental strengths through ornamental cues (e.g. a yellow chest patch in Iberian rock sparrows) are based on the differential allocation hypothesis. This hypothesis states that the bigger the ornamental cue a mate has, the more investment is put towards the offspring. As a result of bi-parental care, the offspring are usually stronger than birds who are only cared for by one parent in Iberian rock sparrows. (Vicente García-Navas)[13]
Maternal vs paternal care[edit]
In bi-parental care, the male provides food and the female is a caretaker. Both ensure the survival of the offspring. The female may care for her young by covering them to keep them warm, shielding them from the sun or from rain and guarding them from predation. The male may also feed the female, who in turn regurgitates the food to the chicks. In female red-eyed vireos the roles are reversed. Nonbreeding adults or juveniles in acorn woodpeckers contribute the care through collaboration with the parents. (Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye)[14]
Mono-parental care[edit]
Male only care occurs in only 1% of bird species (approximately 90 species). Female only care occurs in 8% of species (approximately 772 species). (Andrew Cockburn)[15] A hypothesis states that the parent that invests less reproductive effort in comparison to its mate, will have a higher chance of deserting because it loses less if successful offspring are not produced. However, in some birds (such as the snail kite found in South America, the Caribbean and Florida), the male and the female sometimes compete over which one will desert the nest regardless of who has invested more into the reproductive effort. Robert Trivers (1972)[16]
Parental care in polyandrous species[edit]
Polyandry care occurs in roughly 9% of bird species (approximately 852 species). (Andrew Cockburn)[17] The two forms of polyandry are sequential and simultaneous polyandry. Sequential polyandry refers to the mating strategy females use in certain situations. First, they will mate with one male and raise the offspring for a short period of time. Then they will mate with another male and care for that clutch resulting in more genetic diversity and quantity of the offspring per season. Females never incubate offspring alone unless the male has been killed. Some examples of birds who practice sequential polyandry include spotted sandpipers and red-necked phalaropes. Temminck's stint, little stint, mountain plover, and sanderling are very similar because the females lay a clutch of eggs and the males incubate them. A second clutch is laid that the female incubates herself.
Polyandry in Northern Jacana[18]

In Polyandry, one female mates with multiple males (and one male only mates with one female) and is a unique mating system which occurs in less than 1% of all bird species. Parental roles are reversed and cause males to provide most of the care given to offspring. Parental roles also cause a reverse in phenotypic differentiation (genetics) resulting in more colorful and larger females compared with males.
Two main types of polyandry exist: simultaneous polyandry and sequential polyandry. An even rarer subtype called cooperative simultaneous polyandry also exists in some species.
In simultaneous polyandry, the female will dominate a certain territory that contains several small nests with two or more males who take care of the offspring. Parental roles are unique since females compete for the males who do most of the parental care work. The Northern jacanas actively practice this in regions such as Southern United States and from Mexico to Panama.
The females will mate with the males in the territory often on the same day. In return, the females will help defend the territory. No copulation occurs during the incubation period and during the first six weeks after the offspring is hatched. If something happens to the eggs, the female will mate with the male once again. This can lead to competition in some species.
In cooperative simultaneous polyandry, multiple males mate with a single female and a clutch of mixed eggs (belonging to multiple males) are cared for by the whole group. Species that exhibit this behavior include certain types of Acorn Woodpeckers and Harris Hawks.
