In 2014 Graham Wallas’ classic ‘Art of Thought’ (1926) was republished. Open any serious book on creativity, from psychology to design, and you will find Wallas in the reference list. Ever read a blog on ‘Why we are most creative in the shower’, or something with a similar title, that comes from Wallas’ theory. Maybe you have heard of the ‘creative process’ in terms of Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, Verification. That’s Wallas.
Quick and dirty, anno 2019 Wallas’ theory is explained as follows:
In the Preparation stage you consciously work on a problem. In the Incubation stage only the subconscious somehow works on the problem. Then a solution comes to the conscious, that moment is accompanied with the feeling of Illumination. And that solution needs to be verified, does the solution you came up with truly solve the problem, hence Verification. This is the creative process.
As with many classics, many authors refer to this classic through an other book. Anno 2019 a reference to Wallas might be a reference of a reference of a reference etc. And before you know it, the main argument of the original is lost and only one simple to remember issue survives. In this case the four stages of the creative process, as we call it (Wallas calls it the assocations process, just saying..).
Let’s go back to the source
You know that feeling when you finish a book, close the cover, hold it in front of you, and you think: ‘WOW!’? I had that. But not for the obvious reasons that this book gave me a completely new insight on creativity. It is the writer that is inspiring. Wallas was an educationalist and social psychologist with visionary ideas on education. I need to remind myself constantly that this book is almost a hundred years old, especially in the third part of the book in which he discusses how to educate Thinking. I keep picturing this city with smoke and factories, blacked faces from the mine work, children sitting in a classroom with a strict teacher in front of them. And Wallas fighting in the frontline against this way of teaching. I wish that Wallas was alive and that I could here is opinion about creativity and education nowadays…
But let me start at the beginning before jumping to the third part.
Some general remarks
Firstly, it is not an easy read. It is not like the management books or even the scientific books we can read today. Long sentences, many komma’s and since I am no native speaker I had to look up some words, like ‘volition’ (which has nothing to do with speed as I first thought, but with ‘will’, Google translate…).
Secondly, the title of the book is The Art of Thought, and not something like ‘The Stages of a Creative Process’. That is definitely a hint that the book is not only about the four stages of the creative proces but about, well as the title already says, about How to Think. Actually, only a small part in the book dedicated to this process.
12 chapters, 3 sections
The book exists out of 12 chapter that I think kan be divided into three section:
- ‘What is the Art of thought?’
- ‘How is the Art of Thought’ influenced?
- ‘How to nurture and develop the Art of Thought?’
I will discuss the first part the most elaborately, since that is leads up the four stages of the creative process. I’ll be very short on the second part and I will do a lot of quoting on the third part.
What is the Art of Thought?
Wallas does not give a specific definition. He firstly gives his opinion about Thinking (chapter 1 & 2). He focusses on the ‘human organism’ in chapter one and ‘human concioucsness’ in chapter 2. These to concepts are important because:
“the conception of human organism and human conciousness best indicates the general facts with which such an art must deal…” (p 37),
‘such an art’ refers to Thinking.
He doesn’t like the popular metaphor that the human are machines. I guess he would also disagree with the computer metaphor some use nowadays. He sees the human being as a an organism and a system of living elements. According to Wallas:
“the aim of the art of thought is an improved co-ordination of these elements in the process of thought” (p vi).
According to Wallas consciousness and unconsciousness is not a matter of black and white. It is a grey scale. He also identifies quasi-consciousness, the sort of consciousness you might experience when you are pretty drunk. And dissociated consciousness or co-consciousness, the sort of consciousness that a person might experience during hypnoses: being conscious and unconsciousness at the same time.
In the context of his ideas on the creative process it is important to mention that ‘free association’, happens in the unconsciousnness, according to Wallas of course. To exercise the Art of Thought, one should not only observe your consciousness but you should also learn to tap into your unconsciouness and observe it better.
Chapter three is about “the ‘natural’ thought-process which such an art must attempt to modify” p37.
To make case for his idea about the natural thought-proces, he introduces two men whose theories form the basis of Wallas’ ‘Stages of Control’ (=the creative process as we call in it nowadays). The first is Varendonck, a Belgian scholar who wrote ‘The Psychology of Day-Dreams’ (1921). The second is Poincaré, French philosopher/mathematician who wrote ‘Science and Method’ (1914). Varendonck analysed his own thinking before, during and after day-dreams. Poincaré kept a diary in which he wrote down how he came up with ideas for mathematical solutions.
Without using complex definitions, the most important take-away for Wallas is that both Varendonck and Poincaré support the idea of finding new associations in a more unconcious state. And the Art of Thought is trying to modify this process, which he refers to as the ‘natural’ thought process.
Chapters one to three lead to chapter four: the ‘Stages of Control’. Here come the famous four stages that he refers to as the association process: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination and Verification. He justifies these stages with examples from Varendonck and Poincaré.
Interestingly, Wallas mentions a fifth stage: Intimation. Intimation is the ‘tip of the tongue feeling’. It is the feeling you almost know the answer. It happens not in your subconsciousness and not in your consciousness but in your ‘fringe-consciousness’ as he calls it, which means somewhere in between. Intimation is the stage when incubation almost comes to surface and leads to illumination. Somehow intimation got lost as years of referencing went by…
How is the Art of Thought influenced?
In the second part of the book, chapter 5 to 9, Wallas gives body to his theory on the Art of Thought. The influence of emotion on Thought, the (dis)advantages of habits on Thought, the role of effort and energy on Thought, and different types of Thought. The latter is mainly about the influence of culture (ex. Englishmen think differently than Frenchmen because of their cultural background).
The ‘different levels of conciousness’ and ‘natural associations to improve thinking’ return in each of these chapters. Sometimes he refers to one of the stages of control, most often to incubation and intimation.
How to nurture and develop the Art of Thought?
The third part was the most inspiring I think. It is about how to nurture and develop the art of thought. Wallas was also an educationist and he had a clear vision on eduction that is still valid in these days.
I going to quote a lot of texts…
Chapter 10, about ‘the thinker at school’, is the starting point for his oration on education.
“I shall discuss the art of education as a section of the art of thought, that is to say, I shall ask how far a teacher can hope to increase the future output of creative thought by those thinkers who as students pass throught his hands. For that pupose it will be best to start with a mental picture, not of an educational system or a series of statistical curves, but of some supernormal hum being who has actually added to the intellectual heritage of mankind.” (pp131).
21st century: forget spread sheets, look first at how great thinkers were educated.
And so he takes Plato for example and pictures him in Acient Greece, where he grew up, what he did during the day and how he was educated. As a little boy he played naked in the sun, and when he was old enough he went to the gymnasium. In summers he explored the outside and all the richness of nature and culture in Acient Greece, including Socrates:
“And one day, after his public admission as a citizen, he was free to sit with shining eyes at the feet of Socrates in a corner of the Agora, to argue with friend during walks up th Ilyssus Vally as to nature nature of man and God and The State, or to stay up for half the night writing the stilted love-poems and discourses at which in later years he would laugh; and so, after many travels, and with no clear division between his life as student, and teacher, and statesman, he became the most influential thinker in all history.” (pp 132-133).
Yes that is one sentence. And doesn’t it sound romantic.
Then he pictures Plato in his time.
“If Plato were born to-day[….]he would probably live in one of the meanly uniform houses of a city street, and be the child of parents with few traditions of culture. Nothing in his daily surroundings would stimulate in him the passion of truth and beauty which the Athenian temples and porticoes, and the eager talkers and traders and poets and orators, and the valleys and hills and the coast of Attica stimulated in the earlier Plato.” pp 133
“Most of that which Plato of Athens learnt at first hand from nature and mankind, Plato of London or New Yourk must learn, af at all, at second hand, from books and machines.”p133.
And in the next sentence comes the profecy:
‘The great industrial nations may perhaps in the next hundred years rebuild their cities, and scatter electrically-driven industries over the country-side. But, for good or evil, we shall never return to the ‘natural’ short-rande environment of Plato’s Athens.” p133.
Wallas points out the amount of information that Plato can obtain in 1926 is so much greater than in his own time, there is no other way than learning it from second hand. Then he questions, how could we help Plato doing this?
Wallas does not believe in leaving it all to the childs curiosity;
it “shows that the best way to do things is not the way which is most likely to occur to one unaided mind” p. For example, if a child shows no interest in reading, should he not learn to read anyway?” p134.
“If, however, we accept responsibility for showing a child what we believe is the best way to develop his power of thought, we must try ourselves to be clear on what we mean by ‘best’. Teaching is to ‘compromise between the powers and needs of the child and those of the future adult.” p135.
“One of the most difficult elements in this compromise is the question how far and at what age the teacher should aim at teaching the pupil to stimulate his mental energy by conscious and voluntary effort; and how far mental energy should be left to grow out of the pupil’s own spontaneous ‘urge’.” p136.
Then he discusses that the intelligent child need to be extra stimulated.
Then he turns to the examination.
‘The examination system, as practised in England, has many obvious dangers; examination-passing is apt to become an end in itself, both for teacher and for student; and the nervous strain which follows from the realization that the opportunities of one’s whole future life may depend on the effort of a few days is often harmful.” p137.
He also sees the advantage that this examination might be the first time the student is really pushed to give an effort.
He discusses the importance of leisure at school because it will give the students the incubation time they need to come to illumination.
Chapther 11 and 12
In chapter 11 he discusses the public education system (in England).He makes an argument for education in England to stimulate smart kids. And that it is more difficult for an English child of working-class origin to become a creative thinker than for a child of middle-class origin. Simply because their inmediate surroudings does not stimulate the child:
“The ordinary working-class home contains few books, and is too crowded and noisy for much leisure and day-dreaming. The father spends the day in sever manual labour, is too tired in the evening to answer the questions of a clever child, and has little intellectual experience of his own; the mother either goes out to work or spends the day in the housework.”p154.
He discusses until what minimum age children should attend school and the probability of political parties voting in favor or against the increase from fourteen to sixteen. He think this will happen in the near future and history shows he was right.
In chapter 12 he discusses the role of a teacher and whether a teacher should be a content expert/practitioner or a teaching expert. For example, in learning to paint, should the teacher be a good painter himself?
He likes the idea of teachers who hold sabbaticals in which they return to practice. Or teachers that are part-time practicioners. He explains the pro’s and con’s of teachers that are good at teaching but have no practical experience, and of teachers with a lot of practical experience but lack good teaching skills. A good mix would be the solution. I guess that is still valid.
I’m no educationalist, nor pedagogue. I am a mother in a phase of deciding to which primary school we need to send our son. And I guess everything Wallas refers to, almost 100 years ago, is still very valid these days. You sort of wonder why we, ‘the smart adults’, the ones creating the education system, hold on to some teaching methods that were maybe already outdates almost one hundred years ago…
Now let set some things straight
- Wallas NEVER refers to the stages of control as the creative process. He calls it the association process. Though he does imply that creative thinkers have mastered the Art of Thought and are good at this association process.
- The stages of control are based on two theories that are both based on self assessment. You can ask yourself if that is scientifically sound.
- Until now there is NO evidence that Incubation exists. However, Incubation is extremely difficult to measure. So, just because there is no scientific evidence, doesn’t per se mean Incubation doesn’t exist.
- Wallas refers to a fifth stage, Intimation, quite important but I guess not important enough according to scholars using his theory…
Reading this book shows me again how important it is to go back to the source. I think this book is not a call for creativity, it is a call for being human, in a natural environment and educating that human by following his curiosity. Amen to that.
But remember, this is my interpretation of this book. If you want the ‘truth’ you are going to have to read it yourself. I advise you to do so.


Geology Presentation & Book Signing by Dr. Patrick Abbott
2:00 PM - Saturday, December 09, 2017
The public is invited to a special geology presentation given by Dr. Patrick Abbott on Saturday, December 9th at 2:00pm in the Visitor Center Theater followed by a book signing. His newest book has just been published by the Mission Trails Regional Park Foundation, and explains the four phases of MTRP's geologic history. Learn points within the park where geologic history can be observed and interpreted. Get your own copy of "Geology - Mission Trails Park" signed by the author himself following the 2:00pm presentation!


Here’s the thing: The NHL doesn’t have a paid ad-supported dictionary.
There are two words in the dictionary: “Ads” and “Adsense.”
Those are not words you hear in casual conversation.
They’re part of the NHL’s core advertising product.
You don’t hear them at all in casual conversations.
The NHL has a free, ad-funded dictionary, but it’s a paid one.
The dictionary is designed to help fans understand the rules of the game, but to offer up context for players and their managers to use as they see fit.
And it does that well, with more than 100,000 entries, most of which are available for free.
It’s an important resource for fans to understand how the game works.
The word “AdSense” isn’t a word that’s commonly used in casual discourse, but there are plenty of people who do use it in casual.
The ad-friendly dictionary is a great place to start, and there are several other great resources for fans that aren’t covered here.
What you’ll find in this guide is the core language of the ad-backed dictionary, a guide that includes how to navigate through the vast amount of information on the NHL, from rules to statistics, and from player statistics to player profiles.
For those who want to dive into more depth, we’ve also put together an extensive glossary, with links to a number of other resources.
And, if you’re looking for an in-depth look at the NHLPA, we also have a full guide for the game’s governing body.
There’s a lot to digest here, and it’s important that you take a few minutes to read through it before you make any major decisions about how to spend your money.
But if you want to take your game to the next level, this is the best place to begin.


AUBURN – Christy Gardner, service and therapy dog trainer, will speak at the Auburn Public Library, 49 Spring St., from 4-5 p.m. on Wednesday, August 11.
She and the dogs and handlers she works with will be in the Androscoggin Community Room at the library.
Gardner has been training dogs for nine years, but wanted to grow that dream to help more Mainers in need. She founded Mission Working Dogs in July 2020 as a local nonprofit to do just that.
The organization trains service dogs and therapy dogs for the local community and cleared land to build a new training center this fall.
Gardner is a 39-year-old retired Army veteran from Lewiston. She was injured overseas in 2006 and spent almost five years in rehab before she could finally live on her own again. She was able to start participating in adaptive sports thanks to her service dog, Moxie. She is now an assistant captain for the USA women’s para ice hockey team as well as an alternate for Tokyo 2020 in the shot put and discus. She also represented the United States at the Parasurfing World Championships in 2020.
This program will be in person and is family friendly. For planning reasons, registration is mandatory. To register, visit the events calendar at auburnpubliclibrary.org; contact the referral office at 207-333-6640, ext. 4; or email [email protected].
This program is part of the library’s summer reading program for adults, “Tales with Tails”, during which the library read, learned and talked about summer, nature and animals – wild and domestic. The next and final program in its summer series will feature wildlife rehabilitation with Auburn’s Misfits Rehab. For more information about this and other upcoming programs, contact the library or visit its website.


Digital cultural resources should be available not only to the inner circle of specialists but to the widest possible audience. To do so, the tools used to share digital heritage must be attractive and accessible for all, and the use of digitised resources should be intuitive and enjoyable. Digitalisation also means sharing collections in a way which will engage and encourage visitors to use virtual resources.
We comprehensively support the process of digitisation – from the stage of processing the analogue content into the digital form, to retouching materials, and finally to sharing and promoting them online. We create virtual catalogues of museum collections, libraries and archives, and provide responsive websites and dedicated content management systems (CMS) and software.
Digitalisation is not only creating digital representations of material objects but also documenting intangible cultural heritage, for example, recording testimonies of witnesses to important events. It also consists of digital retouching of archival audiovisual materials.
Thanks to our documentary films, visitors to the Emigration Museum in Gdynia can listen to almost 200 poignant stories of people who for various reasons had to leave the country and those who visit Cricoteka in Kraków can watch almost 400 minutes of retouched and edited video materials.
The Station Museum in Warsaw is going to have ca. 4,000 objects of historic significance related to railways digitised by us.
The Museum of the Second World War in Gdańsk is one of the most anticipated museum projects in Poland. We have prepared all multimedia elements that will appear in the main exhibition.
The National Maritime Museum in Gdańsk will soon develop a new branch. The Shipwreck Conservation Centre in Tczew is planned to be opened in the summer of 2016.
A museum dedicated to prisoners of the German prisoner-of-war camp Stalag IB Hohenstein was opened in Olsztynek.
The underground complex of the Main Market Square in Kraków, besides being a unique on a European scale archaeological reserve, conceals one of the most impressive exhibitions in Poland – and we boast to be its co-authors.


The domain name
Is for sale
- Secure payment and free transfer
- UK Based seller
- Lease to own and rental options available email [email protected] for more info on that.
QuranReadings.com is available for purchase. Complete the form or call +44 77 9206 1287 to speak to us today
QuranReadings.com is a descriptive and informative domain name that clearly indicates a focus on readings of the Quran, the central religious text of Islam. The term “Quran” refers to the holy book itself, while “Readings” suggests that the website offers resources or content related to reading and understanding the Quran.
Tailored for individuals interested in studying or learning about the Quran, the name “QuranReadings” signifies a platform for accessing various resources such as translations, interpretations, recitations, commentary, or educational materials related to the Quran.
Whether it’s providing tools for learning to read Arabic, offering audio recordings of Quranic recitations, or presenting scholarly interpretations and analyses, this domain name effectively communicates the purpose and content of the website.
With its clear branding and emphasis on Quranic readings, “QuranReadings.com” serves as an ideal platform for individuals seeking to deepen their understanding and connection with the Quranic text.


Through an exclusive partnership with the National Basketball Coaches Association, eCoachBasketball gives anyone in the world seeking to learn the game access to be taught directly by an NBA coach. Anywhere. Anytime.
For the first time ever, the best minds at the highest level of the sport, NBA Coaches, are available to share their basketball knowledge with the world through a digital platform. With beginner, intermediate, and advanced topics built to benefit players, coaches and fans, eCoachBasketball and the NBCA are committed to grow the game globally. This library includes Tips and Drills videos of Ball Handling, Passing, Shooting and Finishing, Screen Scenarios, Post Play, Defense, Rebounding and much more.
view moreview less


Kiddee Daycare is designed for toddlers between 1.5 yrs old to 3 yrs old.
in daycare, kids are able to interact and play with each other and their teachers! Activities include having fun in the playground, listening to music, learning new songs, making crafts, and so much more!
Our daycare kids have a dedicated playroom, and we also have an airy cafeteria, library and large outdoor play space, all set within our purpose built home-style building. Each room also has an air purifier, air conditioning and a quiet corner with books.