In sequential polyandry (the most common form of polyandry) a female mates with a male and lays her eggs. This female then leaves leaving the male to care for the clutch while she repeats the process with another male. Species that exhibit this behavior include certain types of red and red-necked phalaropes, and spotted sandpipers which breed in South Africa. (Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye)[19]
Factors affecting parental care[edit]
Ecological conditions[edit]
The male to female ratio has an effect on the type and amount of care provided. With an increase in available mates in some birds (such as the rock sparrow), female desertion rate increases leading to more mono-parental care. When female rock sparrows were exposed to an abundant amount of male mates approximately 50% of the females deserted their first nest when the hatchlings were on average 14.3 days old. The fathers successfully took over all parental duties (Pilastro).[13]
Female birds can predetermine the sex of their chicks[edit]
Female birds are able to produce more of a certain gender of birds that are more likely to survive under extreme conditions. In birds, the females' egg determines the gender of the offspring, not the male's sperm. In zebra finches, a study showed the effect of food on gender ratio production. For females, egg production is a metabolically exhausting and nourishment draining process. It was found that the sex of an egg right after it has been laid and the amount of nutrients made available to a growing embryo can be determined as well. Bigger eggs mean bigger young that have a higher survivability rate.[20]
In a study of zebra finches, it was determined that those who were fed a lower quality diet laid eggs that were lighter and less nutrient rich than those zebra finches who were fed a higher quality diet. Therefore, those fed a lower quality diet produced more sons and those fed high quality produced more daughters (bigger, more nutrient-rich eggs) because in nature female offspring need more nourishment than males to survive and grow. Males need less nourishment because they do not lay eggs. Since zebra finches can increase the survivability rate of their species, this can be seen as a pre-birth parental care adaptation. (Nicholas B. Davies)[21]
Timing and temperature (homeothermy) of reproduction[edit]
A known trend shows that most birds reproduce earlier if spring comes early with high temperatures. Climate change makes it difficult to notice a connection between temperature and the time of reproduction. Visser et al. (2009) has attempted to find this connection with a 6-year-long experiment in great tits (Parus major). If spring comes three weeks early, birds are more likely to reproduce quicker. This act is caused by early implementation of ornamental cues. He found this to be a fact in both wild and captive birds. Higher early spring temperatures also leads to higher level of parental care given to offspring because of more commitment and less chance of desertion from both parents. Since, parents find mates to reproduce earlier this can be seen as a pre-birth parental care adaptation because of less desertion.[13]
Benefits and costs of parental care[edit]
Parental investment is any form of investment made by a parent that increases an offspring's rate of survival (reproductive success) at the expense of the parent or parent's ability to divert investment towards a new brood. The cost must yield sufficient benefits to ensure current and future breed survival. If parents invest too much parental care into the current brood their future brood will be at risk or cease to exist entirely. An ideal level of parental investment that will ensure the survival and optimal quality of both broods exists. David Lack (1958)[22]
The brood size (number of eggs laid per clutch) is another factor which effects quality and survival rate. To increase reproductive success over a mate's lifetime a parent must spread parental investment effectively between a current and a future brood. G.C. Williams (1966)[23]
If there is a higher level of feeding in birds such as the collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis), then there is an increase in parental investment during the mating season. However the reproductive success of the future brood will decrease. (Gustafsson & Sutherland, 1988) The cause might be that effort reserved for reproduction is diminished by a need to maintain the immune system this leads to a physiological condition hindering breeding. (Sheldon & Verhulst, 1996; Norris & Evans, 2000)
In most bird species, females invest in parental care more than males at the expense of reproductive success. If both parents contribute to young feeding and guarding at the same rate, the parents reproductive success increases while together. Desertion by any mate would be a setback because parental investment would be diverted to finding a new mate. A male often deserts first because internal fertilization allows the male to impregnate and leave. Males rely heavily on the quantity of offspring for reproductive success.
A hypothesis was tested in South America to see if species of birds would respond more aggressively to an adult predator (a hawk) than their Northern counterparts because they care more about future reproductive success due to a smaller brood size. On the other hand, those in North America respond more aggressively to an offspring predator (a jay) because they care more about their current brood due to a larger brood size. (Cameron Ghalambor and Thomas Martin (2001))
Often parents change the level of parental care provided to manage the cost and benefits of parental care. Passerine species in North America have a large brood size containing 4–6 offspring and a 50% adult survival rate, and those in South America have a smaller brood size containing 2–3 offspring and a 75% adult survival rate. An increase in parental investment (shown by the number of trips made) also increases the threat of predation. The number of visits decreased in the presence of predators of adult birds and predators of offspring was noted in 5 species of birds in the same study. A comparison was made between the same species in the North and South (bunting, thrush, warbler, flycatcher and the wren).