Purchase now on Amazon and Barnes & Noble.
A handbook to uncover your personal mental models.
Katy and Zeb are true masters. In this book they show their gift of taking conscious principles and tailoring them to people’s everyday lives. It’s a must-have for leaders who want to lead from their heart and soul, and spread positivity and enlightenment through their work.
The book is a wealth of knowledge that every business leader should read as it is the first step in building a cohesive and strong company culture.
7 Mental Models for a Conscious Team is an integral guide for leaders who want to grow themselves, and their business, consciously. This is a must read for all leaders to get the most out of themselves and their teams.
Masterful and vivid storytelling that delivers deep wisdom on how to communicate compassionately, listen with intent and work in harmony as a team. 7 Mental Models of a conscious team is a forward-thinking, innovative book that will invite you to think differently about how to deal with the growing pains of running and scaling a business. A must read!


After my first experience of the music of Gustav Mahler (his 3rd Symphony as broadcast by the Boston Symphony, conducted by Erich Leinsdorf), I was desperate to hear more. A quick trip to the public library found no recording of the Mahler 3rd (not too surprising in 1966). However, they did have a recording of Mahler’s 1st Symphony, with the Columbia Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Bruno Walter. So I brought home the recording, and began listening to it, and quickly fell in love with the music, and with the remarkable commitment that Walter brought to the performance.
So it was pure coincidence that I stumbled into the remarkable connection of Bruno walter and Gustav Mahler. As I sought to learn more, I would quickly read about their connections. How the 18-year-old Walter met the 34-year-old Mahler, and the two quickly became friends. Walter also aspired to being a composer, though he would clearly put that 2nd to his career as conductor. He and Mahler must have spoken of such things. They had been friends for almost 20 years when Mahler died, at the age of 50, in 1911. By then, Walter had become deeply connected to both Mahler the conductor and Mahler the composer. It would fall to Walter give the first performances of two of the composers last works - Das Lied von der Erde and the 9th Symphony. Indeed, we might think of both these works as slightly “unfinished,” given that Mahler, the perfectionist, tended to wait until after the first performance of a work to create the definitive score. He would constantly tweak the orchestration and particularly the dynamics in a score after hearing it performed. Since Mahler did not live to hear either the 9th or Das Lied, he was never able to give them a final polishing. I suspect that he would have clarified some of musical strata in the first movement of the 9th if he had heard it.
Walter’s performances of Mahler are committed and perhaps suggest the subjective way Mahler himself interpreted his music. While in college, I wrote a paper on Mahler’s Das Lied, and I recall listening to numerous recordings with the score in front of me. Only Hans Rosbaud came anywhere close to actually playing the piece as it was written. Everyone else added things - a crescendo here, a ritard there, an articulation change somewhere else. And not always to good effect, either. In Walter case, however, there were at least two, now I know 3, recordings of the score to compare, and the real difference came down to the singers. For me, the most astonishing performance of the score involves Walter with the Viennese tenor Julius Patzak, and the British mezzo Kathleen Ferrier. There’s the version release on London, easily found these days on CD. But there’s another recording, made only a month or so before Ferrier died of cancer. Walter, who had seen his friend the composer die before hearing Das Lied performed, now was con ducting the work with a singer who was dying. According to eyewitness accounts, both walter and Ferrier were in tears at the end of the performance, as the singer repeats the word “ewig,” over and over. The word means “forever,” and Mahler’s music doesn’t so much end as dissolve into the eternity of silence. Mahler was lucky to have met Walter, to turn this score over to someone who would perform it with such devotion.
Happy 138th birthday, Herr Walter.


Firearms and Hunting NCLEX-RN Test Study Guide 1 .. look into review course, .. questions asked on the NCLEX.
NCLEX-RN Content Review Guide PDF - Am-Medicine Book Description: Kaplans NCLEX-RN Content Review Guide provides comprehensive review of the essential content for the NCLEX-RN to help you face the exam with .
kaplan nclex eBay Trending at $16.69.. .. (PDF) Nclex-Rn Premier 2015-2016 by Kaplan EBOOK (PDF) .. Kaplan NCLEX-RN Content Review Guide 4th Edition 2016 EUC Free Shipping.
Amazon.com: nclex study guide .. nclex study guide.. .. NCLEX-RN Content Review Guide (Kaplan Test Prep) Mar 7, 2017.. .. Trade in yours for an Amazon Gift Card up to $2.69.
Free: Kaplan NCLEX-RN Content Review Guide 15th ed . I was just searching for NCLEX review books to help me review for my upcoming final, .. 69 users here now.. .. Free: Kaplan NCLEX-RN Content Review Guide 15th ed.. .
Kaplan NCLEX RN 2016 Premier Download PDF - Medical eStudy Kaplan NCLEX RN 2016 Premier Download PDF.. .. Kaplan NCLEX RN .. NCLEX-RN Premier 2015-2016 with 2 Practice Tests combines Kaplans unique strategy guide with .
NCLEX-PN Content Review Guide pdf - Kaplan Kaplan. NCLEX-PN Content Review Guide pdf - Kaplan Kaplan.. Refer to mastering your best time and how.


To be Black in the land of the free is to experience conditional visibility and be ever present in a realm which rejects your being. It is to stand along a street corner and be cornered by racism. It is to attend university, be placed in an honors course, and the only discourse is that you should feel honored to be there. To be Black in the land of the free is to desire to be freed from yourself, and to want to be freed from persecution. To be Black in the land of the free is to want to be freed from the land, and Pan-Africanism is the pathway to which this freedom is believed to be achieved. Whether through the widely acclaimed viewpoint of Marcus Garvey or the ideologies of Ayo Langley, the goal of the Pan-African movement is to find solace for the children of the African Diaspora at the hands of colonialism. Ripped from their native land, Pan-Africanism began as a way to reconnect the people of Africa who had been spread globally back to their home continent. Deeply rooted in international nationalism, Pan-Africanism serves to address both the “black radical tradition and the more conservative nuances of black political thought”(Bogues 486). It expands across an array of Black traditions, beliefs, and ideas through the common belief that African descendants deserve not only emancipation from physical oppression, but mental maltreatment as well. With Black Americans falling far behind in the areas of financial literacy, education, and nearly every aspect of achieving under the American Democratic system, Pan-Africanism has proven to be of vital importance to the prosperity of Black people living in these United States. For this reason, throughout this essay I will explore the ideologies which show themselves evident in every definition of the term and expand on its modern significance and impact in the United States of America through the somewhat unconventional tactics used to proliferate such a conventional ideal.
Among others, one of the most prominent variations of the Pan-Africanist discussion is the viewpoint of Marcus Garvey, in which it is described as a “movement to bring about the industrial and spiritual emancipation of the Negro people” (James 486). One of its most distinguishing elements being the Back to Africa movement, which began when Garvey noted that “African Americans’ quest for social equality was a delusion. They were fated to be a permanent minority who could never assimilate because white Americans would never let them. African Americans, therefore, could not improve their condition or gain autonomy in the United States. Only in Africa was self-emancipation possible.” (inmotionaame.org). Because many African Americans felt this way, this ideology prompted what soon became the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), the largest mass movement in Black American History drawing more than 2 million members. Collectively, members of the UNIA began to push for as well as organize a pilgrimage to Liberia as well as establish the Declaration of Rights for the Negro People of the World, a proclamation which explained the need for separatism as well as a self-governed and sustained Black nation in Africa.
Though the UNIA would come to dissolve around 1930 after Garvey’s removal from the United States, the lasting impact of his influence can be summed up in that “”Despite his obvious limitations as a diplomat and statesman, Marcus Garvey was undoubtedly one of the greatest Negroes since Emancipation, a visionary who inspired his race in its upward struggle from the degradation of centuries of slavery.” (Shepperson 346). This desire for acceptance…nay, this need for liberation created a type of unity in the Black community never before seen. Never before in the history of the United States had African Americans been granted the opportunity to live free of oppression, and this notion that Black people could actually create their own destiny and live unperturbed began to spread like wildfire. This traditionally unconventional idea of uprooting ones everyday life and starting a new now seemed like the most conventional idea for Black Peoples living during the early 1900s and this very belief began to set the tone or future generations and future crusades like the Black Power movement in the 1960s, the current Black Lives Matter and #ADOS movements.
According to the Stanford University Center for Poverty and Inequalities’ 2017 State of the union, When the white-black gap in mobility is “measured as the probability of moving up from the bottom half”, White Americans are 25 percent more likely to experience affluence (41). In other words, Black Americans are less likely to experience continued prosperity in socioeconomic areas compared to their white counterparts.This trend has made Pan Africanism all the more relevant because just as Potekhin proposes in Pan Africanism and the struggle of the two ideologies “In conditions of the existence of colonial empires, it becomes urgent to refute the ‘theory’ of white racial superiority and show that the Negro [is] a human being and that black-skinned people [are] no worse than white-skinned people.” (38). Pan Africanism plays an intrinsic role in modern society because its goal, whether through literal secession or the renewing of the mind , is to dismantle the slave mentality which has been ingrained into our communities by white society, and rid Black citizens of systemically oppressive policies and practices.
During Garvey’s time, or even 50 years ago, no one would have believed that technology would play a role in spreading Black Unity, but with 73 percent of Americans participating in social media usage, it is no surprise that modern day Black Americans are using it to spread the Pan African message. The hashtag #ADOS and ADOS (American Descendants of Slavery) movement on twitter began in order to “ “reclaim/restore the critical national character of the African American Identity and experience” and have since gained hundred of retweets. This, and the creation of #Blacklivesmatter in 2013 have shown how what were once unconventional tools have begun to play an integral role in Pan-African social justice discourse.
Not only through social media, but through the creation of Historically Black colleges and universities has Pan Africanism been able to gain popularity. For many black students HBCUs have played a key role in developing confidence in Black culture and heritage: “A 2015 Gallup-Purdue poll report[ed] that African American graduates of HBCUs are more likely to have felt supported while in college and to be thriving afterward than their black peers who graduated from primarily white institutions (PWIs).” Across the board, African American HBCU attendees are more likely to feel supported and to thrive after graduation. Historically Black colleges and Universities connect Black people through allowing their lineage to be an integral part of education versus a hindrance to it.
Because community can affect childhood development and likelihood of future success, Pan Africanism is all the more important. In fact, according to the National Library of medicine, there are “direct and indirect benefits of a strong heritage ethnic identity, including increased self-esteem and subjective well-being as well as reduced depression” and “it also protects ethnic minorities against negative psychological consequences of adverse experiences such as daily stress and discrimination” (nih.gov). By connecting African Americans to their lineage, Pan Africanism is able to help Black citizens to thrive both physically and mentally, and over a variety of Black customs, convictions, and thoughts, Pan Africanism has spread itself across the United States. With Black Americans falling a long way behind in nearly every aspect of the “American Dream”, Pan-Africanism has demonstrated itself to be of imperative significance to the success of Black individuals. A connection to one’s roots, and confidence in a person’s heritage has proven to be vital to success. Through the once unlikely and unconventional ideas of Black Americans being able to attend academic institutions, and digital technology, the conventional idea of Black unity has been able to spread across the United States of America.
Bogues, A. (2011). C.L.R. James, Pan-Africanism and the black radical tradition. Critical Arts, 25(4), 484–499. doi: 10.1080/02560046.2011.639957
Marcus Garvey’s Back to Africa Movement. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://inmotionaame.org/.
Seymour, S., & Ray, J. (2019, June 6). Grads of Historically Black Colleges Have Well-Being Edge. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/186362/grads-historically-black-colleges-edge.aspx?g_source=CATEGORY_WELLBEING&g_medium=topic&g_campaign=tiles.
Reflections on the ADOS Movement. (2019, March 3). Retrieved from https://socialequity.duke.edu/news/reflections-ados-movement.
(2017) . Retrieved from https://inequality.stanford.edu/publications/state-union-report.
PAN-AFRICANISM and thestruggle ofthe TWO IDEOLOGIES. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/DC/Acn1964.0001.9976.000.019.Oct1964.7/Acn1964.0001.9976.000.019.Oct1964.7.pdf.
Zhang, R., Noels, K. A., & Lalonde, R. N. (2018, November 5). Know Your Heritage: Exploring the Effects of Fit in Cultural Knowledge on Chinese Canadians’ Heritage Identification. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6230655/.


Vittorio Dan Segre (1922 – 2014) had an adventurous life. Emigrant by necessity and cosmopolitan by choice, he fled Italy for Palestine in 1939 in response to the passage of racial laws. In 1941 he enlisted in the British Army in Cairo, and in 1948 he participated in the war that would lead to the birth of the state of Israel. After serving for years as an Israeli diplomat (1967-1989), he taught International Relations at universities in Oxford, Boston, Stanford, Haifa, Milan and Turin. In 1991 Dan Segre participated in the creation of the ETHICA Forum Association and served as a member of its scientific committee. Six years later, he founded the Institute for Mediterranean Studies at the University of Lugano in Switzerland.
Throughout his life as a diplomat, scholar, and writer, he was guided by his intellectual curiosity, commitment to humanism, and an interest in deepening the spiritual dynamics that guide individual choices. For Dan Segre, human dignity, human relationships and an empathetic understanding of the Other came before politics. His acute and perceptive vision on the great themes of geopolitics can be found in his large archive and in his books, among which we mention:
- Israel; a society in transition. Oxford University Press, London/New York 1971.
- The high road and the low; a study in legitimacy, authority and technical aid. Allen Lane, London 1974.
- Jewish political thought and contemporary politics. Bar-Ilan University, Dept. of Political Studies 1977.
- A crisis of identity : Israel and Zionism. Oxford University Press, London/New York 1980.
- Memoirs of a Fortunate Jew. Halberd, London 1987.
- Memoirs of a failed diplomat. Halban, London 2004.