Parents can also vary parental investment to meet a current brood requirements. In 2011, the hihi (Notiomystis cincta) species were fed a sugary solution to make their mouths redder. Redder mouths acted as an ornamental cue signaling healthier offspring for a potential mate. The experiment showed that those fed the sugary solution had an increased chance to create an additional future clutch during the same mating season. (Rose Thorogood and colleagues (2011))[24]
Evolutionary advantages[edit]
Offspring quantity is boosted by weaker birds who release steroids[edit]
A lesser black-backed gull[25]
In black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus) female gulls who exist in poor conditions would usually give their chicks steroids causing a higher survival rate in them. By comparing the level of androgens with a control group, it was found that females who were treated to have a better body condition produced eggs with a lower level of androgens (such as testosterone). (Verboven et al. (2003)) This shows that females with a lower body condition (which correlates with poor conditions) give their chicks a steroid boost so that they have a better chance at survival. This contradicts with Verboven's original hypothesis that gulls in better condition would produce these steroids. Black-backed gulls give these androgens to their chicks via egg formation in the yolk. (Verboven et al. (2003)) Steroids offer equal opportunity for Black-backed birds to flourish in ideal and hostile conditions and serve as a pre-birth form of parental care.[26]
Anatomical and physiological advantages[edit]
Upon closer observation of the yolk in some bird eggs antibodies of mostly IgY (or IgG). The growing bird fetus uses up the yolk which contains IgY. Upon hatching, the young chick starts to create his own IgY but the mothers antibodies will still influence development and growth rate. This IgY is extremely important to avoid problems occurring from a depressed immune system. In case of surgical bursectomy of a mother bird the helper T cells which normally attack pathogens become depressed. The young birds are at risk of disease and may have a lower survival rate depending on environmental conditions (Grindstaff 2003).[27]
Carotenoids in egg yolk are responsible for the red or yellow color. They protect the underlying fetus's tissues from the free radicals in the environment. Protection against damage caused by lipids in birds is enhanced by vitamin E and other antioxidants that are infused with the carotenoids and yolk. These same antioxidants also prevent the destruction of maternal antibodies (IgY) which are extremely important to survival rate and can be seen as a form of pre-birth parental care. (Grindstaff)[28]
Methods of providing care[edit]
Iberian rock sparrows[edit]
There is a clear distinction between the roles of both parents in the Iberian rock sparrows. The female incubates the eggs 11–14 days before they hatch. Then, the female feeds the offspring while the male teaches them to fly and leave the nest usually within only 18 days of birth. The male also feeds the offspring a little less than half the time, easing the burden on both parents. Rock sparrows mostly bring one food item per trip and other times guard the nest. It was commonly observed how this species comes to the nest to guard their young when they are not bringing food, often as a prevention tactic to scare off predators. Rock sparrows raise their heads to display their yellow patch and make a noise when guarding. (Rikón, Amanda Garcia Del)[13][29]
Shorebirds[edit]
Shorebirds chicks are precocial with parents who offer low parental investment, but still fulfill offspring requirements through collaborated polygamy. Future reproductive success is dependent on changes in parental investment, where low investment results in higher mating opportunities and high investment results in lower mating opportunities (lower future reproductive success). The sexual conflict hypothesis fits both results more than the parental investment hypothesis. (Gavin H. Thomas, Tamás Székely)[30]
Correlation between ornamental cues and parental care[edit]
Iberian rock sparrows (Petronia petronia)[edit]
There is a positive correlation between ornamental cues and the parental care invested in Iberian rock sparrows (Vincente Garcia-Navas). Males show more parental effort if their female mate has a larger yellow chest patch. Also, larger nestlings belonged to those who had males with larger yellow chest patches. There is also a connection between a larger yellow breast patch and higher parental effort but only from the males. Males who mated with females with a bigger yellow chest had a higher rate of visiting their offspring. Bigger males bred later and fed their young more than their smaller counterparts. Larger males are not in a hurry to mate because they are in better condition and can weigh their options. (Rikón, Amanda Garcia Del)[31]
Common yellowthroats (Geothlypis trichas)[edit]
Two pair species of common yellowthroats were analyzed from Wisconsin and New York for the effect of ornamental cues on parental care. Males possess a black face mask and yellow (breast, throat, and belly) patch which is usually completely absent in females. In both U.S. states, yellowthroat males with a larger patch had a lower parental investment towards their young however the ornament involved varied. In Wisconsin males with a larger face mask showed lower parental care and their yellow patch had no effect on parental care. In New York, males with a larger yellow patch showed lower parental care and their larger face mask had no effect on parental care. (Alonzo, Suzanne H.) Females in Wisconsin were not affected by a larger black face mask in providing parental care and likewise females in New York were not affected by yellow patch size, conflicting with the good parent hypothesis (larger ornamental cues lead to higher parental care). The trade-off hypothesis matches the results which says larger ornamental cues on males leads to less parental investment because their effort is diverted to finding more mates for future reproductive success or holding on to territories.[32]
Pied flycatchers[edit]
Older male Pied flycatchers with large badge sizes had a harder time establishing a territory when compared with those with smaller badge sizes. However, younger males with large badge sizes who got hold of territory provided less parental care (feeding) than those with smaller badge sizes and females. Total parental investment and future reproductive success between both groups of males was unaffected because females adjusted their parental investment to accommodate. Large badge size leads an increase in male to male competition because they divert their parental investment towards showing off their badge during mating. (Anna Qvarnstrõm).[33]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Schreiber, Kai. "Archaeopteryx fossil -Museum fur Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany" 18 February 2012 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Archaeopteryx_fossil_-Museum_fur_Naturkunde,_Berlin,_Germany-8a.jpg
Jump up ^ Sustained miniaturization and anatomical innovation in the dinosaurian ancestors of birds •Michael S. Y. Lee, •Andrea Cau, •Darren Naish, •and Gareth J. Dyke Science 1 August 2014: 345 (6196), 562-566. [DOI:10.1126/science.1252243]
Jump up ^ How birds became birds •Michael J. Benton Science 1 August 2014: 345 (6196), 508-509. [DOI:10.1126/science.1257633]
Jump up ^ Carey, J.R. and Adams, J. (2001). The predaptive role of parental care in the evolution of avian flight. Archaeopteryx 19: 97-108.