The Algonquians were matter-of-fact, even sanguine, about matters of life and death—and as red in tooth and claw, so to speak, as their prey and their human enemies. Nevertheless, their burials and totems and other practices attest to their beliefs in a positive afterlife and a vast spirit world overseen by higher powers, one of which was called by many Gitchi Manitou or Great Spirit. People, animals, rocks, spirits, and everything in nature were endowed with innate manna-like spiritual power (manitou, or manitôk or manidoo). That power could increase or decrease, be transferred, cause physical transformations, and work magically for good or bad. These beliefs shaped people’s body images and identities, their relationships with each other, and their behavior toward others, nature, and the land. I think these beliefs are the whole reason behind the incredible mismatch between them and the Europeans, equally driven by their beliefs. Thus, I lay their ultimate mutual failure in cultural contact at the feet of religion (if such a metaphor can be entertained), and some other historians would agree. The earliest Indian wars against European missionaries and settlers were as much attacks on Christianity as efforts to reclaim territory .
The Algonquian Cosmos
Algonquians believed in a three-part intersecting universe, with an upperworld (skyworld), earth (Turtle Island), and a lowerworld (waterworld). According to various ethnological and ethnohistorical accounts, god-like beings, demi-gods, ancestors, demons, spirits, giants, and elf- or troll-like creatures called Little People inhabited these worlds along with (or in) the people, plants, animals, landforms, stars, and natural phenomena. In addition to having manitou, everything identified as “animate” was anthropomorphized, and this included trees and rocks. Talking to the wind, reading animal encounters as omens, acting on dreams, hiding from meteor showers, seeking transformation through spirit possession, and leaving offerings at cracks in bedrock would all have been completely normal. The universe was alive in every way, and it was always possible that you couldn’t believe your eyes–that nothing was what it seemed. Algonquians lived magic realism in real time, time that continually curved and recurved in coils and circles, for Native Americans lived in a nonlinear multiverse. Europeans’ superstitions were no match, and Europeans ultimately lived in a post-Enlightenment empirical world of cause and effect—a linear world of beginnings, middles, and ends—a world where things were expected to be rational, and where monotheism and religious dogma had the power to simplify everything—a world that could be divided, commodified, and owned in perpetuity .
Algonquians did not at first grasp the idea that land and resources could be commodified and exchanged, any more than we at first understood how cubic feet of air over highways could be bought and sold for commercial development. Land and resources belong to Earth, which belongs to everyone. Early Indian deeds to farmsteads were understood as usufruct–with rights of usage during the settler’s life, but later deeds contain carefully worded riders preserving essential resource procurement areas for Indigenous use, such as “Roger’s Brook” and “Will’s Hill”.
Algonquians believed that supernatural beings and forces governed every aspect of the natural world. The sun, moon, stars, thunder, rain, springs, trees, rocks, plants, animals—other things, conditions, and events designated as “alive”—all had both consciousness, the ability to communicate to people, and spiritual power–manitou. Shamans invoked and channeled or repelled this manitou as needed as they mediated between people and the spirit world.
Anthropologists call this belief in a spirit world animism and in nature’s consciousness as animatism. Algonquian spiritualism included belief in all forms of magic and the practice of sorcery or witchcraft. The shaman’s ritual paraphernalia used in sorcery–which included quartz crystals, polished gemstones, the bones of small animals, tobacco, and other mind-altering substances–were carried in a “medicine bag” and kept secret. The celebrated Native American culture of respect for all things can be seen as essentially born of fear and uncertainty in the face of a multi-faceted, all-powerful, and unpredictable supernatural world .
A Small Sample of Algonquian Spirits
(also Keihtanit, Keihtan)
|Great Spirit, place of Great Spirit (Giver of corn, squash, and beans)
|Manit, Manitou (Manitoo); Manittoowock; Manitoog (plural)
|Spirit; Spirits, gods
|Spirit of My People
|God of Day
|Abbomocho (Hobbomock, Chepi)
|Healing Spirit; Death Spirit
|Spirit of the Creator
|Woonand (Wunnand; Woonanit)
|Spirit of Goodness
|Spirit of Evil
|Spirit of Mercy
|Pine Tree Spirit
Shamans also were involved in keeping time for the Algonquian ceremonial calendar, and remains of these calendars may still be seen in boulder fields in New England landscapes. These ceremonial landscapes reflect the solar, lunar, and astral cycles by which people tracked ceremonial time. They are manipulated landscapes in which boulders and false horizons mark observation posts, sightlines, and alignments to skyworld events. There is a native solar observatory on Pole Hill in Riverview, Gloucester, for example, with reference rocks and sightlines for the summer solstice sunrise and sunset, the winter solstice sunrise and sunset, the spring and fall equinoxes, and other astronomical events, such as the traverse of Ursa major through the winter night sky. The observatory was first built by Late Archaics or Early Woodland peoples around 3 thousand years ago, and further modified by later peoples, with the sighting stones organized around a central reference point on the north-south aligned axis. The cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) were central concepts in Algonquian cosmology, practice of medicine, village planning, burial practices, and use of divination .
Pole Hill Solar Observatory and Calendar
As in ancient Southwestern, Mexican, Mesoamerican and South American societies, observed movements of the sun, moon, and stars in their skyworld cycles guided the spiritual life of the community. In New England, for example, when the Milky Way touches the horizon the spirits of the deceased can find their way to the skyworld on the starry path under a nearby constellation’s protection from underworld spirits. Astronomical observations also guided the community’s seasonal activities, such as the bear sacrifice in winter, the New Year’s celebration in spring, thanksgiving for the first harvest of green corn in mid-summer, and celebration of the last harvest before fall’s first frost .
Milky Way Pathway for the Ancestors and the Ursa Major Asterism
Colonists in Virginia observed Algonquians “dancing around posts” each fall, with gourd rattles and leaves or branches, each dancer taking a turn to present a sheaf and make a short speech. Each post likely represented a harvest month—April through October, with each dancer singing the praises of the spirit responsible for a particular food plant or other natural resource harvested during that month in the annual cycle.
The naked figure in the center of the “Thanksgiving” depiction with the two women is very likely the shaman, and perhaps the grouping represents the concept of fecundity over all . Thanksgivings as feast days were a Native American tradition that the Pilgrims recognized or adopted in a kind of syncretism, blending the Christian tradition of giving thanks to God for one’s daily bread with the pagan harvest festivals of Neolithic Europe and the Native American tradition of giving thanks to the spirits for the fruits of their seasonal harvests. In Plymouth, Massachusetts, today, the “First Thanksgiving” is commemorated from the Native American point of view in light of history, in a plaque proclaiming it as a National Day of Mourning.
The true circumstances of the “First Thanksgiving” belie the tale we older folk learned in school about turkeys and pies and brotherhood between Indians and settlers. Forgive me if I am repeating myself here, but there were no turkeys or pies, but swans and geese and potatoes. It was Massasoit’s 92 warriors who hunted deer to supply the feast with meat. Upon hearing a volley of the colonists’ guns, fired in salute, the Wampanoag had arrived at Plimoth Plantation prepared for possible combat.
National Day of Mourning
Observations of the moon’s cycles were also important. The Algonquian solar calendar was 13 months of 28 days, while the lunar calendar was 12 lunations of 29 days. The solar and lunar calendars were reconciled by observing at 11-day intervals. Eleven days denotes the difference between the length of the solar year and the 12 lunations, and that difference can be used to predict in advance when a leap month (or 13thmonth) was needed .
Algonquian Lunar Calendar
|Old Moon, Moon after Yule
|Wolf Moon, Ice Moon, Greeting Maker Moon, Forgiveness Moon
|Wolf Moon, Candles Moon
|Snow Moon, Hunger Moon, Storm Moon, Breaking Branches Moon
|Lenten Moon, Chaste Moon
|Worm Moon, Crow Moon, Sugar Moon, Sap Moon, Death Moon, Moose Moon, Spring Maker Moon
|VERNAL EQUINOX: Day and night equal in length; start of growing season.
|Pink Moon, Sprouting Grass Moon, Fish Moon, Seed Moon, Waking Moon, Birds Returning Moon, Sugar Maker Moon
|Flower Moon, Corn Planting Moon, Hare’s Moon, Earth Moon, Field Maker Moon
|Flower Moon, Rose Moon
|Strawberry Moon, Honey Moon, Planting Moon, Hoer Moon
|SUMMER SOLSTICE: Days longer than nights; height of growing season.
|Hay Moon, Mead Moon
|Buck Moon, Thunder Moon, Grass Cutter Moon, Blueberry Maker Moon
|Sturgeon Moon, Red Moon, Green Corn Moon, Dog Moon, Lightning Moon, Meal Maker Moon
|Fruit Moon, Barley Moon
|Harvest Moon, Corn Moon, Corn Maker Moon
|AUTUMNAL EQUINOX: Day and night equal in length; end of growing season.
|Hunter’s Moon, Travel Moon, Dying Grass Moon, Blood Moon, Falling Leaves Moon
|Beaver’s Moon, Frost Moon, First Snow Moon, Freezing River Maker Moon
|Oak Moon, Moon Before Yule
|Cold Moon, Long Night’s Moon, Winter Maker Moon
|WINTER SOLSTICE: Nights longer than days; height of winter.
Among the Stones
Places like Pole Hill were ceremonial landscapes besides, with glacial erratics modified into effigy stones as objects of veneration, and other stones split, piled, or moved to invite or bar spirits or to make enclosures as sacred spaces. These were objects and places where observers watched the sky, shamans meditated, people gathered for ceremonies, and the young made spirit quests and dreamed dreams. Dreams and the waking dreams called vision quests were achieved through fasting, smoking or ingesting hallucinogenic substances, exposure to the elements, and dehydration.
Shamans rocked boulders balanced on bedrock to make a loud noise and shake the earth, announcing messages from spirits and perhaps scaring or thrilling young initiates wandering around in search of their personal totems. Stones were a medium of spiritual expression.
People passing by a place respectfully dropped a stone where an important event had occurred in the life of the community—an act of bravery or sacrifice, a treaty or trade agreement, a tragedy or mystery—creating over time great stone cairns . I wrote a two-part article on the subject of “spirit rocks” on Cape Ann, published in volumes 55 (1) Autumn 2022 and 55 (2), Winter 2022-2023 in the Journal of the New England Antiquities Research Association.
Examples of possible effigy stones on Cape Ann (Ravenswood, Dogtown, Andrews Woods, Pole Hill)
It cannot be denied that Native Americans in New England intentionally raised, perched, piled, stacked, balanced, rocked, carved, inscribed, split, and wedged- open rocks for symbolic and practical purposes. However, the provenance and authenticity of rock piles we see today are uncertain. Some were formed by retreating glaciers, modified by colonists or modern developers, or even created by townies and tourists over the past 300 years. Skeptics have claimed that only Europeans (Vikings, Celts, or English colonists)—or aliens from outer space—had the technology to move such massive boulders, much as Egyptians were believed to have been incapable of building their pyramids or Easter Islanders of erecting their moai (giant stone heads). But archaeologists have confirmed many stone constructions as authentically Native American, and, of course, they could use the laws of gravity and motion as well as any human to make megaliths or move mountains. The Megaliths in Manchester-by-the-Sea may have been tilted up during glacial retreat, but they would have had spiritual significance to Indigenous people interacting with them. .
The Megaliths (formerly Agassiz Rock)
Algonquian cosmology and astrology are supported by stories and legends (some would say myths, to which some Indigenous People today would object), like the story of the three hunters (and their dog) chasing the sky bear and wounding it, its blood causing the leaves to turn red in fall, and the bear recovering in hibernation until the stars rise again in spring. In some versions the bear dies and its cub emerges from the den to renew the cycle of the circumpolar stars. Other stories feature tricksters and transformers—powerful beings and culture heroes, such as Gluscap (Glooskap, Kluscabi), who, along with the Great Spirit, created the earth, caused the origins of all things, instructed the animals, outwitted harmful spirits, kept nature in balance, and taught people how to adapt. Great respect was accorded to creatures able to transform themselves—shape-shifters–such as butterflies and frogs.
Glooscap with the Animals, Glooscap Heritage Center, Millbrook, Nova Scotia
Culture heroes included the giant, Hobomoc, who broke the Great Beaver’s dam, which flooded the valleys with water from the melting glacier at the end of the last Ice Age, and Wittun, who caused fresh water to come forth from rocks on the ridge lines to heal the valleys so people live there.
In the Beginning
Algonquian creation stories illustrate how the people came to terms with a natural and supernatural world they saw as imperfect and irrational (or disappointing and crazy), a conclusion completely opposite from that drawn by Puritans, in which a monotheistic god had intentionally created perfect order in the universe. Missionaries elevated Gitchi Manitou, the Great Spirit, to stand alone for the Christian god and his son and the holy ghost, much to everyone’s consternation. The possible return of someone from the dead–a ghost–was much feared. While possibly revealing missionary influences, Indigenous creation stories nevertheless contrast in interesting ways with the Judeo-Christian origin myth represented in Genesis .
Here is an abridged version of the Algonquian creation myth in which Manito creates the world on the back of a turtle, collected by an ethnographer in 1949. The Abenaki teller of the creation story prefaced it as follows :