Jump up ^ Godefroit, Pascal; Cau, Andrea; Hu, Dong-Yu; Escuillié, François; Wu, Wenhao; Dyke, Gareth (2013). "A Jurassic avialan dinosaur from China resolves the early phylogenetic history of birds". Nature. 498 (7454): 359–362. Bibcode:2013Natur.498..359G. doi:10.1038/nature12168. PMID 23719374.
Jump up ^ Avian Paternal Care Had Dinosaur Origin •David J. Varricchio, •Jason R. Moore, •Gregory M. Erickson, •Mark A. Norell, •Frankie D. Jackson, •and John J. Borkowski Science 19 December 2008: 322 (5909), 1826-1828. [DOI:10.1126/science.1163245
Jump up ^ Kavanau JL, 1987. Lovebirds, cockatiels, budgerigars: behavior and evolution. Los Angeles: Science Software Systems.
Jump up ^ van Rhijn J, 1984. Phylogenetical constraints in the evolution of parental care strategies in birds. Neth J Zool 34:103-122.
Jump up ^ Elżanowski A, 1985. The evolution of parental care in birds with reference to fossil embryos. In: Acta XVIII Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici, Moscow, 1982, vol. 1 (Ilyichev VD, Gavrilov VM, eds). Moscow: Nauka; 178–183.
Jump up ^ Handford P, Mares MA, 1985. The mating systems of ratites and tinamous: an evolutionary perspective. Biol J Linn Soc 25:77-104.
Jump up ^ Tomasz Wesolowski The origin of parental care in birds: a reassessment Behavioral Ecology (2004) 15 (3): 520-523 doi:10.1093/beheco/arh039
Jump up ^ Andrew Cockburn Proc. R. Soc. B: 2006 273 1375-1383; DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3458. Published 7 June 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rincón, Amanda García Del, Esperanza S. Ferrer, Hicham Fathi, and Vicente García-Navas. "Mating Strategies, Parental Investment and Mutual Ornamentation in Iberian Rock Sparrows (Petronia petronia)." Behaviour150.14 (2013): 1641-663. Web.
Jump up ^ Copyright ® 1988 by Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. (Polyandry in Northern Jacanas)
Jump up ^ Andrew Cockburn Proc. R. Soc. B: 2006 273 1375-1383; DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3458. Published 7 June 2006
Jump up ^ STEVEN R. BEISSINGER, Anim. Behav., Mate desertion and reproductive effort in the snail kite 1987, 35, 1504-1519
Jump up ^ Andrew Cockburn Proc. R. Soc. B: 2006 273 1375-1383; DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3458. Published 7 June 2006
Jump up ^ Crossley, Richard (Crossley, Richard) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
Jump up ^ Copyright ® 1988 by Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. (Polyandry in Northern Jacanas)
Jump up ^ Alison N. Rutstein, •Lucy Gilbert, •Peter J. B. Slater, •and Jeff A. Graves Sex-specific patterns of yolk androgen allocation depend on maternal diet in the zebra finch. Behavioral Ecology (Jan./Feb. 2005) 16 (1): 62-69 first published online July 28, 2004doi:10.1093/beheco/arh123
Jump up ^ Alison N. Rutstein, •Lucy Gilbert, •Peter J. B. Slater, •and Jeff A. Graves Sex-specific patterns of yolk androgen allocation depend on maternal diet in the zebra finchBehavioral Ecology (Jan./Feb. 2005) 16 (1): 62-69 first published online July 28, 2004doi:10.1093/beheco/arh123
Jump up ^ Visser, Marcel E., Leonard J.M. Holleman, and Samuel P. Caro. "Temperature Has a Causal Effect on Avian Timing of Reproduction." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276.1665 (2009): 2323–2331. PMC. Web. 10 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Williams GC (1966) Natural selection, cost of reproduction and a refinement of Lack's principle. Am Nat 100: 687-690
Jump up ^ An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology, Fourth Edition. Nicholas B. Davies, John R. Krebs and Stuart A. West. © 2012 Nicholas B. Davies, John R. Krebs and Stuart A. West. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Jump up ^ Wills, Tony. "Black backed gull". Larus dominicanus 27 April 2007. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Black_backed_gull.jpg
Jump up ^ Yolk androgen deposition as a female tactic to manipulate paternal contributionBehavioral Ecology (2007) 18 (2): 496-498 first published online January 17, 2007doi:10.1093/beheco/arl106
Jump up ^ Grindstaff, J. L., E. D. Brodie III, and E. D. Ketterson. 2003. Immune function across generations: integrating mechanism and evolutionary process in maternal antibody transmission. Proc. Royal Soc. Lond. B 270: 2309-2319.
Jump up ^ Grindstaff, J. L., E. D. Brodie III, and E. D. Ketterson. 2003. Immune function across generations: integrating mechanism and evolutionary process in maternal antibody transmission. Proc. Royal Soc. Lond. B 270: 2309-2319.
Jump up ^ Anders Pape Møller and José Javier Cuervo The evolution of paternity and paternal care in birds Behavioral Ecology (2000) 11 (5): 472-485 doi:10.1093/beheco/11.5.472
Jump up ^ EVOLUTIONARY PATHWAYS IN SHOREBIRD BREEDING SYSTEMS: SEXUAL CONFLICT, PARENTAL CARE, AND CHICK DEVELOPMENT Gavin H. Thomas, Tamás Székely, and M. Björklund Evolution 2005 59 (10), 2222-2230
Jump up ^ Rincón, Amanda García Del, Esperanza S. Ferrer, Hicham Fathi, and Vicente García-Navas. "Mating Strategies, Parental Investment and Mutual Ornamentation in Iberian Rock Sparrows (Petronia petronia)." Behaviour150.14 (2013): 1641-663. Web
Jump up ^ C. R. Freeman-Gallant is at the Department of Biology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, U.S.A.
Jump up ^ Anna Qvarnström Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B: 1997 264 1225-1231; DOI: 10.1098/rspb.1997.0169. Published 22 August 1997
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Modes of reproduction
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2018 College Football Playoff National Championship
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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2018 College Football Playoff National Championship
Alabama Crimson Tide Georgia Bulldogs
(12–1) (13–1)
SEC SEC
26 23
Head coach:
Nick Saban Head coach:
Kirby Smart
AP Coaches CFP
4 4 4
AP Coaches CFP
3 3 3
1
2
3
4
OT
Total
Alabama 0 0 10 10 6 26
Georgia 0 13 7 0 3 23
Date
January 8, 2018
Season
2017
Stadium
Mercedes-Benz Stadium
Location
Atlanta, Georgia
MVP
Offensive: #13 QB Tua Tagovailoa, Fr. Alabama
Defensive: #94 DT Da'Ron Payne, Jr. Alabama
Favorite
Alabama by 3.5
National anthem
Zac Brown Band
Referee
Dan Capron (Big Ten)[1]
Halftime show
Georgia Redcoat Marching Band
Million Dollar Band
Attendance
77,430
United States TV coverage
Network
ESPN/ESPN Radio/ESPN Deportes
Announcers
Chris Fowler, Kirk Herbstreit, Maria Taylor and Tom Rinaldi (ESPN)
Sean McDonough, Todd Blackledge, Holly Rowe and Ian Fitzsimmons (ESPN Radio)
College Football Playoff National Championship
< 2017 2019 >
The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season. The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26–23 in overtime. Alabama overcame a 13–0 deficit at halftime. Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game.
The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season. Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and the Rose Bowl, respectively, on January 1, 2018. The championship game was played at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia on January 8, 2018.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 2018 College Football Playoff
3 Teams
3.1 Alabama
3.2 Georgia
4 Game summary
4.1 Scoring summary
4.2 Statistics
5 Broadcasting
6 Dispute
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship took place at Mercedes-Benz Stadium
The Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015.[2]
2018 College Football Playoff[edit]
Semifinals Championship
January 1 – Sugar Bowl
Mercedes-Benz Superdome, New Orleans
1 Clemson 6
4 Alabama 24 January 8 – National Championship
Mercedes-Benz Stadium, Atlanta
4 Alabama (OT) 26
January 1 – Rose Bowl
Rose Bowl, Pasadena 3 Georgia 23
2 Oklahoma 48
3 Georgia (2OT) 54
This bracket:
view
talk
edit

The College Football Playoff (CFP) selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide.[3]
Teams[edit]
Alabama[edit]
See also: 2017 Alabama Crimson Tide football team
The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24–6 to reach the championship game. The Tide had a 12–1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers. The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban.[4]
Georgia[edit]
See also: 2017 Georgia Bulldogs football team
The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54–48 in double overtime to reach the championship game. The Bulldogs had a 13–1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers, 28–7. The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart.[5]
Game summary[edit]
After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game. After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown. Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40-yard field goal. The teams each had three-and-outs for the game's first two punts. During Georgia's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score.[6]
After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41-yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three. Alabama's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted. Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10-yard-line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6–0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half. On Alabama's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama's JK Scott punted for the third time. Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury. Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1:19 remaining in the half on their own 31-yard-line. Nine plays later, on Alabama's 1-yard-line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13–0 going into halftime.[6]
Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half. They started their drive on their own 22-yard-line. Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three-and-out. The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt. Georgia started their drive on their own 36-yard-line, but punted on 4th & 17. Alabama took over on their own 44-yard-line.[6] The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6-yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80-yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20–7. On the second play of Alabama's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia's Deandre Baker. Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama's 39-yard-line. The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40-yard-line. The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43-yard field goal that put Bama within ten. The teams then traded punts. Just prior to Alabama's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency". He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious. Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted. The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3:49. With three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game-winning 36-yard field goal to the left, sending the game to overtime.[6]