In my dream, I awakened, I turned to my side and saw the morning sun shining through a dew-covered spider web. So beautiful it was! It was filled with sparkling color, a million tiny lights in a hand’s breadth. A black and yellow spider was busy repairing a tear in the web from an insect that got away. The spider stopped and stared at me. It spoke to me in a tiny little voice and said, “This is a Dream Net. It only lets good dreams through. This hole was left by the dream you are dreaming now!”
Maheo, the Great Manito, Creator, became tired of the endless silence and darkness at the beginning of time. He wished to fill endless space with light and the joyful movement of life. Out of his great hands flew the sparks of the creation fire, filling endless space with light. He bid Mikchich, the Great Turtle, to emerge from the water and become land. With his strong hands he molded a creation world with mountains and valleys. He put the waters all where they should be and set white clouds sailing in the blue sky. Then, the Manito looked at all this and said to himself, “This is the creation world I want. Now I will fill this place with the happy movement of life.”
The Great Manito thought about what kind of life he would make. He carefully considered how he would make a perfect web of life with each creature just so and in perfect place. Each should have a perfect way of life and all would be happy. Long into that last night before creation began, the Manito thought out a perfect plan, and then he fell asleep, exhausted. Soundly did he sleep, and his sleep was filled with dreams. Strange dreams he had.
The Great Manito dreamed of a strange creation world, filled with strange beings, not at all what he had planned. They walked on four legs, some on two. Some creatures crawled, some flew with wings. Some of these swam with fins. There were plants spreading out, covering the ground everywhere. Insects buzzed, geese honked, and moose bellowed. Men sang and called to each other in this strange dream. This was a world with no design at all, no order. This was a bad dream. No world of creation could be this imperfect, this mad!
And then the Great Manito awakened to see a porcupine nibbling on a twig. To his dismay he realized the world of his dream had become Creation!
Thus, even for gods, dreams could come true. Interpreting dreams, along with assisting the healer, were among the shaman’s chief duties. Dreamcatchers were replications of the proverbial spider’s web and were woven, decorated, and hung as objects of individual expression. Small dreamcatchers were hung on cradleboard frames in front of babies’ faces to ensure they had pleasant dreams.
While the aim of Puritan religion was redemption of the soul, the central theme of traditional Algonquian belief and expression was the attainment, conservation, and use of spiritual power. Your manitou came from your kinship and ancestry, your spirit guide or totem, personal visionary experiences or dreams, special talents or skills, and your luck or success in forming relationships or making a living. Spiritual power also came from touching sacred objects and being in sacred places, and from handling dangerous or unusual objects containing spiritual power (such as scalplocks taken as coups, poisonous snakes, quartz crystals or polished gemstones, and specially carved effigies of spirits in stone or clay). You could protect your spiritual power through right living, ritual observances, such as sweat lodge purification and the making of offerings to the spirits, honoring ancestors, and using amulets or personal medicine bundles. Power also came from communally shared expressions directed toward spirits, such as praying, chanting, dancing, and drumming—the powwow .
Colonists understood that Native Americans already had their own traditions of spiritualism and worship. John White drew Jamestown “Indians Praying”, for example—Algonquians chanting and shaking rattles together around a sacred fire intended to invoke beneficial spirits and carry prayers or wishes to the Great Spirit. The Europeans at first identified with these expressions but later came to see them as invalid and ultimately as Satanic .
Life and Death
White’s watercolors of Algonquians in Virginia shows how they stored and attended to bodies of their dead in special wigwams or raised smokehouse-like structures for several days. After funerary rites, the bodies—no longer in rigor mortis and beginning to decompose—were then “flexed” into a fetal position (sometimes referred to erroneously as a “sitting” posture) and wrapped in woven fiber cloth (or cornstalk mats or birch bark in the north). Sometimes the flexed body was placed inside a specially made basket coffin and otherwise was covered with woven mats along with selected possessions as grave goods. A warrior, for example, might be buried with his arrows, quiver, bow, and coups. The body, mat bundle, or basket coffin was then interred in the ground in a communal unmarked earthen mound or in a stone chamber in an upland area designated as sacred. In some groups, bodies were later ceremonially disinterred, defleshed, and the bones painted with red ochre, bundled together, and reburied in ossuaries .
Algonquian charnal house
Archaeological evidence confirms that early Algonquian burials in the Northeast were placed on north- or northeast-facing level ground or in low mounds in sandy or otherwise easily-dug soil overlooking a body of water—a river, lake, or the sea. Bodies were placed flexed on the side, facing either east, with the feet facing east to facilitate passage to the spirit world, or facing southwest, where the ancestors of Late Woodland immigrants resided. In the Algonquian medicine wheel, north represented (among other things) the wisdom and spirituality of old age and east represented rebirth. The presence of burial grounds supports the likely presence of permanent or regular seasonal habitation sites.
In Agawam and elsewhere, some burials were exhumed by colonists and paraded as an act of disrespect, as happened with Masconomet’s remains until citizens intervened. Native American gravesites have been found in many parts of Essex County, including Andover, Beverly, Salem, Haverhill, Georgetown, Newbury, Ipswich, Hamilton, Gloucester, Manchester, Rowley, and Salisbury. The most extensive finds have been made in Marblehead, like Ipswich the likely site of a large permanent village by the time of English contact . Today the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act protects Indigenous burials from being disturbed in any way and mandates the return of any remains and grave goods or sacred objects from museum collections. Some Native Americans today would object to my even talking about this subject, and for this I apologize. I mean no disrespect.
Philip Freneau (1752-1832), a romantic poet of the Revolutionary period, was impressed with the spirituality of Native American burials. In his 1787 poem on the subject, he reimagines the flexed burial with grave goods as the individual “seated” with peers, preparing for a hunt, as in life. References to “sitting chiefs” in colonial accounts and early American literature refer to mortuary remains. Freneau’s poem also refers to a great rock and an old elm tree, additional features of the landscape that Algonquians would likely have chosen to site a burial ground. Here is a portion of the poem, “The Indian Burying Ground” :
In spite of all the learned have said,
I still my old opinion keep;
The posture that we give the dead,
Points out the soul’s eternal sleep.
Not so the ancients of these lands–
The Indian, when from life released,
Again is seated with his friends,
And shares again the joyous feast.
His imaged birds, and painted bowl,
And venison, for a journey dressed,
Bespeak the nature of the soul,
Activity, that knows no rest.
His bow, for action ready bent,
And arrows, with a head of bone,
Can only mean that life is spent,
And not the finer essence gone.
Thou, stranger, that shalt come this way,
No fraud upon the dead commit,
Yet, marking the swelling turf, and say,
They do not lie, but here they sit.
Here, still a lofty rock remains,
On which the curious eye may trace
(Now wasted half by wearing rains)
The fancies of a ruder race.
Here, still an aged elm aspires,
Beneath whose far-projecting shade
(And which the shepherd still admires)
The children of the forest played.
Mounds and Chambers in Massachusetts
Unexcavated mounds and looted chambers are all that remain of pre-contact Native American burials in Massachusetts. Specific site locations are kept confidential to prevent further desecration. The undisturbed burial mound shown here is in northern Essex County, while the disturbed stone chamber is in southern Worcester County. Nipmuc descendants believe their ancestors built the chamber as an ossuary for their dead. An empty stone chamber in Rockport, called Rowe’s Tomb, likely served as an Indigenous ossuary. (Lt. Rowe was never buried there and it is fairly inaccessible, i.e., not some colonists’ larder.)
Mound in Gloucester
Burial practices changed over time. Archaic period burials in permanent sand dunes and ledges above riverbanks, for example, predate Woodland period burials in clam middens and earthen mounds on upland terraces. Funerary practices simplified, especially as a consequence of epidemics, when large numbers of dead taxed tradition. Ultimately, single Christian-style burials without headstones replaced flexed individual burials, which in turn had replaced family or group burials in chambers or mounds .
In Cape Ann and Essex, more than 50 Native burials have been discovered and reported over the past 300 years. Add to that the unreported, as well as undiscovered, graves that were destroyed or are still here. Pawtucket skeletons were taken from known sites in Annisquam, Bay View, Dogtown, Wingaersheek, Castleview, Coffin Beach, Manchester-by-the-Sea, Argilla Road in Ipswich, Coles Island, Hog (Choate) Island, and Castle Neck, for example, and many more from sites in Ipswich north and Salem-Beverly south. As noted earlier, today burials are protected by NAGPRA, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990. As a consequence of this legislation, many skeletal remains and grave goods have been returned to tribal councils for ceremonial reburial in sacred ground .
“Rowe’s Tomb” in Rockport
Based on descriptions written by Roger Williams and others, Algonquians in New England had less elaborate funerary practices than those in Virginia. According to a second-hand colonial account of an Agawam (Pawtucket) funeral in Ipswich during Masconomet’s time :
When the mourners came to the grave, they laid the body near by, then sat down and lamented. He observed successive tears on the cheeks of old and young. After the body was laid in the grave, they made a second lamentation; then spread the mat, on which the deceased had died, over the grave; put the dish there, in which he had eaten, and hung a coat of skin on an adjacent tree. This coat none touched, but allowed it to consume with the dead. The relatives of the person, thus buried, had their faces blacked, as a sign of mourning.
Tantasqua Graphite Mine in Sturbridge
The blacking worn by the Agawam mourners was possibly obtained from a mine in Middleton or was traded for from the Tantasqua (or Tantiusques) graphite mine in Sturbridge, MA—today a historic 57-acre open space reservation. Black face paint for mourning—a commodity in great demand in New England trade—was made from graphite (carbon) that the Nipmuc mined, and the mine is still there on Rte. 124 and Lead Mine Pond Rd. The carbon was powdered and mixed with animal fat to make black greasepaint. Algonquians used red greasepaint, from iron oxide or powdered hematite and animal fat, as warpaint. White paint was made from calcite dust and kaolin clay. In 1636 the governor of Ipswich, John Winthrop Jr. bought Tantasqua from the Nipmuc. Other native mines he acquired around that time for the Massachusetts Bay Colony included various bog iron pits, including the one in West Gloucester, and a native copper mine in Topsfield .
Colonial depiction of an Agawam burial
As noted in a previous section, this colonial depiction of an Agawam burial shows relatives mourning as they place a body on its side to be flexed and wrapped in a woven fiber mat prior to burial in the earth . The shaman kneels at the left under an oak tree, regarded as sacred, performing a funerary rite, interceding with the spirits on behalf of the spirit of the deceased and aiding the deceased’s passage to afterlife in the skyworld. After the mourning period the people will take great care not speak the deceased’s name, so as not to call back the spirit or impede its passage to the skyworld. In the picture the mourners’ dress reflects Puritan influence.
Considering that this is how the Algonquians in Essex County made sense of their world, we now must ask, how exactly did they lose their land? And what is the real story of the founding of Gloster Plantation?
Notes and References
1. Contemporary works describing Algonquian religion include Kathleen Bragdon’s Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650 (1999), Robert Hall’s 1997 book, An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual, and William Simmons’ Spirit of the New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore 1620-1984(1984). Algonquians and Christianity is the subject of Chapter 8 of this book. For an anthropological perspective on Algonquian resistance to Christianity in the 17thCentury and an explanation of the manitou concept, see Neal Salisbury’s 1982 Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the making of New England 1500-1643.See also the 1983 review of his book by Alden T. Vaughn in The New England Quarterly (54), and Salisbury’s 2003 article in Ethnohistory50 (2): “Embracing Ambiguity: Native Peoples and Christianity in Seventeenth-Century North America”. Colonial sources on Algonquian religion include Roger Williams, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, Thomas Morton, John Winthrop, John Eliot, Daniel Gookin, and other 17thand early 18thCentury observers, referenced earlier in this book. See, for example, Karle Schleiff’s article, Stoneworks, Corn and Calendars, regarding Bartholomew’s Gosnold’s observations of native sun watching in 1602, at http://ancientlights.org.html.
2. Authentic expressions of magic realism in Algonquian spiritualism appear in early native texts. See especially the stream-of-consciousness-like account of Joseph Nicolar (1893), published in 2007 as The Life and Traditions of the Red Man: A Rediscovered Treasure of Native American Literature, edited by Annette Kolodny and Charles Norman Shaw. See alsoClara Sue Kidwell’s article, Ethnoastronomy as the Key to Human Intellectual Development and Social Organization. In Native Voices: American Indian Identity and Resistance(2003). For an appreciation of the concept of ceremonial time in Algonquian culture, see John Hanson Mitchell’s 1984 book, Ceremonial Time: Fifteen Thousand Years on One Square Mile, and a review of this book in 1987 by Curtiss Hoffman in the Bridgewater Review5 (2), available online at http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol5/iss2/16/.
3. Sources on animism and animatism include Part 23 of the Encyclopedia of Religion(Hastings, 2003) and Graham Harvey’s 2005 book, Animism: Respecting the Living World. For an example of the pervasiveness of animistic beliefs, read an in-depth study by Michel-Gerald Boutet, The Great Long Tailed Serpent: An Iconographical study of the serpent in Middle Woodland Algonquian culture (2011), at http://www.academia.edu/3537441/The_Snake_motif_in_Algonquian_Culture. Classic ethnographic works on Algonquian shamanism include Frank G. Speck’s Penobscot Shamanism, in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 6 (1919) and Frederick Johnson’s Notes on Micmac Shamanism, in Primitive Man 16 (1943). See also William S. Simmons’ Southern New England Shamanism: An Ethnographic Reconstruction, in Papers of the Algonquian Conference7 (1976).
4. The chart in this chapter of selected Algonquian spirit names with English translations is from English and French missionary data on the Narraganset, Massachuset, Nipmuc, Abenaki, and Maliseet, as presented in the work of Frank Waabu O’Brien (Moondancer), and Julianne Jennings (StrongWoman). See their 2007 book, ACulturalHistoryof the NativePeoplesof SouthernNewEngland:Voicesfrom Pastand Present(BauuPress). Note that my chart omits the diacritical marks and alternative spellings in the original work, which may be recovered as desired from “Spirit Names and Religious Vocabulary” at http://www.bigorrin.org/waabu10.htm.
5. The germinal work on Algonquian ceremonial landscapes is by James Mavor and Byron Dix in Manitou: The Sacred Landscape of New England’s Native Civilization(1989). See also Edwin C. Ballard and James W. Mavor, Jr., 2006, Case for the use of above surface stone constructs in a Native American ceremonial landscape in the Northeast, NEARA Journal40 (1), and Edward L. Bell, Discerning Native Placemaking: Archaeologies and Histories of the Den Rock Area, Lawrence and Andover, Massachusetts, Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut75 (2013). The solar calendar at Pole Hill (Sunset Hill) in Riverview, Gloucester, is presented in a 2014 paper by Mary Ellen Lepionka and Mark Carlotto, Evidence of a Native Solar Observatory in Gloucester, Massachusetts, in the Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society76 (1). For other examples of solar observatories in New England, see articles by Kenneth C. Leonard Jr.: Calendric Keystone? Archaeoastronomy10 (1987) and Identification and Preliminary Analysis of a Late Woodland Ceremonial Site in Southeastern Massachusetts, Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society71 (1) (2010); William Hranicky’s 2001 article, Difficult Run Petroglyphs: A Prehistoric Solar Observatory in the Potomac River Valley of Virginia, Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Virginia 56 (2); Dix and Mavor’s Two Possible Calendar Sites in Vermont, in Archaeoastronomy in the Americas (1981); Tim Fohl’s Integrated Wetland-Dry Land Features with Astronomical Associations, in the Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 71:1 (2010); Edwin C. Ballard’s For Want of a Nail: An Analysis of the Function of Some Horseshoe or U-Shaped Stone Structures. Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society60 (2) (1999); Frederick W. Martin et al., Archaeo-Astronomical Prospecting at the Moose Hill Stone Chambers. Archaeology of Eastern North America 40 (2012); and Michael S. Nassaney, The Significanceof the Turners FallsLocality in Connecticut River Archaeology, in The Archaeological Northeast, Mary Ann Levine, Kenneth E. Sassaman, and Michael S. Nassaney, eds. (1999). In 2013, because of its significance as a native solar calendar and ceremonial landscape, the Turners Falls site was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
6. Useful general sources on archaeoastronomy are John Edwin Wood’s Sun, Moon, and Standing Stones(1978), George E. Lankford’s Reachable Stars: Patterns in the Ethnoastronomy of Eastern North America (2007), and William Tyler Olcott’s classic Star Lore of all Ages: A Collection of Myths, Legends, and Facts concerning the Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere (1911).Key works on archaeoastronomy in the civilizations of the Southwest, Mexico, and Mesoamerica include John A. Eddy, Astronomical Alignment of the Big Horn Medicine Wheel. Science 174 (1974); Munro S. Edmonson, The Book of the Year: Middle American Calendrical Systems (1988); Anthony Aveni, Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico (1980); and Stephen C. McCluskey, Historical Archaeoastronomy: The Hopi Example, in Archaeoastronomy in the New World, A.F. Aveni, ed. (1982). Direct linkages between New England and Mesoamerican ceremonial landscapes were proposed in 2006 by Timothy Fohl and Kenneth Leonard in a paper, Similarities of Ceremonial Structures in New England and Mesoamerica, presented at the 73rdAnnual Meeting of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation jointly with the Massachusetts Archaeological Society and The New England Antiquities Research Association in Fitchburg, MA. For the significance of particular constellations in Native American ceremonial landscapes, see, for example, Glenn N. Kreisberg’s Serpent of the North: The Overlook Mountain/Draco Correlation (2010), at http://www.grahamhancock.com/forum/KreisbergG5.php; and the now classic works of Lynn Cesi, Watchers of the Pleiades: Ethnoastronomy Among Native Cultivators in Northeastern North America, in Ethnohistory 25 (4) (1978) and Von Del Chamberlain, When the Stars Came Down to Earth: Cosmology of the Skidi Pawnee Indians of North America (1982).
7. The “Thanksgiving” picture is an engraving by Theodore de Bry (1590) of a drawing that first appeared in Thomas Hariot’s A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia(1588). Having feast days for giving thanks was traditional in Algonquian culture, and thanksgiving feasts were conducted two or more times a year. The notion that there was a “first Thanksgiving” at Plymouth Plantation is an ethnocentric accounting based on William Bradford’s journal, now embedded in the American mind. Some surviving Native American communities make a point of not celebrating the Thanksgiving designated as a national holiday.
8. The lunar calendar presented here is a compilation from diverse sources based on French and English ethnolinguistic data for northern and southern New England and Canada, including interpretations by Christine Sioui Wawanoloath (http://westernabenaki.com/dictionary/moons.php), Marge Bruchac (http://www.vermontfolklifecenter.org/childrens-books/malians-song/additional_resources/seasons_moons.pdf), and the Old Farmers Almanac (http://www.almanac.com/content/full-moon-names).
9. Many communities in New England have ethnohistorical accounts as well as physical examples of Native American rocking or balanced stones, cairns, effigy boulders, rock shelters, petroglyphs, and other stoneworks, some authenticated as Native American in origin and others shrouded in mystery or controversy. Mary and James Gage have controversially attempted to classify and describe native stoneworks in Handbook of Stone Structures in Northeastern United States(2008). See also Mary Gage’s article, New England Native American Spirit Structures, in the Spring 2013 issue of the Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 74 (1). See also articles and photographs by Peter Waksman, for example, at http://indianrockpiles.weetu.com/articles/IndianRockPiles.html
10. Agassiz Rock in Manchester-by-the-Sea is featured as the cover photo of the Mavor and Dix book Manitou. Others who argue for Native American skill in creating monumental stoneworks that have survived to this day include Noel Ring, Ken Goss, and Ken Leonard in their paper, Northeast Native North American Astronomy and Engineering, read at the Eastern States Archaeological Federation Annual Meeting on October 31, 2013 (South Portland, ME). Skeptics’ views are represented in Kenneth L. Feder’s Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum(2011). Walam Olum is a purported and much debated native pictographic text expressing Lenape ancient history and mythology. Feder also includes Mystery Hill in Salem, NH, and Gungywump Swamp in Groton, CT, as examples of dubious archaeology, mainly because of documented or assumed tampering with those sites over the centuries and interpretations that are not evidence-based. See David P. Barron and Sharon Mason’s book, The Greater Gungywamp: A Guidebook(1994), David Goudsward and Robert E. Stone’s America’s Stonehenge: The Mystery Hill Story.(2003), and Mary Gage’s America’s Stonehenge Deciphered(2006). Other sources may be found on the “America’s Stonehenge” website at http://www.mysteryhillnh.info/html/bibliography.html.
11. See Nicholas Campion’s Astrology and Cosmology in the World’s Religions(2012) and Frank G. Speck’s descriptions in Penobscot Transformer Tales, International Journal of American Linguistics1 (1918): https://archive.org/details/jstor-1262934; Wawenock Myth Texts from Maine, in Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:43 (2) (1928); and Penobscot Tales and Religious Beliefs, Journal of American Folklore6 (1935). For an appreciation of the role of dreams and dreaming in Algonquian culture and the significantly contrasting world views of colonists and Indians, see Ann Marie Plane’s Dreams and the Invisible World in Colonial New England: Colonists, Indians, and the Seventeenth Century(2014). Among the many sources for particular Algonquian myths and legends are William Simmons’ papers, Return of the Timid Giant: Algonquian Legends of Southern New England, Algonquian Conference13 (1982); and Genres in New England Indian Folklore, Algonquian Conference15 (1984). A classic source is Charles G. Leland’s Algonquin Legends of New England(1884). You can read stories about Gluscap’s (Glooskap’s) exploits at http://www.native-languages.org/glooskap.
12. The creation myth presented here appears in Gerard Rancourt Tsonakwa and Tolaikia Wapitaska’s The Dreamer, in Welcome the Caribou Man: A Catalogue of Images and Stories from the San Diego Museum of Man:12-13 (1992).
13. Acquiring spiritual power or protection through the touching of sacred, dangerous, or emblematic objects is an example of “contagious magic”. Contagious magic is also used in witchcraft to cause harm or good to a person by manipulating associated objects, such as hair clippings, fingernail parings, or articles of clothing. Cultural anthropologists contrast contagious magic with “sympathetic” or “imitative” magic, in which rituals, such as fertility rites, serve to ensure that “like produces like”. Colonial perceptions of Algonquian spiritual practices and the social institution of the powwow are taken up in greater detail in Chapter 8.
14. John White’s watercolors and Theodore deBry’s engravings of them depict many aspects of Algonquian life in Delaware, Virginia, and North Carolina. White’s depictions of Indians praying, an Algonquian charnal house, and others are in the British Museum. See Paul Hulton and David Beers Quinn,The American Drawings of John White 1577-1590, Vol. II, Reproductions of the originals in colour facsimile and of derivatives in monochrome (1964). For an appreciation of the historical and ethnographic importance of these images, see Lisa Heuvel’s 2010 article, Looking with Clearer Vision: The Significance of John White’s Watercolors, at the website of the Jamestown and Yorktown Settlement & Victory Center: http://www.historyisfun.org/Significance-of-John-White.htm.
15. A principal source on Algonquian burial practices is Erik Seeman’s Death in the New World: Cross-Cultural Encounters 1492-1800(2011). For particular archaeological reconstructions, see, for example, Francis P. McManamon, James W. Bradley, and Ann L. Magennis’ CRM Study No. 17 (1986), The Indian Neck Ossuary(North Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior) and Gary D. Shaffer’s Nanticoke Indian Burial Practices: Challenges for Archaeological Interpretation, in Archaeology of Eastern North America33 (2005).
16. A definitive, if not up to date, source on burials in Massachusetts is Mary J. Haaker’s An Annotated Bibliography of Late Woodland Burials in Massachusetts, in Archaeological Quarterly6 (Fall 1984). Documented burial mounds survive in Salisbury, Newburyport, Nashoba, Lakeville, Cape Ann, and other sites in Massachusetts, and Indian burial grounds have been preserved in various localities on Cape Cod and the islands. Many 17thcentury colonial graveyards have native burials incorporated in them or on a perimeter.
17. Read the rest of Freneau’s poem at https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/46094/the-indian-burying-ground.
18. Indian burials on Cape Ann and the surrounding area have been reported periodically since the Civil War Period. See, for example, F. W. Putnam, On Indian remains in Essex County, Proceedings of the Essex Institute 5:186 (1867). Reports of burials in the media include, for example, the Gloucester Daily Times, November 13, 1940: Cape Ann Rich in Indian Relics Rotarians Told by N. Carleton Phillips.
19. For a full explanation of NAGPRA, see the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. National NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act): http://www.nps.gov/nagpra/INDEX.HTM. See also The Law and American Indian Grave Protection on the website of the Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch at http://www.ibsgwatch.imagedjinn.com/learn/massachusettslaw.htm. The Massachusetts Historical Commission has a paper on What To Do When Human Burials Are Accidentally Uncovered, at http://www.sec.state.ma.us/mhc/mhcpdf/knowhow4.pdf.
20. The description and illustration of the Agawam burial originally came from Roger Williams’ 1643 work, A Key into the Language of America, accessible online at https://archive.org/details/keyintolanguageo02will. The description was widely copied, and a similar account appears in the travel correspondence of John Dunton, an English bookseller, in which he claims to have witnessed an Agawam burial near Wonasquam on Cape Ann in 1686 (See Letters Written from New England. Prince Society Publications Issue 4 (1966). It is unknown whether Dunton was reporting what he saw or repeating what Williams wrote.
21. The Tale of Tantiusques 1644-1909, is in The Winthrop Papers(Reel 38 Box OS2) in the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Societyin Boston. A description of the Indians’ copper mines in Topsfield, by Mrs. G. Warren Towne, appears in The Historical Collections of the Topsfield Historical Society, 2 (1892). For further perspective of Native American mining, see Mary Ann Levine’s papers:Native copper, hunter-gatherers, and northeastern prehistory (1999), at http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI9709620; and Native Copper in the Northeast: An Overview of Potential Sources Available to Indigenous Peoples, in The Archaeological Northeast(1999).
22. The original of this etching is in the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University in Providence, RI.