In overtime, Georgia scored on a 51-yard field goal. On Alabama's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16-yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game-winning 41-yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith.[6] Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game.[7]
Scoring summary[edit]
[hide]Scoring summary
Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score
Plays
Yards
TOP
Alabama
Georgia
2 14:14 14 55 7:40 Georgia 41-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 0 3
2 7:33 13 70 5:19 Georgia 27-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 0 6
2 0:07 9 69 1:12 Georgia Mecole Hardman 1-yard touchdown run, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 0 13
3 8:52 7 56 1:59 Alabama Henry Ruggs III 6-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa, Andy Pappanastos kick good 7 13
3 6:52 4 93 1:55 Georgia Mecole Hardman 80-yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 7 20
3 5:20 6 15 1:06 Alabama 43-yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos 10 20
4 9:24 8 71 2:15 Alabama 30-yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos 13 20
4 3:49 8 66 3:21 Alabama Calvin Ridley 7-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa, Andy Pappanastos kick good 20 20
OT 4 -9 Georgia 51-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 20 23
OT 2 25 Alabama DeVonta Smith 41-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa 26 23
"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
26
23
Statistics[edit]
1
2
3
4
OT
Total
No. 4 Crimson Tide 0 0 10 10 6 26
No. 3 Bulldogs 0 13 7 0 3 23
Statistics
Alabama
Georgia
First downs 20 22
Plays–yards 71–371 77–365
Rushes–yards 39–184 45–133
Passing yards 187 232
Passing: Comp–Att–Int 17–32–1 16–32–2
Time of possession 26:17 33:43
Sources: ESPN, StatBroadcast
Team
Category
Player
Statistics
Alabama Passing Tua Tagovailoa 14/24, 166 yds, 3 TD, 1 INT
Rushing Najee Harris 6 car, 64 yds
Receiving Calvin Ridley 4 rec, 32 yds, 1 TD
Georgia Passing Jake Fromm 16/32, 232 yds, 1 TD, 2 INT
Rushing Sony Michel 14 car, 98 yds
Receiving Riley Ridley 6 rec, 82 yds
Sources: ESPN, StatBroadcast
Broadcasting[edit]
The game was televised nationally by ESPN. On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime. This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes-Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park.[8]
Dispute[edit]
Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers in the 2018 Peach Bowl, the UCF Knights claimed the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football.[9] [3] UCF held a victory parade at Disney World[10] and hung a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement.[11] The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches, many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska; Frost himself (who coached UCF in the game) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract.[12]
The selection committee controversially ranked undefeated UCF 12th at the end of the regular season, below a number of two-loss teams from the Power Five conferences, which left them out of the CFP. The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll, receiving 57 first-place votes, while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first-place votes — the first time in the CFP era that the AP poll did not have a unanimous No. 1 team.[13] Additionally, the Knights finished the 2017 football season as the No. 1 team in the Colley Bias Free Matrix Rankings. The Colley Matrix is recognized by the NCAA in its list of “national champion major selections.” [14]
See also[edit]
College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kirshner, Alex (January 8, 2018). "A Big Ten officiating crew is working the all-SEC National Championship". sbnation.com. SB Nation. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Alex Scarbrough (November 4, 2015). "Atlanta, Santa Clara and New Orleans land CFP title games for 2018–20". ESPN.com. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Selection Committee Rankings: Final Top 25 Rankings" (PDF). College Football Playoff. December 3, 2017. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Alabama's Sugar Bowl win against Clemson sets up all-SEC final: Final score, stats, analysis". nola.com. January 1, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Emerson, Seth (January 1, 2018). "Georgia to play for national championship after Rose Bowl win in 2 OT". ajc.com. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hoffman, Benjamin; Drape, Joe; Tracy, Marc (January 8, 2018). "National Championship Game: Georgia vs. Alabama Live Score". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Perez, A.J. (January 9, 2018). "CFP players of the game: Alabama's Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne". USA Today. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Kendrick Lamar to Perform at College Football Playoff Title Game". Billboard. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Baker, Matt (January 3, 2018). "UCF is really claiming a national championship". tampabay.com. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Rollins, Khadrice (January 2, 2018). "UCF Is Having a Parade at Disney World for National Championship Caliber Season". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Gartland, Dan (January 3, 2018). "UCF Is Hanging a National Championship Banner at Its Stadium". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Chavez, Chris (January 3, 2018). "UCF AD Says Coaches Will Be Paid National Championship Bonuses". SI.com. Retrieved January 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ September 1, 2018 (January 9, 2018). "Alabama is No. 1 in final AP poll for 11th time; UCF 6th". Msn.com. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Roger Simmons (January 9, 2018). "National champions: UCF Knights finish season ranked No. 1 in Colley Matrix". orlandosentinel.com. Retrieved February 14, 2018.
External links[edit]
Media related to 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship at Wikimedia Commons
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When a Man Loves a Woman (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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When a Man Loves a Woman
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Luis Mandoki
Produced by
Jon Avnet
Written by
Ronald Bass
Al Franken
Starring
Andy García
Meg Ryan
Lauren Tom
Ellen Burstyn
Music by
Zbigniew Preisner
Cinematography
Lajos Koltai
Production
company
Touchstone Pictures
Distributed by
Buena Vista Pictures
Release date
April 29, 1994 (1994-04-29)
Running time
126 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$50.0 million
When a Man Loves a Woman is a 1994 American romantic drama film written by Al Franken and Ronald Bass, starring Andy García, Meg Ryan, Tina Majorino, Mae Whitman, Ellen Burstyn, Lauren Tom and Philip Seymour Hoffman.
For her performance as an alcoholic mother, Ryan received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Best Female Actor in a Leading Role. The film's title is taken from the song of the same name by Percy Sledge.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Release and reception
5 Soundtrack
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
The film chronicles one woman's (Meg Ryan) alcoholism and her husband's (Andy García) efforts to help her.
Meg Ryan plays Alice Green, a school counselor who has a serious drinking problem and is married to Michael (Andy García), an airline pilot. Though she's lighthearted and loving, Alice is often reckless and, when drunk, even neglects her children: nine-year-old daughter Jess (Tina Majorino) from a previous marriage, and four-year-old daughter Casey (Mae Whitman), whose father is Michael.
One afternoon, Alice enters their home in a drunken incoherent state. She dismisses the reluctant caretaker, who leaves her alone with her children. Still drinking, Alice is confronted by her eldest daughter concerned for her mother's welfare. In return, she violently slaps Jess, who runs to her room crying. Alice enters the shower. Unable to control her balance and calling for Jess, she falls to the side and smashes through the shower door onto the bathroom floor. Fearing her mother has died, Jess contacts Michael who immediately flies home to be by his wife's side.
After the incident and while in the hospital, Michael and Alice confront the truth about Alice's drinking. They jointly decide she must seek professional help for her alcoholism. Upon release from the hospital, a timid Alice enters a rehabilitation clinic.
Michael finds himself now the main caretaker of their home and two children, a role he struggles to maintain along with his career as an airline pilot. Meanwhile, at the clinic, Alice is flourishing; her recovery is painful but stabilizing and she is well liked and respected by both staff and fellow clinic tenants alike. During a family visit day at the clinic, Alice immediately begins to rebuild her shattered bond with the children leaving Michael alone to wander the grounds uncomfortable and out of place in his wife's new lifestyle.
Alice returns home sober yet guarded. She is vocal, strong and changed. Michael is having trouble adjusting to Alice's balance. He has become used to being the stable and controlled one in their relationship and is jealous of Alice's lack of dependence and outside friendships. Coming to terms with their estrangement, a reluctant Michael (believing therapy is for the weak) and a willing Alice see a marriage counselor who quickly establishes Michael's "co-dependency" on Alice's role as an alcoholic.
Unable to find a medium and with tempers flared, Michael moves out and Alice becomes the main caretaker of their home and children. Alice is once again seen flourishing in her new role while Michael is unable to find control and seeks out a support group for spouses of alcoholics. Initially shy, Michael becomes a more vocal member of the group and shares his sorrow over his lack of understanding for the gravity his wife's sobriety would have on him, his children and his marriage.
Alice and Michael singularly return to the hospital to celebrate the birth of their caretaker's baby. They spend time together and as they depart Alice asks Michael if he would attend her 180-day sober speech where she will acknowledge her failings and accomplishments. She also tells him that she has been thinking about asking him to come home with her. Michael tells Alice he has been offered a job in Denver. For the first time since they both agreed Alice should enter rehab, they both agree Michael should take the position.
The penultimate scene is Alice as she stands on a stage and tells her sobriety story; the toll it took on her, her children and her marriage. She is funny, confident, sad but optimistic. Her audience is moved to tears. Her speech ends and she is surrounded by well wishers. Out of the crowd appears Michael. At ease with himself and Alice, he explains what he missed along the way..."to listen, to really listen."