The ELL is closed over summer - reservations are accepted again with week 1 of fall quarter!
The OSP has partnered with ASSU to set up the Equipment Lending Library. The Lending Library's collection includes speakers and stands, microphones, mixers, amps and cables, as well as photo and video equipment.
Lending Library Policies
All equipment must be reserved at least 24 hours prior to the pick-up time. (You can reserve items for the current quarter.) Walk-up requests will be accommodated on a case-by-case basis depending on equipment availability.
Cancellation / Returns
If you do not cancel a reservation and do not pick up your items twice in one quarter, you will not be allowed to use the lending library for the rest of the current quarter and the following quarter.
If you return items late even once without contacting us, you will not be allowed to use the lending library for the rest of the current quarter and the following quarter.
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, U.S. Code) governs the making of reproductions of copyrighted material. The person using this equipment is responsible for any infringement.
Stanford Arts / ASSU is not liable for any misuse of equipment and any possible resulting injuries.


Sheila Louise Snodgrass Roberts
Sheila Louise Snodgrass Roberts, 69, of Albion, passed away after a lengthy illness on Saturday, April 13, 2019 at St. Vincent Health Center. She was born February 7, 1950 in Erie, a daughter of the late Alson Clark and Louise (Loper) Snodgrass. Sheila was a member of Grace United Methodist Church and the Albion Order of Eastern Star. She sang in the church choir, enjoyed reading, needlework, crocheting, and spending time with her family, grandchildren, and her dog, Heidi. Survivors include three sons, Charles Doritty and his wife, Leann, of Albion, Robert Doritty and his wife, Michelle, of Girard, Daniel Doritty of Lake City, two sisters, Barbara Swanson of Albion, Sharon Brown of Cranesville, three brothers, James Hazen and his wife, Veronica, of Summerfield, FL, Clark Snodgrass and his wife, Karen, of Fairview, Raymond Snodgrass and his wife, Dawn Marie, of Edinboro. Also surviving are 11 grandchildren and many nieces and nephews. Calling hours will be held at the Mattera Funeral Home, 188 East State Street, Albion, on Tuesday from 2-4 and 6-8pm. A funeral service will be held at the funeral home on Wednesday at 11am with Pastor Duk Hee Han officiating. Burial will follow in Albion Cemetery. Memorials may be made in honor of Sheila to Grace United Methodist Church, 49 Franklin Street, Albion, PA 16401, Albion Area Public Library, 111 East Pearl Street, Albion, PA 16401, or to Albion Food Pantry, 1 Robb & Powell Ave., Albion, PA 16401. To send flowers, light a memory candle or leave a condolence, please visit www.matterafuneralhome.com
Our deepest condolences to the family, you are all in our thoughts and prayers.
Our Deepest Sympathies on your loss. Hugs and Love always.
Prayers and thoughts for you all.
Our thoughts and prayers are with you and your family.