They share an intense, longing, passionate kiss as the credits roll.
Cast[edit]
Meg Ryan as Alice Green
Andy García as Michael Green
Lauren Tom as Amy
Philip Seymour Hoffman as Gary
Tina Majorino as Jess Green
Mae Whitman as Casey Green
Ellen Burstyn as Emily
Production[edit]
Tom Hanks was considered for Garcia's role and Michelle Pfeiffer and Debra Winger were considered for Ryan's role.[1]
Release and reception[edit]
The movie debuted at No.2 behind The Crow.[2] When a Man Loves a Woman currently holds a 71% fresh rating among critics at Rotten Tomatoes, although the film has a mixed reception and is seen unfavorably by many because of its length and the way it deals with alcoholism and stress in the family.[3][4] James Berardinelli stated that the "ending is too facile", and that the film took "longer than necessary to arrive at its resolution", adding that there are moments in the film where the script would strike a raw nerve with certain people because of how it judges alcoholics and deals with issues related to alcoholism.[4] However, he said that the "film's poignancy is its strength, even if occasional didactic tendencies are its weakness". David Denby of New York Magazine called it an "earnest and highly prolonged counseling disappointment", a "pushy therapeutic exercise" which, although intelligent, features "endless talk, a stunted mise en scène, and a moral atmosphere of dogged and literal-minded persistence" which "overvalues its own sobriety".[3] Roger Ebert, himself a recovering alcoholic, wrote a very profound review of the movie praising its artistic qualities just in passing (“I couldn't find a false note in Ryan's performance - and only one in Garcia's …”) but more acknowledging its perfect description of the role of the family enablers in development of alcoholism.[5]
Soundtrack[edit]
When a Man Loves a Woman
Crazy Love
El Gusto
Main Title
Garbage Compulsion
Homecoming
I Hit Her Hard
Dressing Casey
Gary
Michael Decides
Alice & Michael
Running From Mercy by Rickie Lee Jones
I'm a Good Man by Robert Cray
Everybody Hurts by R.E.M.
Stewart's Coat by Rickie Lee Jones
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mell, Eila (2013). Casting Might-Have-Beens: A Film by Film Directory of Actors Considered for Roles Given to Others. McFarland. ISBN 9781476609768. page 254
Jump up ^ Fox, David J. (May 16, 1994). "The Crow' Takes Off at Box Office Movies: The opening is the biggest ever for Miramax. In second place is `When a Man Loves a Woman,' with `Crooklyn' third.". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 28, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b New York Magazine. New York Media, LLC. 9 May 1994. p. 66. ISSN 0028-7369.
^ Jump up to: a b Berardinelli, James (1 January 2005). Reel Views 2: The Ultimate Guide to the Best 1,000 Modern Movies on DVD and Video. Justin, Charles & Co. p. 383. ISBN 978-1-932112-40-5.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger. "When a Man Loves a Woman". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)
When a Man Loves a Woman on IMDb
When a Man Loves a Woman at Rotten Tomatoes
When a Man Loves a Woman at Box Office Mojo
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Luis Mandoki
Gaby: A True Story (1987)
White Palace (1990)
Born Yesterday (1993)
When a Man Loves a Woman (1994)
Message in a Bottle (1999)
Angel Eyes (2001)
Trapped (2002)
Voces inocentes (2004)
La vida precoz y breve de Sabina Rivas (2012)
[show]
v
t
e
Al Franken
Bibliography
I'm Good Enough, I'm Smart Enough, and Doggone It, People Like Me! (1992)
Rush Limbaugh Is a Big Fat Idiot and Other Observations (1996)
Why Not Me? (1999)
Oh, the Things I Know! (2003)
Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them (2003)
The Truth (with Jokes) (2005)
Al Franken, Giant of the Senate (2017)
Political career
Midwest Values PAC
Employee Free Choice Act
Student Non-Discrimination Act
Medical Loss Ratio
2008 U.S. Senate election
2014 U.S. Senate election
See also
The Al Franken Show
Air America Radio
Saturday Night Live
Stuart Smalley
Stuart Saves His Family
When A Man Loves a Woman (1994 film, co-writer)
LateLine
Al Franken: God Spoke (2006 documentary)
Fox v. Franken
Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party
Commons
Wikiquote
Wikisource
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=When_a_Man_Loves_a_Woman_(film)&oldid=798622114"
Categories:
1994 films
English-language films
1990s romance films
American romantic drama films
American films
Films about alcoholism
Films directed by Luis Mandoki
Films set in San Francisco
Touchstone Pictures films
Screenplays by Ronald Bass
Screenplays by Al Franken
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